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BILTMORE   LECTURES 
ON    SYLVICULTURE 


ALBANY 

PAN! 


SYNOPSIS  OF  PARAGRAPHS. 


CHAPIKK   I 
Foundations  of  Sylviculture. 

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SYLVICULTl   i;  I. 

XXIX.  Permanenl    nurseries   in  particular. 
XXX.  Seed   planting  in  seed  beds. 
XXXI.  Transplanting  in  transplanting  beds. 
XX XII.  Protection  of  nurseries. 

XXXIII.  Nursing  in  nurseries. 

XXXIV.  Special  nursery  methods  proclaimed   by   renowned  sylvi- 

culturists. 
XXXV.  Raising  and  planting  hardwood  seedlings  on  open  ground. 
XXXVI.  Raising  and  planting  softwood  seedlings  on  open  ground. 
XXXVII.  European  results  of  planting  experiments  with  American 
liardwoods. 
XXXVIII.  European  results  of  planting  experiments  with  American 
softwoods. 
XXXIX.  Difficulties  of  natural  seed  regeneration    (Enesar). 
XL.  Age  of  trees  fit  for  natural  seed  regeneration  (Enesai 
XLI.  Methods  of  natural   seed  regeneration    (Enesar). 
XLII.  Types  in  which  lumbering  precedes  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion. 
XLIII.  Cleared   compartment  type. 
XLIV.  Cleared  strip  type. 
XLV.  Cleared  group  type. 
XLVI.  Cleared  selection  type. 
XLVII.  Types,   in   which   lumbering  coincides   with   natural   seed 

regeneration. 
XLVIII.  Shelterwood  compartment  type. 
XLIX.  Shelterwood  strip  type. 
L.  Shelterwood  group  type. 
LI.  Shelterwood  selection  type. 
L1I.  Types  in  which  lumbering  follows  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion. 
LIII.  Advance  growth  compartment  type. 
LIV.  Advance  growth   strip   type. 
LV.  Advance  growth  group  type. 
LVI.  Ad  vane.'   growth    selection   type. 

LVII.  Regeneration  of  valuable  species  by  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion with,  amongsl    and    into    companions    of  weedy 
character. 
LVIII.  Pedagogy  of  the  high   forest. 
LTX.  Cleaning  in  high   forest. 
LX.  Weeding  in  high  forest. 
LXI.  Improvement  cut  tin?  in  high  forest. 


SYLVICULTURE. 


LXII.  Thinning  in  high  forest. 

LXIII.  Priming  in  high  forest. 

LXTV.  Underplanting   in   high   forest. 

LXV.  Key   to   the   forms    of   high   forest. 

LXYL  Critical   remarks   on  high  forest. 

LXV1I.  High   forest   by   species. 


CHAPTER  III 
The  Coppice  Forest 


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LXVIII.  Genesis  of  the  coppice  for 
LXIX.  Pedagogy   of  the   coppice   forest 
LXX.  Key   to  the  forms  of  coppice  forest. 
LXXI.  Critical  remarks  on  coppice  forest. 
LXXII.  Coppice  forest  by  species. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Coppice  Under  Standards  Forest. 

LXXIII.  Genesis   of   coppice   under   standards. 
LXXIV.  Pedagogy  of  coppice  under  standards. 
LXXV.  Key  to  the  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 
LXXVI.  Critical  remarks  on  coppice  under  standards. 
LXXYTL  Coppice  •  under  standards  by  species. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Propagation  of  Forest  Products  Other  Than  Wood  and  Timber. 

LXXVIII.  Raising  of  forest  by-products. 
LXXIX.  Combination  of  sylviculture  and  agriculture. 


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LECTURES  ON  SYLVICULTURE. 


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CHAPTER  I. 
FOUNDATIONS   OF   SILVICULTURE. 

Paragraph  I.     Introduction. 

Sylviculture  means  the  raising  and  tending  of  forest  products 
(wood,  bark,  deer,   stock   and  other  by-products). 

Sylviculture  was  practiced  by  the  ancients  only  for  pai'k  or 
orchard  purposes.  The  first  writings  on  Sylviculture  proper  appear 
in   the   so-called  "  House   Father  Literature." 

Sylviculture  as  a  discipline  was  developed  by  George  L.  Hartig, 
Henry  Von  Cotta  and  Christian  Hundeshagon.  European  standard 
books  on  Sylviculture  of  more  modern  tenure  are  those  of  Charles 
Heyer    (adapted  by  Schlich)   and  by   Charles  Gayer. 

European  Sylviculture  in  word  and  work  has,  in  the  course  of 
years,  petrified  into  a  set  of  recipes.  It  is  high  time  for  Sylvicul- 
ture to  be  taught  and  practiced  on  the  basis  of  Plant  Ecology. 

For  America,  European  Sylviculture  at  the  present  moment  is 
of  no  more  use  than  Chinese  Sylviculture,  owing  to  the  great  eco- 
nomic differences  separating  the  old  from  the  new  country.  The 
ecological  principles  underlying  Sylviculture  are,  obviously,  identi- 
cal for  all   countries. 

The  planting  of  trees  on  a  large  scale  is,  in  this  country,  now 
out  of  the  question,  since  the  expense  of  planting  an  acre  of 
land  usually  exceeds  the  value  of  an  acre  of  forest.  The  modern 
owners  of  woodlands  are  not  far  sighted  enough — possibly  not 
credulous  enough — to  anticipate  the  arrival  of  European  stumpage 
prices  for  a  time  at  which  plantations  now  started  will  have 
developed    into    mature    trees. 

If   we   can   assume   that   stumpage   in  this   country   will  be   as 
valuable   in   1980   as   it   is    now  in   Germany,   France   and   England, 
then  forest  planting  must  be,  at  least,  as  remunerative  here  as   it 
is  in  the  old  country  (small  soil  value  in  the  United  States). 
7 


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SYLVICULTURE. 

Sylviculture  as  a  discipline  comprises  the   following  themes: 

A.  Ecological   principles,    facts   and   definitions. 

B.  The    genesis    of   the    forest. 

C.  The   pedagogy   of   the   forest. 

D.  The  sylviculture]  forms. 

In  the  discussion  of  themes  B,  C.  and  D,  a  distinction  is  made 
betAveen   the    treatment   of: 

1.  High  forests. 

2.  Coppice    forests. 

3.  Coppice    under    standards    forests. 

Paragraph  II.     Ecological  factors  and  their  influence  on  the  sylva. 

A.  Definition. — Plant  ecology  is  a  branch  of  botany  showing 
the  dependence  and  adaptation  of  plant  forms  and  plant  life  of  and 
to  the  surrounding  local  factors   (climate,  soil,  etc.). 

B.  Natural  laws  govern  the  organization  of  the  species  and 
regulate  the  communal  life  (symbiosis)  and  messmateship  (commeii- 
salism)  of  individuals  with  their  own  kin,  with  relatives  and  with 
other  plans  belonging  to  the  same  household  and  feeding  at  the 
same  table. 

C.  The  most  important  ecological  factors  are: 

I.  Air.  Oxygen,  nitrogen  and  carbonic  acid,  the  main  com- 
ponents of  air,  are  essential  for  plant  life.  The  relative  proportion 
of  the  two  integral  parts,  79%  N.,  21%  O.,  varies  very  little  with 
altitude,  latitude  and  elevation.  Salt  particles  in  the  air  near  ocean 
and  sulphuric  acid  in  the  air  near  melting  works  are  very  injurious 
to  plant  life. 

II.  Light.     Intensity   depends    on: 

Season. 
Latitude. 
Altitude. 
Direct  insolation  is  said  to  be  on  the  whole  of  less  importance 
than   diffused   light    (excepting   polar   regions). 

Light  is  not  required  for  germination  of  seeds.  Without  light, 
however,  there  is  no  assimilation,  and  hence  no  possibility  of  tree 
life.  Assimilation  increases  with  increasing  intensity  of  insolation; 
excessive  insolation  is,  however,  destructive.  For  each  species,  and 
fo.-  each  stage  of  its  growth,  there  exists  a  certain  optimum,  mini- 
mum and  maximum  of  insolation  with  reference  to  the  possibilities 
of  its  success.  The  damaging  influence  of  excessive  insolation  is 
prevented  by  the  inner  organization  of  the  plant. 
8 


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SYLVICULTURE. 

The  duration  (number  of  days)  of  insolation  is  as  important  as 
the  intensity  of  insolation.  Within  the  individual  tree  the  lower 
branches  are  killed  gradually,  being  overshadowed  by  new  upper 
branches.  Without  light  no  bud;  without  bud  no  leafing  branch; 
without  new  leaves  annually   formed  no   limb   can  live. 

Within  one  and  the  same  species  a  tree  once  acquiring  superi- 
ority over  its  neighbors  is  apt  to  retain  superiority  until  death. 
Since    it    enjoys   more    light,   it    assimilates   better. 

Within  rival  species,  owing  to  greater  sensitiveness  of  chloro- 
phyll and  thanks  to  more  favorable  inclination,  form  and  position  of 
leaves,  some  species  exceed  others  in  assimilation  and  vitality  under 
tne  same  influx  of  light.  Shade  bearing  are  such  leaves  as  assimi- 
late sufficiently  (so  as  to  bear  buds  at  the  axils)  in  spite  of  the 
fact   that  only   little   diffused   light  chances  to  strike   them. 

Many  dicotyledonous  trees  form  a  so-called  "leaf  mosaic,"  the 
lower  tiers  of  leaves  fitting  themselves  into  the  interstices  of  light 
left  in  the  upper  tiers.  Many  leaves  alter  their  inclination  toward 
the  sun  according  to  the  hourly  degree  of  insolation  (photo-metric 
movement).  The  epidermis  of  light  demanding  and  sun-exposed 
leaves  is  heavy,  leathery.  The  leaves  of  shade  bearers  are  thin  and 
wither  quickly  when  picked.  Light  demanding  leaves  are  often  sinn- 
ing, reflecting  and  whitish,  so  especially  in  tropical  countries,  and 
the  leaf  stomata  are  deeply  sunk  into  the  surface.  On  the  same 
tree  leaves  growing  in  the  shade  are  darker  than  those  growing  in 
the  light:    old  leaves   darker   than   young  ones. 

The  formation  of  spines  and  thorns  indicates  a  ran  plant;  hair 
or  down  are  usually  found  in  light  demanders  more  than  in  shade 
plants. 

III.  Heat. 

For  each  plant  and  for  each  atep  of  its  development  can 
be  determined  a  minimum,  optimum  and  maximum  of  heat  required 
or  allowed.  Without  heat  growth  is  impossible,  since  cell  division  is 
impossible.  The  formation  of  chlorophyll,  breathing,  assimilation, 
germination,  flowering,  fruiting  and  transpiration  depend  on  heat. 
The  distribution  of  the  genera    i-  governed,  pre-eminently,  by  heat. 

For  some  polar  plants,  life  is  possible  below  32  degrees  Faht.  As 
a  rule,  however,  plant  activity  begins  to  be  observable  at  50  degrees 
Faht. 

The  maximum  of  heat  compatible  with  plant  life  generally  lie  be- 
low 115  degrees  Faht.  Excess  of  temperature  over  maximum  is 
more  disastrous  than  deficiency  of  heat  below  minimum.  Plants, 
however,  temporarily  fortify  themselves  against  periodical  extremes: 


s  Y  L  V  ICUL  T  U  R  E. 

1.  By  non-freezing   cell    contents. 

2.  By  reduced   water   contents    (seed,  rosin). 

3.  By  lignification. 

4.  By  dropping  leaves  during  winter  or  during  period  of  exces- 
sive drought. 

5.  By  adequate  covers  (bark,  hair's,  hud  scales,  layers  rich  in 
air  cells,  reddish  color,  wrappings  formed  by  last  year's  leaves). 
These  covers,  at  least,  allow  the  plant  to  escape  rapid  changes  of 
temperature. 

Short  periods  of  vegetation  and  long  periods  of  rest  result  from 
deficient  heat.  Hence  no  annual  plants  in  polar  regions.  Short 
shoots,  evergreen  leaves,  preparation  of  flowers  in  year  preceding 
fruit  are  characteristic  of  a  polar  flora,  In  tropical  countries  there 
are  no  periods   of  rest   unless  determined  by  periods  of  drought. 

IV.  Moisture  of  air  and  precipitations. 

Water   is    at    hand 

a.  to  increase  the  toughness  of  wood  (imbibition  water  of 
cell  walls)  : 

b.  to    allow   of    solution    of   cell   contents    (cell    sap) ; 

c.  to  serve  as  plant  food,  through  assimilation; 

d.  to    allow    of    osmotic    movement    of    sap; 

e.  to  assist  in  photometric  movement  of  leaves  (through  swell- 
ing ana  irritation) ; 

f.  to  reduce  rapidity  of  change  of  temperature  by  evaporation. 
Only  some  lichens  survive  a  process  of  absolute  drying.     Lack 

of    moisture    causes    crippled   growth,    and    frequently    subterranean 
forests   (mesquit). 

"^sAiter  Henry  Mayr,  the  minimum  of  moisture  compatible  with 
tre^e  growth  is  two  inches  of  rainfall  and  fifty  per  cent,  of  relative 
humidity  during  period  of  vegetation. 

Phanerogamous  plants  are  unable  to  absorb  water  directly 
through  the  epidermis,  obtaining  it  instead  through  the  spongiolae 
of  the  roots  and,  in  gaseous  form,  through  the  stomata  of  the  leaves. 
Mosses  and  lichens,  however,  absorb  water  directly  through  the  epi- 
dermis. The  hygroscopic  power  of  a  dead  cover  of  mosses  on  the 
ground    equals   that   of   a  live   cover. 

Wet  climate  creates  evergreen  woods  (Pacific  coast  and  Ant- 
arctic forests  of  South  America). 

A  dry  climate  gives  rise  to  annual  species,  to  a  distinct  period 
of    rest,   to    rapid   flowering   and   fruiting. 

Precipitations  equally  distributed  over  the  twelve  months  of  an 
entire   year  and  precipitations  falling  during  a  few  weeks  result   in 
10 


S  Y  L  V I  C  U  LTUB  E. 

entirely  different  floras.  Rain  in  summer  stimulates  growth  much 
more  than  rain  in  winter.  De  Candolle  divides  our  globe  according 
to  moisture  and  heat  and  on  the  basis  of  floral  differences  resulting 
therefrom.,   into   rive   regions   in  the   fourth   of  which   we   are   living. 

1.  Hydromegathermal  region  (water  great  heat).  Mean  annual 
temperature  over  68  degrees  Faht.  (Amazon  river  region,  wet  tropi- 
cal  zone). 

2.  Xerophilous  (Dry  loving)  region.  The  region  and  binders  of 
arid  deserts,  prairies,  sunny  slopes,  etc.,  exhibiting  a  flora  very 
modest  in  moisture  requirements. 

;i.  Mesothenna]  (medium  beat)  region,  baring  mean  tempera- 
ture of  59  to  6S  degrees   Faht.    (northern   Florida,  etc). 

4.  Microthermal   i  little  heat  i    region  of  '■'•■2  to  59  degrees  Faht. 

o.  Hecistotherma]  (leaat  beat)  region  of  Less  than  32  degrees 
Faht. 

The  most  important  representative  of  a  Xerophilous  charactei 
is  the  Yellow  Pine.  The  hecistotherma]  zone  shows  Spruces,  Birches, 
Obttonwoods. 

V.  Wind. 

Wind  brings  moisture  and  drought,  heat  and  cold;  it  covers 
or  uncovers  vegetation  with  sand  or  Bnow  drifts,  tumbling,  at 
prior  geographical  eras,  whole  mountains  int < >  the  valleys  (Loess 
formation).  Severe  wind  dwarfs  tree  growth  and  forces  branches 
to  grow  in  leeward  direction  only.  The  influence  <>f  a  slight  ob- 
struction, preventing  the  access  of  wind  at  high  latitudes,  is  splen- 
didly illustrated  by  the  growth  of  Spruce  and  Fir  on  Pisgah  Ridge. 
On  high  mountains  tree  growth  is  often  entirely  determined  by 
wind    (slope   of  Little   Ball). 

Species  resisting  wind  besl  in  Pisgah  Fores!  are  Red  Oak, 
Chestnut.  Locust. 

Pieea  alba  and  dwarf  pines  like  l'inu-  pungens  and  inontana 
show  great  strength  in  resisting  wind.  In  the  west  Tsuga  mertcn- 
siana.  l'inu-  albieaulis.  l'inu-  monticola,  further  western  Juniper 
rank  firsi   among  the  tree-  braving  severe  -tonus. 

Wind  is  essential  for  the  breathing  and  for  the  perspiration  of 
leaves  and  bark;  for  driving  pollen  or  stigma  to  fertilize  the  seed: 
tor  trimming  the  branches,  thus  forming  clear  boles;  for  dis- 
tributing seed.  The  investigations  conducted  by  Fliche  (French 
Forester)  have,  however,  yielded  the  astonishing  result  that  winged 
seeds  travel  much  slower  than  heavy  seeds  covetted  by  birds.  Fliche 
gives  the  following  number  of  years  as  required  by  trees  traveling 
from  Nancy  to  Paris,  a  distance  of  160  miles: 
11 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Beech 18640  years. 

Chestnut     12920  years. 

Pine   48680  years. 

Sarvis    1330  to  2000  years. 

VI.  Structure   of   soil. 

Soil  consists  of  natural  rock;  or  of  rock  disintegrated  under 
the  influence  of  water,  frost,  heat,  oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  lichens, 
bacteria ;    or  of  washings  deposited  by   water,  wind  or  glaciers. 

The  components  of   soil  are: 

a.  Soil   skeleton,   large  grains,   principally   quartz  and   stones. 

b.  Soil  flesh,  minute  semi-soluble  particles, — the  mud  of  the  rivers. 

c.  Soil  fat,  the   humose  particles   giving  the   soil   a  dark  color. 

d.  Soil  blood,  the  air  and  water,  filling  the  pores  of  the  soil. 
The  size  of  the  pores  determines  the  capillary  capacity. 

According  to  the  resistance  which  soil  offers  to  spade  or  plow, 
we    distinguish   the   following  classes: 
Light    soil; 
Loose  soil; 
Binding   soil; 
Heavy  soil; 
Stiff    soil. 

VII.  Air  in  the  soil. 

Roots  require  oxygen  for  breathing.  Like  fish,  they  die  from 
lack  as  well  as  from  superabundance  of  oxygen.  Subterranean  air 
is  rich  in  carbonic  acid  exhaled  by  roots,  fungi,  bacteria,  animals. 
Swamp  soil  contains  little  air.  Hence  such  species  only  find  a 
living  in  swamps  which  have  large  inner  air  ducts  (Cypress  knees, 
Nyssa  root,  bamboo,  cane  breaks,   sour  grasses). 

Prairial  soil  is  naturally  so  compact  that  it  contains  little 
oxygen. 

VIII.  Water    in    the   soil. 
It    occurs : 

a.  Chemically    bound   to   minerals    and    salts. 

b.  Absorbed   by   the   hygroscopicity   of   soil. 

c.  Raised    by   the    capillary    power   of    soil. 

d.  As  ground  water — lakes,  swamps,  brooks  being  merely  areas 

of  open  ground  water. 
The  size  of  the  pores  and  the  presence  of  humus  govern  the 
intensity  and  rapidity  of  water  obtention  and  retention.  Sand, 
for  instance,  allows  water  to  enter  its  large  pores  quickly,  but 
gives  it  up  rapidly  as  well.  Wet,  moist,  fresh,  dry  and  arid  soil 
are   distinguished. 

12 


8  X  I.  VICULTURE. 

The  degree  of  wetness  of  soil  i-  of  the  utmost   importance   for 

tree  growth.  At  its  southern  limit,  a  species  grows  only  in  swamps 
or  along  watercourses.  The  water  in  the  soil  dissolves  the  mineral 
salts  so  as  to  form  sap  and  seems  to  be  of  great  intluence  on  the 
bacterial    life   in   the   soil. 

IX.  Heat  in  the  soil. 

It  is  derived  from  the  earths  own  temperature,  from  chemical 

processes  in  -oil  (notably  fermentation)  and  from  sun  rays.     In  tin' 

latter  case,  t lie  angle  of  insolation,  the  duration  of  insolation,  the 

heal  capacity   of  Boil,  the  color  of  soil,  the  porosity  of  -oil  and  its 

able  cover  Berve  as  influencing  factors. 

A  cold  rool  lias  in.  pumping  power.  Fine  root  fibres  die  from 
temperatures  which  line  branches  easily  withstand.  The  actual 
influence  of  the  heat  in  the  >■  >il  on  tie.'  growth  is  practically  un- 
known, llie  opening  of  tin-  buds  in  spring  and  tin-  fall  of  leaves 
in  autumn  air  probably  connected  with  the  thermic  changes  occur- 
ring  in   the   various   strata   of   the  soil, 

\.  Depth   of  soil. 

I^H^rooted  species  easily  obtain  the  superiority  ,.ver  tap- 
rooteil    -peri,--    1,11    -hallow    -oil.      T roots,    however,    are    not    apt 

to  penetrate  t,,  a  depth  greater  than  -i\  feet.  Shallow  -oil  in- 
creases danger  from  tire,  drought,  Btorm.  A  tap  rooted  species, 
planted  on  -hallow  soil,  produces  only  a  stunted  form.  Shallow 
soil  is  well  adapted  to  the  coppice  Bystem,  in  case  of  broad  leaved 
tap  rooted  Bpecies. 

XI.    Food    in    the    soil. 

A  tree,  like  a  crystal,  i-  composed  of  various  chemical  element-. 
The  available  amount  of  that  necessary  elemenl  which  happen-  t,, 
occur  in  the  relatively  -malle-t  degree  determines  in  both  crystal 
and  plant,  the  rate  of  growth  actually  taking  place  (Liebig's  law). 
The  superabundance  of  one  component,  even  of  a  necessary  com- 
ponent, prevents,  on  the  other  hand,  the  local  existence  of  many 
species. 

The  ten  necessary  element-  found  within  a  plan!  in  solid,  liquid 
or  gaseous  condition  are  O.  11.  t  .  I'.  IV.  K.  Mg,  (a.   \.  S. 

"Roots  search  food  as  if  they  had  eyes."*— a  rule  easily  proven 
in  any  nursery. 

Xlf.  Species   of  soil. 

a.  Rock.  Most  important  rock  formations  are:  (Jranite,  gneiss, 
limestone,  sandstone,  slate  and  trap. 

13 


8YLVICU  LT  I    I:  I.. 

Vertical  stratification  facilitates  decomposition  and  tree  growth. 
The  various  species  of  rock  differ  in  hardness,  porosity,  heat  con- 
duction, and  above  all  in  soluble  mineral  contents. 

I).  Quartz  sand.  Quartz  sand  is  unfertile  when  pure,  since  silicic 
acid  fails  to  be  digested  by  the  roots  and  fails  to  react  with  the 
acid-  usually  found  in  the  soil.  Quartz  sand  is  loose,  has  small 
hygroscopicity,  small  capillarity  and  small  heat-retaining  capacity. 
It    is   hot    during  the  day  and   cold  at   night. 

c.  Lime.  Lime  when  pure  is  a  poor  soil,  although  not  quite 
a-  dry  and  hot  as  sand.  Lime,  however,  mixed  with  loam  and 
clay   (so-called  marl)   forms  an  extremely  productive  soil. 

d.  (lay.  Clay  has  great  absorbing  and  hygroscopic  power.  It 
is   wet  and  cold.     Main  components  are  aluminum-silicates. 

e.  Loam.  Loam  is  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay — the  usual  soil 
in  agriculture  and  forestry.  It  is  usually  colored  by  iron  (red 
loam  at  Biltmore).  "We  speak  of  a  sandy  loam  or  of  a  loamy  sand 
according  to  the  prevalence  of  one  or  the  other  component.  Loam 
soil  exhibits  a   happy  medium  of  qualities  favorable  to  tree  growth. 

f.  Humus.  Humus  results  from  the  decomposition  of^^retable 
and  animal  matter  under  co-operation  of  bacteria,  fungi,  r^^n-orms 
(Darwin  i.  larvae.  Humus  forms  a  solvent  of  mineral  plant  food. 
A  bad  conductor  of  heat  and  cold,  it  prevents  rapid  changes  of 
temperature  in  soil,  has  great  hygroscopicity  and  great  water- 
retaining  power  and  is  a  preventive  to  evaporation  of  soil  moisture. 

Mild  forest  humus  shows  a  basic  reaction,  whilst  the  sour  humus 
of   the    swamps    shows    an   acid    reaction. 

Unfavorable    is  the  dust  humus  formed  by   many   Ericaceae. 

XIII.  Physical    versus    chemical    qualities    of    soil. 

Agriculture  withdraws  food  only  from  the  top  layer  of  soil. 
It  deprives  that  top  layer  of  its  rarest  and  mosl  valuable  com- 
ponents, by  the  annual  crop  of  grain  excessively  rich  in  nitrates, 
phosphates  and  potash.  The  porosity,  and  through  it  the  water 
capacity  and  the  heat  capacity  of  soil,  are  readily  controlled  on 
the  held  by  the  plow.  It  is  necessary  in  agriculture,  in  the  long 
run,  to  return  to  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  fertilizer  annually  as 
many  pounds  of  nitrates,  phosphates  and  potash  as  have  been 
removed    in    the    shape   of   crops   from   a    given    acre   of    land. 

"I  he  productiveness  of  agriculture  depend-,  above  all.  on  the 
chemical  qualities  of  the  soil  tilled.  A  crop  of  trees,  on  the  other 
hand,  takes  from  the  soil  very  little,  since  the  tree  consists  mainly 
of  ( '.  fi.  II.  or  since  wood  i-  nothing  bul  air  solidified  by  sunshine. 
The  phosphates,  nitrate-  and  potash  absorbed  by  the  tree  are 
14 


SYLVICULTURE. 

returned  to  the  soil  by  the  fall  of  branches,  leaves,  seeds,  flowers, 
etc. 

The  traces  of  chemical  fertility  locally  removed  in  the  shape 
of  logs  are,  in  addition,  counterbalanced  by  the  decomposing  influ- 
ence  on  the  rock   exercised  by  roots   and  root-bacteria. 

Hence  it  is  not  likely  that  a  rotation  of  crops,  as  is  required 
in  fields,  has  any  advantages  m  the  case  of  forestry.  In  primeval 
woods,  we  know  that  Mature  allows  a   species  to  succeed  itself. 

The  physical  qualities  of  the  soil  preeminently  influence  the  tree 
species  and  the  rate  of  its  growth.  The  chemical  qualities  of  the 
soil  play  the  most  potent  role  in   the   case   of  agricultural   species. 

Soil  fit  for  agriculture  is  not  necessarily  good  forest  soil 
(prairies).  Soil  fit  for  forestry  (strong  north  slopes)  is  often 
utterly  unfit  for  farming. 

XIV.  Soil  covers. 

Soil  covers  are  either  dead  or  living.  Dead  soil  covers  are 
snow,  debris  of  leaves  and  twigs.  Living  soil  covers  consist  of 
mosses,^  grasses,   etc. 

~-^J|^;eeps  the  -oil  warm,  prevents  rapid  changes  of  tempera- 
ture.^B^ftt-  young  plants  covered  by  it  from  perspiring,  prevents 
liftim^^T   plants    by    frost. 

The  debris  on  the  ground  feed  million-  of  animal-;  and  fungi;  'y 
they  harbor,  on  the  other  hand.  mice,  larvae  and  other  enemies  of 
plant  growth.  Debris  frequently  prevent  reproduction  from  self- 
9own  seed  and  increase  the  severity  of  forest  fires.  Living  as  well 
as  .dead  soil  cover  influences  evaporation  of  moisture,  porosity  of 
soil  and  water  drainage. 

XV.  Life  in  the  soil  (Compare  Swiss  L.  F.  F.  1904.  May  and 
June ) . 

The  soil  lives  like  a  plant  or  an  animal,  since  it  -hows  con- 
tinuous changes  of  form  and  of  composition.  Very  little,  however, 
is  known  of  the  life  and  the  interdependence  of  millions  <<\  live  indi- 
viduals found  in  the  soil.  Certain  it  seems  that  tree  growth  is 
bound  on  the  presence  of  certain  fungi  and  bacteria  living  on  the 
roots  (Mycorrhiza).  Mosi  important  are  the  bacteria  capable  of 
digesting  the  nitrogen  of  the  subterranean  air.  Leguminous  plants 
(('lover.  Black  Locust)  are  beset  with  root  knobs,  containing  bacteria 
busily  engaged  in  the  assimilation  of  nitrogen.  The  hyphae  of  a 
fungus  called  Frankia  play  a  similar  role  on  the  root  knobs  of 
Alder  and  Sweet  Fern.  After  F.  C.  Mueller.  Spruce  will  grow  on 
poor  sand  lacking  nitrogen  if  Pine  is  mixed  with  it.  furnishing 
nitrogen  through  its  mycorrhiza. 
15 


S  Y  L  VICULTUR E. 

The  maximum  number  of  bacteria  is  said  to  be  found  two  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  none  exist  below  six  feet. 
The  number  of  bacteria  per  pound  of  soil  varies  from  one  hundred 
millh  n   to   two   hundred  and   fifty   million. 

Important,  too,  in  plant  ecology  is  the  life  of  the  larger  animals 
(worms,  insects,  centipeds)  changing  the  vegetable  matter  of  the 
soil  into  manure  proper,  mixing  mineral  soil  and  vegetable  matter, 
increasing  the  porosity,  drainage  and  aeration  and  neutralizing  the 
acids  01  the  soil.  Shade,  protection  from  wind  and  sufficient  moisture 
are  beneficial  to  animal  life  in  the  soil. 

Paragraph  III.    Influence  of  the  sylva  on  the  ecological  factors. 

The  influence  exerted  by  the  forest  on  local  climate  I  heat,  air, 
preeipitatii  ns,  etc.)    is  dwelt   upon  in  the  lectures  on  forest  policy. 

Whilst  the  ecological  factor-  shown  in  the  previous  paragraph 
exhibit  the  important  influence  which  the  soil  has  on  the  tree,  there 
exists  at  the  same  time,  although  to  a  lesser  degree,  an  influence 
of  the  tree  on  the  soil.  This  influence  is  invariably  such  as  to  facili- 
tate life  to  the  tree  itself  and  to  its  progeny.  The  prjjf^^on  of 
humus   is   the   main   source   of   that    influence. 

Governing    factors   are: 

A.  Leaf  canopy  overhead.  Evergreen  as  well  as  deciduous  woods 
annually  return  to  the  soil  by  the  leaf  fall  a  large  amount  of  dead 
matter  readily  assimilable.  Shade  bearers  furnish  a  better  humus 
than  light  demanders.  excluding,  at  the  same  time,  intensive  insola- 
tion, -ii  that  the  decomposition  of  the  leaf  carpet  and  the  evaporation 
of   the    soil    moisture   is   favorably    retarded. 

A  humus  formed  by  Beech,  Maple  and  Chestnut  is  considered 
especially  good.  Beech  is  justly  called  abroad  the  "Mother  of  the 
Forest "  owing  to  its  soil-improving  qualities.  The  leaf  canopy  is 
particularly  dense  during  the  thicket  and  the  pole-wood  stage.  Even 
light  demanders.  whilst  young,  improve  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  At 
a  higher  age,  when  the  light  demanders  place  themselves  far  apart 
one  from  another  (say  less  than  100  trees  per  acre),  the  humus  on 
the  ground  is  destroyed,  being  replaced  by  a  dense  and  impermeable 
matting   of   grasses    or    shrubs. 

Amongst  the  conifers,  Yellow  and  White  Pine  seem  to  furnish 
the   best   humus.      Spruce   humus   is   too   waxy. 

B.  Rate    of    disintegration    of    leaves. 

This  rate  depends  on  insolation,  on  heat  capacity  of  soil   (sand 

versus  clay),  on  atmospheric  humidity.     Usually,  decomposition  of 

leaf  fall  takes  place  within  two  or  three  years.     The  thin  leaves  of 

16 


SYLVICULTUR  E. 

ticker  than  the  I  -  of  the 

oisture  "t  high  altitudes 

tccumuJation  "t   large  quanl                       —  in  the  tropica 
rod. 

1 1  iikle 

«l<>\\  11  I  no   more 

1 1    Soi     i 

ith   the 

fertility    ot  1 

a»fc 

iph    IV       The   North    A  ra. 

i 
'  .  u lii.-ii  tiee  on  the  w  rotinent 

:lt  To  degrees  latitude  in    v 

atitude  in  I 

at    the    ll'i 

■  >n  tin-  111. . i - 1  ».m  w  indfl  supplie  I 

and  the  Greal    Lai  on   through    ' 

the    latitude 

inter  depend*  • 

the  forest   on  tli<>  nexl   mountain  chain  I \  in^r  to 

f Bl   h 

ft.  above  see    level;   no  foreal   in   Blue   Mountains  below    i  - 
lowest  gap  in  1  *  1 1 1  •  •  Mountains 

in    Rockies   below       

The  <M-t  9lo| t"  the  I  Hue  Mountains  and 

Rockies  Bhows  littl no  forest,  and  the  lowlands  I 

the   mountain  chains  are  deserts   and   prairies 


S  V  L VI CULTURE. 

Moist  sea  winds,  after  passing  one  chain  allow  the  forest  to 
grow  on  the  next  chain  only  above  the  altitude  of  the  gaps  in  the 
first  chain. 

The  following  table  shows  the  composition  of  the  forest  of  the 
United  States  and  of  Canada,  under  the  influence  of  the  climate: 

Percentage  of  forest  area  occupied  by: 

In  United  States.   In  Canada. 

Tropical  forest   y2%  0% 

Sub-tropical   forest    15     %  0% 

Forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone 75     %  10% 

Forest  of  the  moderately  cold  and  alpine  zone...  0x/2%  90% 


The  United  States  contain  two  big  and  one  minor  forest  region, 
namely  the 

Atlantic   forest   region; 

North  Mexican  forest  region; 

Pacific   forest   region. 

The  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  forest  join  under  the  influence  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  winds  at  52  degrees  latitude,  in  AssiniboTa.  There 
ar?  no  prairies  proper  north  of  this  latitude. 

The  tropical  forest  shows  no  seasons.  Its  species  are  evergreen. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  found  only  at  the  extreme  southern  point 
of   Florida. 

The  sub-tropical  forest  is  characterized  by  the  evergreen  broad- 
leaved  trees,  and  is  the  zone  of  rice  and  oranges,  extending  in  east- 
ern North  America  to  35  degrees,  in  western  North  America  to 
40   degrees,   latitude. 

The  moderately  warm  forest  region  is  the  zone  of  the  broad- 
leaved  deciduous   trees,   of   corn,   vine   and  wheat. 

The  moderately  cold  forest  region  is  that  of  the  evergreen 
conifers  too  cold  for  the  production  of  corn. 

h\  North  Carolina  a  trip  from  the  coast  to  the  high  Balsams 
It  ads  the  traveler  from  the  northernmost  limit  of  the  sub-tropical 
through  the  moderately  warm  forest  region  into  the  southernmost 
limit  of  the  moderately  cold  forest  region  which  sets  in  at  about 
6,000  ft.   elevation. 

A.  The   Atlantic   forest. 

I.  Fastern  tropical  forest.  Mahogany  occurs  only  as  a  small 
tree,  Palms  and  other  typically  tropical  orders  (Sapotaceae,  Ebon- 
aceae,  Fuphorbiaceae.  Verbenaceae)  compose  the  forest.  It  must 
be  remembered  thai  Southern  Florida  exhibits  only  the  extreme 
northern  occurrence  of  the  tropical  forest. 
18 


SYLVICLJ  LTURE. 

II.  Eastern  sub-tropical  forest.  It  shows  evergreen  Oaks.  Mag- 
nolias. Persea,  etc..  besides  the  Pines,  the  snil  being  too  poor  for  the 
formation  of  a  large  wintergreen  broad-leafed  forest.  The  winter 
temperature  averages  53  degrees  Faht.:  precipitations  are  heavy; 
relative  humidity  is  75  degrees.  Saba]  palmetto  is  a  characteristic 
weed.  Bald  Cypress  and  Cuban  Pine  are  characteristic  trees  of  the 
region.  Anmng  the  other  Pines.,  the  Long  Leaf  Pine  is  the  most 
important,  associated  in  the  north  and  west  with  Pinus  clausa, 
echinata,  taeda.  serotina.  glabra.  Liquidambar.  Xyssa  and  Fraxinus 
piatycarpa  occur  in  swamps  at  the  edge  of  which  southern  White 
Cedar   frequently   appears. 

III.  Eastern  winter  bald  forest  of  the  moderately  warm  zone. 
It  is  fringed  at  the  south,  north  and  east  by  a  broad  belt  of  Pines, 
which  belt  connects  this  region  at  the  south  with  the  sub-tropical 
forest,  at  the  north  with  the  Fir  and  Spruce  forest  of  the  moderately 
cold  zone.  It  is  divided  into  a  northern  and  a  southern  half  by  the 
39th  degree  of  latitude.  Each  half  shows  an  Atlantic,  a  central 
and  a   prairial   sub-region. 

a.  South  Central  Sub-region.  Traversed  by  the  Mississippi,  the 
sub-region  i-  characterized  by  high  temperatures,  large  precipita- 
tions and  tine  s..il.  which  allow  of  the  best  development  of  broad- 
leaved  woods  found  in  the  world.  Twenty-three  Oak  species,  eight 
Hickory   species,  two  Walnuts.   Buckeyes,  Chestnut,  Gums,  Cotton- 

w Is.  fellow  Poplar,  Sycamore,  Beech,  Maple,  Elm.  Red  Cedar,  etc. 

stand  in  a   dense   undergrowth   formed   by    Dogwood,   Kalmia.   Rho- 
dodendron, Hazel.  Cherries,  Hawthorn,  Buckthorn,  Witch  Hazel,  etc. 

In  this  sub-region  the  heavy  seeded  broad-leaved  trees  obtain 
the  maximum  of  size,  quality  and  number  of  species  at  altitudes 
running  up  to  .{.OIMI  ft.  Higher  up  the  number  of  species  diminishes. 
At  ."..(loo  ft.  only  Red  Oak,  Chestnut.  Beech,  Buckeye,  Sugar  Maple 
(resembling  north  central  subdivision)  are  found,  and  at  6,000  ft. 
the  Spruces  and  Firs  (southernmost  sentinels  of  moderately  cold 
zone!    set  in. 

b.  South  Atlantic  Sub-region.  It  comprises  the  Eastern  foot- 
hills of  the  Alleghanies  (Piedmont  Plateau)  and  part  of  the  Coastal 
Plain.  Temperature  3%  degrees  Faht.  less,  soil  poorer,  precipita- 
tions less  abundant  than  in  the  South  Central  sub-region,  hence 
much  Pine  (taeda.  mitis,  rigida,  virginiana).  Only  ten  Oak  species; 
White  Cedar  swamps;  broad-leaved  flora  otherwise  as  in  South 
Central,    but    of    rather    inferior    development. 

c.  South  Prairial  Sub-region.  Extending  from  the  02nd  to  the 
102nd  degree  of  longitude,  the  forest  appears  poorer  than  the  annual 

19 


S  \  i.  \  i  <  i  i.  T  i  1;  k. 

temperature  and  the  annual  rainfall  seem  to  indicate;  a  discrepancy 

between  cause  and  effect,  possibly  due  to  forest  fires.  Wesl  of  the 
95th  degree  of  longitude.  Oak,  Ash  and  Walnut  occur  along  rivers, 
especially  on  Eastern  banks.  Oak  also  appeal's  scattered  through 
the  depressions. 

(1.  North  Central  Sub-region.  Precipitations  very  abundant 
from  South  as  well  as  North.  Average  winter  temperature  30  de- 
grees Faht.  Quick  change  of  temperature.  The  light-seeded,  broad- 
leaved  species  reach  maximum  in  this  section,  also  White  Pine  and 
Hemlock,  Six  Maples,  live  Birches,  Elms  and  Lindens,  further  Ash, 
Butternut.    Red    and    White   Oak    compose   the    forest. 

e.  North  Atlantic  Sub-region.  Plenty  of  moisture,  the  moun- 
tains being  close  to  the  sea-shore,  but  not  so  much  -as  in  Lake  states. 
Average  winter  temperature  34  degrees  Faht.  at  seashore.  Finns 
rigida  ami  mitis,  Beech,  Birch,  Chestnut.  Maples,  often  replaced  by 
Poplar  and  Willow.  Spruce  sets  in  at  altitude  exceeding  1.000  ft., 
accompanied  by  Hemlock,  White  Cedar,  Red  Cedar.  White  Tine  and 
Tamarack. 

f.  North  Prairial  Sub-region.  Dry  summers,  blizzard y  winters 
and  more  sandy  soil.  No  Hemlock.  Red  Pine  and  Jack  Pine  intrud- 
ing from  North.  Scrub  Oak  openings.  On  best  soil  still  good  develop- 
ment   of    Linden,    Maple.    Elm    and    Birch.      White    Pine    of    | rer 

quality  than  in  sub-region  "  d." 

IV.  Eastern   Evergreen  Forest  of   the   moderately   cold   zone. 

The  majority  of  this  zone  lies  in  Canada,  in  northern  Lake  state- 
Maine.  It  occurs  in  North  Carolina  at  0.000  ft.  elevation:  in  the 
Adirondacks   at   2.000  feet:   in  Maine  at   sea   level. 

The  region  occupies  a  big  belt  stretched  across  the  continent,  so 
that  western  and  eastern  flora  joins  hands  in  it.  A  typical  tree  ,,t 
this  region,  the  White  Spruce,  often  forms  large  pure  forests.  Other 
species  of  the  zone  are  Red  Spruce.  Black  Spruce,  Balsam  fir.  Cotton- 
woods.  Canoe  Birch.  Hemlock.  White  Cedar  and  Tamarack,  the  lattei 
here  obtaining  its  optimum. 

B.  The    North    Mexican    forest. 

The  North  Mexican  flora  intrudes,  coming  from  Mexico,  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico.  It  is  differed  from  the  Pacific  flora,  unimportan1 
commercially,  interesting  only  botanically.  Forest  possible  only  at 
altitudes  exceeding  5,500  feet.  Forest  proper— dense  forest— only  at 
8,000  feet, 

I.    North     Mexican    sub-tropical     forest. 

Characterized  by  Cactus,  ¥ucca,  Agave  and  Mesquite  (Prosopis). 
Evergreen  Oaks  in  moist  valleys.  Madrona  (Arbutus),  a  beautiful 
20 


S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E. 

tree,  on  sunny  slopes  often  mixed  with  Manzanita  (Acrostaphylo-3 
pungens). 

II.  North   Mexican    forest   of    the    moderately    warm    zone. 

This  zone,  very  narrow,  should  contain  winter-bald  broad-leaved 
species.  The  dryness  of  the  soil  and  of  the  air,  however,  allows  of 
their  occurrence  only  on  moist  ground  along  rivers.  Western  Walnut, 
Mexican  Ash,  Poplars  and  Willows.  The  Pines  are  the  leading" 
species  of  the  zone,  forming  huge  forests  at  altitudes  exceeding  6,000. 
feet  elevation.  Some  of  these  Pines  arc  northern  sentinels  from 
Mexico,  others  outposts  from  the  State-.  Mosl  important  is  Pinus 
Chihuahuana,  in  Mexico  largely  used  for  timber,  up  to  SO  feet  high, 
three  feet  in  diameter,  three  needle-.  Pinus  Arizonica,  a  five-needled 
Pine,  occurs  at  6,000  feet  elevation.  Pinus  reflexa,  locally  known  as 
White  Pine,  occupies  moist  dells  at  8,000  feet  elevation.  Nut  pines 
at  lesser  elevations  as  low  brush,  notably  Pinus  edulis,  monophylla, 
osteosperma. 

C.  The    Pacific    forest. 

Typical  difference  from  Atlantic  foresl  lies  in  the  relative  lack 
of  broad-leaved  woods — not  in  species,  bul  in  area.  Tropica]  forest 
is  absent,  possibly  due  to  lack  of  moisture  at  low  elevations  in 
Southern  California. 

I.  Pacific  sub-tropical   forest. 

Occupying  Southern  California,  'this  /one  is  devoid  of  dense 
forests,  the  northern  edge  excepted.  Evergreen  Oaks,  or  rather 
Winter  Green  Oaks  (Quercus  densinora  is  leafless  during  dry  sum- 
mer) dot  the  ground  in  park-like  groves.  California  Laurel  (Um- 
bellularia  californica)  is  a  characteristic  tree  of  this  region,  growing 
up  to  100  feet  high.  Impenetrable  bush  thickets  cover  hoi  aspects, 
formed  by  Leguminosae,  Labiatae,  Compositae,  Rosaceae,  etc.  The 
rare  and  beautiful  Montery  Cypress  along  the  seashore.  Sequoia 
Bempervirens  is  the  biggesl  tree  of  the  zone,  found  onlj  at  its  edge 
in  the  Coast  Range.  Pinus  insignia  known  as  Montery  Pine  is  valu- 
able on  sand  dunes. 

Pinus  tuberculata  (attenuata)  occurs  most  frequently  in  e'ven- 
aged  woods.  Pinus  sabiniana,  \ul  or  DiggeT  Pine,  valuable  for  (he 
Indians,  of  Olive-like  appearance,  is  mixed  in  the  Oak  parks  and  in 
the  Chaparal  thickets.  Another  Nut  Pine  is  Pinus  parryann,  grow- 
ing 30  feet  high.  Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa  on  St.  Bernardino  range. 
Eucalyptus  and  Accacia  were  successfully  introduced  from  Austra- 
lia,  Oranges   and    Figs   from    the  Orient. 

II.  Pacific    forest    of   the   moderately    warm    zone. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

This  zone  covers  the  major  part  of  the  forests  of  Oregon  and 
Washington  and  Nbrthrn  California.  It  is  characterized  by  very 
even  annual  temperature  and  high  precipitations.  The  winter  bald 
Oaks  are  represented  in  Oregon  by  Quercus  garryana  (White  Oak). 
in  California  by  Quercus  Kellogii  (Black  Oak).  Fraxinus  Oregona, 
Acer  macrophyllum,  Populus  trichocarpa  (Black  Cottonwood,  the 
biggest  Cottonwood  of  the  world)  occupy  the  bottom  land  along  the 
rivers;  further  Sorbus.  Amelanchier,  Crataegus.  Primus.  Salix.  Aes- 
culus,  Alnus.  Acer,  Platanus,  Negundo,  Betula.  All  of  these  latter 
species   unimportant   commercially. 

In  strict  contrast  with  the  Atlantic  forest  of  the  same  zone, 
the  conifers  rule  in  importance,  foremost  among  them  the  Douglas 
Fir  (Pseudotsuga  taxifolia)  which  stands  temperature  of  15  degrees 
Faht.  easily.  Best  development  on  west  slope  of  Coast  Range,  In 
the  Rockies,  it  forms  only  summer  shoots  and  short  holes,  owing 
to  shorter  growing  season  and  lack  of  atmospheric  moisture.  In 
Colorado,  Arizona.  New  Mexico  occurs  a  gray  variety.  In  the  Sierras 
it  appears  only  as  a   dependent   species. 

Pinus  ponderosa  (Yellow  Pine,  Bull  Pine).  Height  and  timber 
quality  depend  on  proximity  to  Pacific  Ocean.  Optimum  in  Sierra 
Nevada,  where  trees  300  feet  high  are  frequently  found.  Very 
heavy  sap-wood.  Name  ponderosa  undeserved.  No  tree  of  the 
United  States  occupies  a  larger  territory  or  shows  greater  adapta- 
bility. 

Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  (Port  Orford  Cedar)  occupied  only  a 
very  small  territory  close  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  Does  not  ascend 
mountains  to  over  1.500  feet.  Heavy  shade  bearer,  splendid  repro- 
duction. 

Thuja  plicata  (Red  Cedar  of  the  West)  up  to  171)  feet  high. 
Rare  in  California.  Best  development  in  Oregon  and  Washington 
and  Northern  Idaho,  where  it  occupies  only  the  moister  coves.  Boles 
very    tapering:    shade   bearing;    thin    bark. 

Libocedrus  decurrens  i White  Cedar,  Bastard  Cedar)  on  west 
slope  of  the  Sierras  at  medium  elevations,  where  the  tree  is  mixed 
with  .\l>ies  concolor,  Yellow  and  Sugar  Pine.  Regeneration  easy, 
often    in    places    previously    occupied    by    the    Pines. 

Pinus  lambertiana  (Sugar  Pine),  a  White  Pine  since  it  has  five 
needles  in  a  sheath.  Specific  gravity  even  less  than  thai  of  Eastern 
White  Pine  (Pinus  strobus).  The  biggesl  Pine  of  the  world.  Very 
large  cones.  Optimum  in  Sierras  at  5,000  feet  elevation:  occurs 
often  with  Sequoia,  Libocedrus.  Abies  concolor.  Yellow  Pine.  Pinus 
Jeffreyi.  'the  latter,  a  very  close  relative  to  ponderosa  and  distin- 
22 


SYLVICULTURE. 

guished  from  it  by  bluish  shoots  and  needles  bent  towards  the 
shoots,  occupies  the  lower  Sugar  Pine  belt.  It  prefers  moist  ground 
and  reaches  only  one-half  the  size  of  ponderosa. 

Mayr  groups  the  above  trees  as  follows,  according  to  their  de- 
mands on  moisture: 

Demands   on    soil   moisture: 

1.  Libocedrus  decurrens, 

2.  Pinus  jeftreyi. 

3.  Abies  concolor, 

4.  Pinus  lambertiana, 

5.  Pinus  ponderosa. 

Demands   on  air  moisture: 

1.  Abies   concolor, 

2.  Pinus   lambertiana, 

3.  Pinus  jeftreyi, 

4.  Libocedrus    decurrens, 

5.  Pinus   ponderosa. 

Abies  grandia  (White  Fir  of  Northern  Pacific  Coast).    Tin-  onlj 

fir  on  Vancouver  Island.  Optimum  at  coast  in  Oregon  where  it 
grows  up  to  300  feet  high,  standing  alongside  gigantic  Cottonwoods; 
extends  eastward  across  the  Northern  Rockies,  and  is  the  first  Pa- 
cific fir  met  by  the  traveller  going  west  on  the  Northern  Pacific. 
Requires   moist   soil. 

Abies  concolor  (White  Fir  of  Colorado  and  of  the  Sierras). 
Running  south  to  the  San  Bernardino  mountains,  where  it  occupies 
elevations  of  up  to  10,000  feet.  Traversing  Nevada,  it  occurs  in 
Colorado  (gardener's  variety  glauca).  It  accompanies  Sugar  Pine 
and  Bigtree.  After  Muir.  always  mixed  with  Abies  magnifica,  occur- 
ring at  altitudes  ranging  between  5,000  feet  and  8,000  feet. 

Abies  bracteata  (Santa  Lucia  fir  of  high  mountains)  occurs  in 
Southern  California  in  moist  cool  dells. 

Tsuga  heterophylla  (Black  Hemlock  of  low  elevations).  A  fine 
tree,  the  progeny  of  which  forms  a  dense  undergrowth  underneath 
Douglas  fir.  Heavy  shade  bearer,  requiring  plenty  of  moisture, 
occurring  in  Alaska,  Coast  Range  and  Cascades. 

Picea  sitchensis  (Tideland  Spruce).  Along  coast  on  very  moist 
soil  in  Washington,  on  dryer  soil  in  Alaska,  very  shade  bearing  and 
branchy.     Stinging  needles.     Up  to  200  feet  high. 

Sequoia  Washingtoniana  (Bigtree).  Occurring  only  in  the  Sierras 
in  scattered  groups  at  elevations  ranging  from  4.000  to  7,000  feet. 

23 


S"5  LVII   I   l.Ti    l;  E. 

Enormous    seeding   capacity    and   sprouting   capacity.     Average   di- 
ameter 20  feet,  height   27-".  feet,  age  up  to    1,000  years. 

III.  Pacific   forest   of   moderately   cold  zone. 

This  /"iK'  i>.  in  1905,  economically  of  uo  importance,  although 
it  i-  tli.-  foresl  zone  proper,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  agricul- 
ture within  this  /nil,.,     it    i-  "The  Canadian   Forest    Zone."     Jt   lies 

in  the  Sierras  al   8,000  feet,  in  the  Cascades  at    t. feet,  and  in 

Alaska  at  seashore.  The  forests  ol  the  Northern  Rocky  mountains 
to   it    preferably. 

Pinus  murrayana  (Lodgepole  Pine),  shade  hearing,  in  close 
stands,  very  branchy,  very  sappy,  retaining  cones,  easily  destroyed 
by  lire,  closely  related  to  the  -hick  Pine  of  the  east.  Frequent  on 
fill  burns,  typical  t"i   Yellowstone  Park,  going  south  to  Arizona.     ' 

Larix  occidentalis  (Western  Tamarack).  Splendid  lumber  tree, 
often  in  pure  forests,  optimum  in  Idaho,  natural  regeneration  easy, 
rapid  height  growth,  little  sap  wood,  timber  equal  to  Long  Leaf 
Pine. 

Pinus  Bexilis  (Limber  White  Pine).  More  branchy  and  much 
shorter  than  eastern  White  Pine;  forms  open  forests  on  south  slopes 
oi  Sierras  and  in  Nevada  at  7;000  feet  elevation:  from  Montana  it 
extends   southward  to  Colorado. 

Pinus  monticola  (Mountain  White  Pine).  In  Cascades,  British 
1  olumbia,  Idaho,  Montana,  in  the  latter  state  more  on  slopes  drain- 
ing westward. 

Alnes  nobilis,  amabilis,  magnifica,  the  Red  Firs  of  the  west. 
Magnifica  known  in  California  as  Larch.  The  two  first  named  often 
associated  with  Abies  grandis  and  more  frequenl  in  Washington  and 
Oregon  than  in  California.  Amabilis  extends  into  Alaska.  Red  Firs 
are  lacking  in  the  Rockies.     Needles  are  dark. 

Picea  engelmanni  (White  Spruce).  At  home  in  middle  and 
southern  Rockies,  on  northern  slopes  at  altitudes  averaging  10.000 
feet. 

Picea  parryana  (Colorado  Blue  Spruce).  Needles  very  pointed 
and  stinging,  of  a  bluish  tint.     Occupies  moist   -round. 

IV.  Pacific  forest   of  the  Alpine  region. 
Typical    trees    are: 

Pinus  albicaulis  (Dwarf  White  Pine).  Occurring  in  the  Cascades 
and   the   Rockies   (Utah). 

Pinus  balfouriana  and  aristata  (Fox-Tail  Pine).  White  l'ine 
found  in  California  at  8,000  feet  to  12,000  feet  elevation;  twigs  thin. 
retaining  needle-    for  many  years. 

24 


S  Y  L  V  I C UL  T  U  K  E. 

Abie-,    lasiocarpa    (Balsam).     At    edge    of    tree    growth   only    a 

shrub.  In  Colorado  at  lower,  warmer  situations  a  valuable  tree. 
Occurs  in  all  states  of  the  west. 

Larix  lyallii  (Larch  of  British  Columbia).  Occurs  here  and  there 
in  Washington.  Idaho  and  Montana,   at   very   high  altitudes. 

Tsuga  mertensiana  (Hemlock).  A  storm -battered  Hemlock,  at 
high  altitudes  in  Sierras.  Cascades.  Montana.  A  branchy  tree  up  to 
100  feet  high,  inaccessible  and  hence  of  no  value. 

Paragraph  V.     General  definitions  and   explanations. 

A.  In  Europe,  under  the  term  "Wood  '  is  understood  an  aggre- 
gate of  trees  of  such  uniform  character  that  it  can  be  subjected  to 
the  same  manner  of  treatment.  In  the  American  virgin  forests, 
"woods'5  are  rare.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  term  "woods'-'  as  well 
as  the  term  "  forests  "  has  no  definite  meaning  in  America.  A  fores- 
ter should  keep  in  mind,  however,  that  a  plantation  or  a  natural 
regeneration,  whatever  its  age  and  its  condition,  must  be  classed 
under  the  heading  "  forests." 

A  "group"  of  trees  consists  of  even-aged  specimens  of  the  same 
species  and  is  larger  than  a  bunch,  clump,  or  cluster.  Xo  recog- 
nized definitions  of  the  term  "  group  "  and  "  clump  "  are  at  hand,  un- 
fortunately, based  on  the  space  or  the  acreage  covered  by  them  as 
unit-.  Groups,  as  understood  in  the  following  pages,  are  distinct 
aggregates  of  trees  covering  -^   to   4  acres. 

B.  Pure  forests,  pure  woods,  pure  groups  or  bunches  are  such 
as  contain  one  timber  species  only,  5  per  cent,  admixture  being 
permissible.  Species  able  to  form  pure  forests  are  termed  gregari- 
ous or  ruling  species,  sub-divided  into  distinctly  ruling  speci.'s.  which 
are  usually  found  in  pure  stands,  and  conditionally  ruling  species, 
which    are    occasionally    found    in   pure    stands. 

I.  After  Drude,  the  participation  of  a  species  as  a  mess-mate  at 
the  forest  table  is  expressed  by  the  following  terminology: 

,i.  Social  species,  denoting  the  main  character,  the  striking 
feature  (in  numbers  and  volume)  of  the  forest:  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  forest; 

b.  Gregarious  species,  occurring  in  clumps  and  groups,  island 
like: 

c.  Copious  species,  interspersed  with  others,  the  degree  of  fre- 
quency being  interpreted  by  exponents,  f.  i..  copious8,  copious2, 
copiou-  : 

d.  Sparse    species,   occurring   isolated   and   in    single    specimens; 
l\   Solitary    species,    very    isolated    and   very    rare. 


s  Y  LVICU  LTTJ  RE. 

II.  it  illicit  be  preferable  to  express  the  ratio  of  the  participa- 
tion in  per  cent. 

Social,  Forming  mi';    and  over  of  growing  -tuck. 

Gregarious,  forming  40%    and   over   of   "rowing   stuck. 
Copious,    forming    2\)l/(    and    over   of   growing    stock. 
Sparse,   forming    \%    and   over   of   growing   stock. 
Solitary,  forming  less  than   1%  of  growing  Btock. 
Intermediate  stages  mighl   De  indicated  by  a  union  of  the  given 
designations,   f.    i.,   "  social-gregarious.' 

III.  The   configuration   of   the   ground    and   the    rapidity    of   its 

e.iange  vitally  influence  the  possibilities  of  a  species  as  a  coinp nt 

of   the   forest. 

IV.  Species  which  arc  not,  or  which  are  locally  not,  "riding" 
species  are  called   "  dependent "  species. 

A  species  mighl  he  ruling  in  North  Carolina,  while  it  i>  depend- 
ent in  South  Carolina.  The  distribution  of  the  species  i-  limited 
by  its  demands  on  80il  and  climate.  Far  away  from  the  center  of 
distribution   a   species  is   likely   to  be  dependent. 

V.  The  ruling  species  in  the  south  are:  Long  Leaf  Pine,  Bald 
Cypress,  Loblolly  Pine.  Short  Leaf  Pine.  Sweet  Gum,  Post  Oak, 
(Jottonwoods,  Chestnut. 

The  ruling  species  in  the  west  are:  Lodgepole  Pine,  Finns  ponde- 
rosa,  Douglas  Fir.  White  Fir  (Abies  grandis),  Engelmann's  Spruce, 
Western   White   Pine,  Port   Orford   Cedar.   Redwood.   Sitka.   Spruce. 

VI.  Obviously  the  meek  species  are  those  that  conquer  the  globe. 
With  the  inroads  of  civilization  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and 
especiallv  on  the  water  capacity  of  the  soil,  these  meek  species 
obtein    additional    chances    to    supersede    the    exacting    species. 

C.  Weapons  of  the  species  in  the  struggle  for  existence  are: 

I.  Shade-bearing   qualities. 

II.  Modesty  as  regards  the  fertility  of  soil,  the  moisture  and 
the  heat  during  the  period  of  vegetation. 

III.  Power  of  resistance  to  storm,  sleet,  -now.  late  and  early 
frosts,  droughts,  tire.   etc. 

IV.  Immunity    from    forest  ^insects    and    forest    fungi. 

V.  Longevity.  <>ak  lives  longer  than  Beech;  Sequoia  longest 
of  all. 

VI.  Reproductive  power,  especially  reproductive  power  from 
stumps,   frequency   and   richness  of   3eed   years. 

VIL  Portability  and  sensitiveness  of  - i~:   number  of  enemies 

of  a 1-:  germinating  percentage  of  Beeds. 

VTIL  Rapidity  of  height  growth   in  early   youth. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

D.  Density  of  stand.  Every  ruling  species  shows  a  particular 
density  of  cover  and  a  particular  ramification  during  every  stage 
of  its  life,  when  grown  in  pure  forests. 

I.  Density  of  leaf  cover  overhead. 

a.  The  form  of  the  crown  of  the  individual  depends  on  side- 
shade,  topshade,  neighborly  friction  and  quality  of  soil. 

b.  Natural  regeneration  causes  a  greater  density  of  cover  than 
artificial  regeneration,  certainly  during  the  thicket  and  pole  stage. 
Other  influencing  factors  are:  quality  of  the  soil,  age  of  the  forest, 
inroads  by  snow  break,  wind  fall,  fire,  deer,  fungi,  insects. 

c.  A  dense  canopy  overhead  produces  clear  boled  timber  and 
allows  of  a  heavy  layer  of  humus  on  the  ground.  The  method  of 
regeneration  distinctly  influences  the  value  of  the  timber  to  oe 
formed. 

II.  Number  of  trees   per  acre. 

Lender  normal  conditions  an  acre  of  pure  forest  contains  the 
more  specimens  of  equal  height  or  diameter,  the  better  the  quality 
of  the  soil  and  the  better  the  climate:  and  the  more  specimens  of 
the  same  age.  the  poorer  these  factors  are.  For  example — Yellow 
Pine   Forests: 

Number  of  trees  per  acre. 
Soil.  Boles  75'  long.  Diameter  12".  Age  (30  yrs. 

I  quality.  .  .  320  24u  380 

II  quality.  ..  24o  215  460 

HI  quality.  ..  190  190  540 

During  the  pole  stage  and  tree  stage  -hade  bearers  exhibit  per 
acre  ot  ground  about  50%  more  trees  than  light  demanders. 

The  following  curve  illustrates  the  interdependence  between  age 
and   number  of   trees   per  acre: 

10,000  \ 
5,000    '. 
Number     2,500 
1.000 
of  900 

800 
trees  700 

600 
per  500 

400 
acre  300  '  . 

200 

100  ""•-•... 

o  


0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  30  90  100  120  130  140  150  160  170  180 
Number  cf  years  old. 


S  Y  LVIC  l    I.  IT  j;  E. 

III.  Growing    space   of   a    tree. 

In  their  early  youth  all  species  stand  or  even  desire  a  dense 
cover  overhead.  W'lu'ii  the  food  supply  Btored  in  the  seed  shell  is 
consumedj  however,  the  seedling  requires  light  to  digest  its  food. 
With  increasing  age;  the  tree  boles  getting  longer,  the  crowns  rub 
and  beat  one  another  intensely,  swaying  pendulum  fashion  in  the 
wind.  As  a  consequence  each  crown  is  surrounded  with  an  air  space, 
the  relative  width  of  which  depends  largely  on  the  Length  and  the 
flexibility  of  the  bole.  It  might  lie  stated  that  the  growing  space 
of  a  tree  is  a  function  of  the  square  of  the  gradually  lengthening 
bole. 

Trees  differ  in  the  ease  with  which  waning  neighbors  lose  their 
buds  and  shoots.  Oak,  for  example,  loses  its  May  shoots  easily, 
whilst  Beecn,  struggling  with  Oak,  loses  a  few  leaves  only  along  its 
flexile  swaying  twigs.  In  heavy  storms  Yellow  Pine  often  loses 
whole  branches.  "White  Pine,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  easily 
lose  its  shoots.  The  top  shoots  of  the  taller  individuals  are  immune 
from  harm.  Thus  a  tree,  once  in  the  lead  of  its  competitors,  has  a 
good  chance  to  retain  the  lead  over  them. 

IV.  Grades  of  density  of  cover  are:  Pressed  cover.  Close  cover, 
Light  cover  and  Open  cover.  No  strict  definition  of  these  terms  can 
be  given.  Obviously  the  number  of  stems  under  pressed  conditions 
is  very  large. 

Indications  of   a   normal   cover  are: 

a.  Relation   between   length   of   crown   and   length   of    bole. 

b.  Normal  diameter  growth  and  height  growth. 

c.  Proper  participation  of  the  various  diameter  classes  in  the 
volume  of  wood  at  hand.  The  normal  participation  in  a  pure,  even- 
aged    wood    i-    for   the 

1st.  Diameter  class — 40%  of  total  volume. 
•2nd.  Diameter  class — 24%  of  total  volume. 
3rd.  Diameter  class— 17%  of  total  volume. 
4th.  Diameter  class— 12%  of  total  volume. 
5th.   Diameter  elass — 7%  of  total  volume. 

If  cover  overhead  is  too  dense,  the  firsl  class  -how-  over  40%> 
of   volume  and   vice   \  ersa. 

V.  In  nature,  the  same  causes  necessarily  have  the  -am.'  result. 
The  cause-  of  timber  production  are  -oil  Mini  atmospheric  food  "fall- 
ing "  oiiio  the  -oil  in  the  shape  of  sunshine,  moisture  and  air.  Eence, 
whatever  the  species  are.  it  seems  as  if  the  acre  of  ground,  fully 
stocked,  nm-t  produce  on  the  annual  average  the  same  weight  of 
timber     nol    'he    same    volume   of    timber.      Thus,   ceteris    paribus, 

28 


SYLVICULTURE. 

species  uf  light  specific  gravity  are  the  best  volume  producers.  Since. 
however,  shade-bearing  species  are  better  digestors  of  atmospheric 
and  terrestrial  food,  the  largest  growth  per  acre  per  annum  is 
obtained  from  shade  bearers  of  light  weight  (Hemlock,  Spruce,  Fir, 
White   Pine). 

In  the  virgin  forest  the  annual  production  of  wood  fibre  is 
exactly  offset  by  the  annual  death  and  decay  of  wood  fibre.  The 
virgin   forest  is   a   forest  seemingly   in   economic   stagnation. 

VI.  The  sectional  area  of  a  tree  usually  measured  chest  high 
(4y2  feet  above  ground),  inclusive  of  bark,  is  the  area  of  the  circle 
corresponding    with   the    diameter   measured   chest    high. 

The  sectional  area  of  an  acre  of  forest  is  tin'  sum  total  of  the 
sectional  areas  of  the  trees  standing  thereon.  It  rarely  exceeds  one- 
half  per  cent,  of  the  acreage  of  the  ground,  or  218  square  feet 
per  acre. 

E.  Rotation. 

Under  rotation  is  understood  the  number  of  years  which  a  seed- 
ling requires  to  reach  maturity.  For  a  second  growth  in  America, 
rotations  will  vary  in  length  from  60  years  to  160  year-,  according 
to  the  species  and  local  conditions.  During  a  rotation  a  wood  lot 
may  pass  through  t lie  cleaning  stages,  thinning  stages,  the  stage 
of  preparatory  cutting,  the  seed-cutting  stage  and  the  stage  of  final 
removal. 

JF.  Size   classes   and   age   classes. 

I.  Pinchot  adopts  the  following  -even  age  classes  or  size  classes 
of  trees  in  his   "Primer:" 

a.  Seedlings,   up   to   3   feet   high. 

b.  Small  saplings,    from   .">   to    10   feet    high. 

C.    Large   saplings,    10   feet    high    to    I    inches   diameter. 

d.  Small  poles,  from  4  inches  to  s  inches  diameter. 

e.  Large    poles,    from    8    inches    to    12    inches    diameter. 

f.  Standards,   from   12  inches   to  24  inches   diameter. 

g.  Veterans,  over  24  inches  diameter. 

II.  During  the  sapling  stage,  the  specimens  form  a  thicket; 
during  the  pole  stage,  they  form  a  polewood;  and  during  t he 
standard   and   veteran    stage,   a    tree   forest. 

III.  During  the  thinning  stage  (pole  stages)  of  trees  in  an  even- 
aged  wood,  the  following  classes  of  mess-mates  might  be  distin- 
guished: 

a.  After  Schlich,  "Dominant,"  "Dominated."'  ••Suppressed,  yet 
alive."  and  "  Dead." 

b.  After   Pinchot.   "Dominant,"   "Retarded."   and    "Overtopped." 


s  v  lvicu  i/rr  ii  k. 
e.  The  usual  classification,  adopted  by  German   foresters  after 

Kraflt    is: 

1.  Predominating  trees,  having  crown  strikingly  well  developed. 

2.  Dominating  trees,  with  well-developed  crowns,  forming  the 
main   cover  overhead. 

3.  Condominating  trees,  with  crowns  of  a  fairly  normal  form, 
but  of  somewhat  poor  vigor,  carrying,  however,  their  crowns  within 
the   level  of  the  main  canopy. 

4.  Dominated  trees  with  crowns  more  or  less  crippled  or  pressed 
from  the  sides,  subdivided  into  two  sub-classes,  viz.: 

a.  Most  of  crown   free   from   cover   overhead. 

b.  Most    of   crown    underneath    cover   overhead. 

5.  Trees  absolutely  suppressed,  standing  entirely  under  the  cover 
of  others. 

G.  Even-aged  woods: 

Woods,  the  components  of  which  differ  in  age  by  less  than  "2.") 
years,   are  called   "even-aged  woods." 

In  America,  even-aged  woods  and  hence  the  advisability  of  thin- 
ning is  mighty  rare.  The  struggle  for  existence  between  even-aged 
comrades  can   readily  be  alleviated  by  the  forester's  interference. 

In    America,    even-aged    woods    are    formed,    for    instance: 

T.  By   Long   Leaf   and   by   Cuban   Line. 

II.  By  Jack   Pine  and  Lodgepole  Pine. 

III.  By   Bald  Cypress. 

IV.  By  Douglas  Fir. 

A'.  By  Finns  echinata,  taeda.  strobns.  ponderosa.  virginiana  on 
abandoned  fields. 

H.  Distribution    of    species. 

The  horizontal  distribution  of  species  depends  on  the  latitude 
and  the  proximity  of  the  ocean,  or  better  <m  sea  winds,  and  pro- 
ceeds parallel  with  the  vertical  distribution.  In  the  neighborhood 
of    Biltmore.    the    following   altitudes    may    be   given: 

Spruce  and  Fir — 5,500  ft. 

Beech— 2.000  to   6,000  ft. 

Hemlock— 2.000  to   3.800  ft. 

Chestnut— 2,000  to  5,000  ft, 

Chestnut  Oak— 2.000  to  4.000  ft. 

Pignut   Hickory— 3.000  ft. 

Bitternut   Hickory— 3.800    ft. 

Black  Cherry— 3,500  to  5.000  ft. 

Pinus  virginiana— 2,000  to  2.500  ft. 

Pinus  strobus— 2.000  to  3.500  ft. 
30 


s  Y  LVICULTUKE. 

Yellow  Poplar— 2,000  to  4.000  ft. 

Buckeye— 3.000   to   0,000   ft. 

Red    Oak— 2,000    to    5,500    ft. 

White    Oak— 2,000    to    5,000    ft. 

Spanish  Oak— 2,000  to  3,800  ft. 

Post  Oak— 2.000  to  3,000  ft. 

Black  Oak— 2,000  to  3,600  ft. 

Echmata— 2.000  to  2.600  ft. 

Rigida— 2,000  to  3.500  ft. 

Pungens— 4,500  ft. 

Locust— 2,000  to  5,500  ft. 

Black  Gum— 2,000  to  4,000  ft. 

Every  species  thrives  best  in  certain  centers,  which  are  few  in 
the  case  of  the  exacting  and  numerous  in  the  case  of  modest 
species   like   yellow   Pine,   both   east    and   west. 

Aside  from  vertical  and  horizontal  elevation,  the  influence  on 
distribution  exercised  by  storm,  snow  and  sleet   is  very  marked. 

Paragraph  VI.     Light  demanders  and  shade  hearers. 

A.  A  plant  is  termed  the  more  shade  bearing  or  tolerant  of 
shade,  the  less  light  it  retpiires  for  the  functions  of  assimilation, 
breathing,  perspiration,  flowering  and  fruiting.  Only  parasites  live 
without    light,    and    hence    without    chlorophyl. 

B.  The  following  characteristics,  in  their  aggregate  and  not 
singly,  may  lead  the  observer  to  classify  a  tree  as  a  shade  bearer: 

I.  Dense   leaf   canopy. 

II.  Leaves  thin.  dark.  tlat.  more  numerous,  not  glossy,  not 
downy,  not  bunched  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  with  blades  spread 
horizontally,  withering  quickly  after  separation  from   the   branch. 

III.  Thin  bark. 

IV.  Thick  sapwood. 

V.  Branches  persistent,  spread  flat  or  pointing  downward,  com- 
paratively thin  and  interlacing.     Crowns  long. 

VI.  Little  live  soil  cover,  and  a  heavy  layer  of  dead  humus 
underneath  leaf  canopy. 

VII.  Dense  stand  of  trees. 

C.  Factors  influencing  the  relative  demand  for  light  within  one 
and  the    same   species   are: 

I.  Latitude  and   hence  intensity  of  insolation. 

II.  Exposure. 

III.  Fertility   of   soil,  and  hence  digestive   power. 

IV.  Age  of  plants. 

31 


S^  LVII   V  LT  I    i;  E. 

V.  Distance  between  the  crown  levels  of  the  shaded  and  "i   the 
shading  trees. 

instances   for  1  and   III. 

White    Pine    i-.    in    the    south,    almosl    shade    bearing;    in    the 
north   it    is  almosl    lighl   demanding. 

Yellow   Poplar  on  fertile  soil  stands  heavy  shading  overhead. 

I).  Woody  species  in  their  relative  order  of  resistance  against 
heavy   shading   might    he  arranged  as  follows: 

I.  Relative  order  tor  the  southern  Appalachians: 

Witch    Hazel. 

Dogwood. 

Fir. 

Hemlock. 

Hard  Maple. 

Chinquapin. 

Black  Gum. 

Spruce. 

Soft  Maple. 

White   Pine. 

Pinus  virginiaha. 

Linden. 

Chestnut. 

Pved  Oak. 

White  Oak. 

Chestnut  Oak. 

Ash. 

Spanish   Oak. 

Black  Oak. 

Finger  Oak. 

Post  Oak. 

Pinus  r:gida. 

Black  Locust. 

Poplar. 

Hickory. 

Pinus  echinata. 

Sassafras. 

Unfortunately,    at    Biltmore.    shade    hearers    are    usually 
interfering   with   the   valuahle   species. 

EC.  Pinchot   pivos   the   following  schedule   for   the    Adirondack-: 

Hard    Maple. 

Beech. 

Hemlock. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Spruce. 

Balsam. 

Soft    Maple. 

Birch. 

White    Pine     (intermediate). 

Black    Cherry. 

Black  and  White   Ash. 

Bird  Cherry. 

Cottonwood. 

Tamarack. 

The  trees  above  White  Pine  Pinchot  calls  "  tolerant  "  and  those 
below   White   Pine  "  intolerant   of  shade." 

III.  The  leading  species  of  the  United  States,  classed  according 
to  light  or  shade-demanding  qualities  are: 

a.  Eastern  Conifer-: 

Long  Leaf  Pine — distinctly   intolerant   of   shade. 

Echinata — light    demander. 

Taeda — intermediate. 

Virginiana—  intermediate. 

Rigida — not    so  much   as  virginiana. 
Bald  Cypress — light  demander. 
Chamaecyparis   spheroidea — shade  bearer. 
Spruc< — fair  shade  bearer. 

Balsam — intense    shade    hearer. 
Hemlock — intense    shade    leaver. 
Tamarack — light    demander. 
Arbor    vitai'     -hade    hearer. 
White   Pine — intermediate. 

•  lack    Pine — light    demanding    toward-    intermediate. 
Norway  Pine — light   demander. 
1>.   Eastern  hardwoods: 
Beech — shade    bearer. 
Hard   Maple — shade    bearer. 
Silver     Maple-   shade     hearer. 
Red  Maple— shade  hearer. 
Black    Gum — -hade   bearer. 
Sourwood — light  demander. 
Locust — light    demander. 
Yellow    Poplar — light    demander. 
Chestnut — intermediate. 

Oaks — light  demanders  (White  and  Red  Oak  stand  lots  of  shade 
when    young). 

33 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Elm — shade  bearer. 

Birch — light  demander  or  intermediate. 

Black  walnut — intermediate. 

Linden — shade   bearer. 

Umbrella  tree— less  light  demanding  than  Yellow  Poplar. 

Cucumber— less   light   demanding   than   Yellow   Poplar. 

Sycamore— medium  shade  bearer. 

Willows  and  Cottonwoods — light  demanders. 

Liquidambar — light  demander. 

Hickories — light  demanders. 

c.  Western  Conifers: 

Douglas    Fir — intermediate. 

Ponderosa — light   demander. 

Nut  Pines — intense  light  demanders. 

Lodgepole   Pine — intermediate. 

Sugar  Pine — intense  light  demander. 

Lawson    Cypress — intense    shade   bearer. 

Tide-land   Spruce — shade   bearer. 

Redwood — shade   bearer. 

Western  Hemlock — intense  shade  bearer. 

Western   Firs — intense    shade   bearers. 

Larch — intense  light  demander. 

Engelmann's  Spruce — shade  bearer. 

Colorado  Blue   Spruce — shade  bearer. 
Paragraph  VII.     Pure  versus  mixed  woods. 

A.  Conditions    inviting    pure   woods    and    mixed   woods. 

Conifers  are  more  apt  to  grow  in  pure  forests,  owing  to  their 
greater  modesty.  Abroad,  up  to  a  very  recent  time,  the  desire  of 
the  forester  was  to  raise  mixed  woods,  but  quite  recently  the 
"  Danish  propaganda  "  has  turned  the  minds  of  some  foresters  back 
to  pure  woods. 

Severe  climatic  conditions  and  poor  soil  conditions  invariably 
give  one  species  the  preponderance,  for  example:  Bald  Cypress  rules 
in  the  swamps  of  the  South,  Tamarack  in  those  of  the  North;  Nut 
Pines  prevail  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  Southwest;  Long  Leaf 
Pine  on  poor  sand  in  the  South:  Cuban  Pine  in  half  swamps  of  the 
South:  Red  Spruce  on  the  "Black  Slopes"  of  the  Adirondack's; 
White  Spruce  in  Northern  Canada;  Lodgepole  Pines  on  old  burnsj 
Jack   Pine  on  poor  sand  in  the  Lake   States. 

Pure   forests   are   sometimes  in   the   interest   of   the   owner,   for 
example:    Pure    Spruce    near    paper    mills:    Hickory    near    carriage 
works;    Tan   Bark   Oak   near  tanneries. 
34 


. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

A  high  rotation  often  leads  to  a  pure  forest,  a  short-lived 
admixture    being   gradually    pressed    out. 

Abroad  the  forester  is  required  to  maintain  the  fertility  and 
productiveness  of  the  soil.  Since  light-demanding  species  allow 
the  soil  to  be  baked  by  the  sun  during  the  pole  and  tree  stage 
of  the  forest  when  grown  purely,  admixture  of  shade  bearers  under 
such  conditions  is  advisable,  obtained,  for  instance,  by  underplanting 
Yellow   Pine  with  Beech,  when  Pine  is   50  years  old. 

B.  Kinds  of  mixture. 

A  mixture  may  be  temporary  or  permanent;  a  mixture  may 
be  even  aged  or  uneven  aged;  the  species  may  or  may  not  differ 
in  height  growth;  the  mixture  may  be  composed  of  single  indi- 
viduals; of  strips,  rows,  bunches,  groups;  or  it  may  show  an 
irregular  character. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  original  character  of  the  mixture 
might  be  changed  entirely  by  the  forester  or  by  nature. 

C.  Advantages  of   mixtures. 

Mixed  forests  take  advantage  of  differences  of  soil  qualities; 
the  moisture-demanding  species  gradually  claiming  the  dells  and 
more  modest  kinds  obtaining  preponderance  on  the  dry  plateaus 
or  spur-. 

A   mixture   may   form  a   preventive  against   late   frost. 

A  mixture  is  better  protected  against  damages  by  fire,  insects, 
fungi,   storms,   snow,   etc. 

A  mixture  produces  a  better  quality  of  humus  (Pine  and  Oak 
humus  is  better  than  pure  Oak  humus  or  pure  Pine  humus). 

A  mixture  produces  a  larger  quantity  of  limber  for  tin-  above 
reasons  in  addition  to  the  fact  that  a  mixture  allow-  it-  com- 
ponents to  more  fully  utilize  the  productive  factors  of  the  air 
as  well  as  those  of  the  soil  through 

a.  Difference   of   crown   formation,   crown   level-,  crown   density. 

b.  Difference    in   root   system    (tap   and    flat-rooters    mixed). 

c.  Difference   in   mineral   and   light   requirements. 

A  mixture  also  tends  to  produce  cleaner  timber — certainly  so 
for  the  benefit  of  light  demanders  when  placed  in  mixture  with 
shade  bearers. 

For  all  these  reasons  a  mixed  forest  may  be  said  to  produce  a 
larger  and  safer  revenue  than  a   pure  forest. 

Valuable  species  might  be  raised  beyond  the  limits  of  their 
habitat    in   mixed   forests. 

D.  Objections  to  mixed  forest. 

35 


SYLVICULTURE. 

The  administrative  and  the  sylviculture,]  management  of  mixed 
woods    is    more   difficult    and    hence   more   expensive    than    that    of 

pine    woods. 

In  America  logging  expenses  arc  much  increased  where  only 
one  species  can  be  utilized  in  mixed  forests.  Logging  for  Spruce 
on  "Black  Spruce  Slopes"  in  the  Adirondacks  is  relatively  cheaper 
per  thousand  feet  hoard  measure  than  logging  for  spruce  where 
Spruce  forms  only  one-third  of  the  growing  stock.  'I  his  objection 
does  not  hold  good,  of  course,  where  all  species  are  marketable  at 
the    same    time. 

E.  Rules  governing  the  composition  of  a  mixture  and  rule-  foi 
treating  mixed  forests  (holding  good  for  artificial  and  semi-arti- 
ficial  forests) : 

I.  Species   selected  for  a  mixture   must  improve   one   another. 

II.  Each  species  should  occupy  that  section  of  ground  on  which 
it   thrives    hot. 

III.  The   mixture   should   at   least   maintain   the    productiveness 

of    the    soil. 

IV.  A  light- demanding  species  mixed  with  a  shade  hearer  must 
either  be  given  an  advance  in  age  or  else  must  naturalh  possess 
an  advantage  in  rapidity  of  height  growth;  otherwise  it  soon 
disappears.  This  relative  height  growth  is  not  a  fixed  quantity:  it 
usually   differs  according  to  the  soil  and  to  the  climate. 

V.  The  denser  the  forest  cover  is,  the  earlier  and  the  more 
intense  must  he  the  help  given  to  the  species  likely  to  he  suppressed 
(Sassafras  and  Locust  in  mixture  with  Chestnut). 

After  Henry  Mayr;  species  which  are  botanically  different  from 
the  most  natural  mixture  (Oak  and  Line  at  Biltmore;  Birch  and 
Spruce  in  Balsams:  White  Pine,  Linden  and  Elm  in  Michigan).  The 
exceptions  to  this  rule  are  many  (Norway  and  .lack  Pine  in  .Michi- 
gan; Red  Firs  and  White  Firs  in  the  Pacific  Coast   States). 

Paragraph   VIII.     Dr.   Henry   Mayr's    (Munich)    fundamental    prin- 
ciples of  Sylviculture. 

A.  Forest  is  possible  only  where  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
four  months  of  most  active  growth  averages  50  degrees  Laid,  or  over. 

B.  A  mean  summer  temperature  (May  to  August)  of  .">::  to  ."iff 
degrees  Faht.  produces  the  Fir  and  Spruce  /one  of  Europe,  Asia  and 
America.  A  mean  summer  temperature  of  .">'.)  to  ill  degrees  is 
productive  of  Beech,  also  of  White  Oak.  Maple,  Hemlock  ami  Chain- 
aecyparis.  A  knowledge  of  the  summer  mean  i-  essential  when 
introducing    exotics.      A    knowledge    of    the    possibilities    of     forest 

36 


- 


S  V  L  V  I  C  V  L  T  D  R  E. 

growth    in    a    given    country    implies    a    knowledge    of    the    mean 
summer   temperature. 

Some  very  modest  trees  are  unreliable  as  indicators  or  ther- 
mometers   (i.  e.  Pinus  echinata,  Pinus  ponderosa). 

C.  A  species  may  be  grown  far  from  its  original  habitation, 
provided  that  the  local  climate  of  the  new  region  is  analogous  to 
that  of  the  old.  If  the  exotic  conies  from  a  warmer  climate,  it 
should  be  placed  on  south  slopes  with  plenty  of  sun;  if  it  comes 
from  a  colder  climate  it  should  be  placed  in  moist  soil  and  on 
cool  aspects.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  adaptation  of  trees  to  a 
different  climate,  or  as  acclimatization  of  trees.  Walnut.  Peach, 
and  Black  Locust  have  been  grown  in  Germany  for  centuries,  be- 
cause the  climate  of  naturalization  was  and  is  essentially  identical 
with    that    of    the    natural    habitat    of    the    tic-. 

D.  Tree  specimens  of  a  cold  climate  do  not  possess  in  them- 
selves any  special  power  of  resistance  to  frost.  It  i>  useless  to 
import  seeds  from  colder  climates  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  greater 
hardiness  (Douglas  Fir  from  Oregon  and  from  Colorado  differ,  how- 
ever,  in   hardiness). 

E.  Species  of  trees  growing  in  hot  localities  or  else  in  open 
stands  place  comparatively  small  claim-  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
All  species  bear  shade  better  when  broughl  to  a  wanner  climate 
and  require  more  light  when  brought  to  a  colder  one  (White  Pine). 

F.  In  level  countries,  at  not  over  500  ft.  elevation,  the  habita- 
tion of  a  species  depends  on  latitude  considerably  modified  by  sea 
winds.  In  many  countries,  away  from  the  ocean,  that  modification 
i>  no  strong  a-  to  create  a  dependence  of  the  habitation  more  on 
longitudes  than  on  latitudes.  In  high  mountain  regions,  altitude 
may  produce  effects  similar  to  those  of  latitude:  it  is.  therefore,  a 
mistake  to  label  one  species  as  a  mountain  species  and  another 
as  a  plains'  species.  In  Eastern  North  America  Picea  rubens,  in 
Western  North  America  Douglas  Kir.  also  Abies  grandis  and  ama- 
bilis.  bear  witness  to  this  truism. 

C4.  The  climatic  needs  of  a  species  are  better  characterized  by 
the  forest  zone  than  by  the  latitude  or  the  altitude  at  which  or 
up  to  which  it  grows.  Even  a  knowledge  of  altitude  and  latitude 
combined  furnishes  insufficient  information  relative  to  such  cli- 
matic   needs. 

H.  If,  in  a  given  climatic  zone,  there  are  found  two  neighbor- 
ing species  of  the  same  genus,  it  is  safe  to.  assume  that  these 
two  species  were  not  mixed  originally,  but  that  each  had  its  dis- 
tinct habitation  and  that  the  mixture  is  due  to  the  action  of  man. 
37 


(SYLVICULTURE. 

I.  In  primitive  forests  the  species  which  harmonize  are  those 
which  differ  botanically. 

J.  When  two  species  are  so  alike  as  to  be  almost  varieties  but 
have,  nevertheless,  different  climatic  needs,  then  they  are.  in  reality. 
true  and  distinct  species   (Douglas  Fir  in  Colorado  and  Oregon). 

K.  Frost  injury  is  always  due  to  the  death  of  the  plasmodium 
killed  by  the  direct  action  of  the  frost.  The  plasmodium  i-  mosl 
sensitive  during  the  time  of  cell  formation  and  of  active  growth. 
The  plasmodium  in  the  inert  stage,  as  in  seeds,  is  actually 
insensitive. 

L.  All  species  become  mine  hardy  as  they  grow  older.  This  is 
simply  due  to  the  trees  rising  above  the  cold  layers  of  temperature 
near  the  ground  and  to  the  greater  thickness  and  mass  of  the  trunk, 
resisting  rapid  changes  of  temperature. 

M.  The  degree  of  moisture  in  the  air  required  for  forest  growth 
is  50%  relative  humidity  during  the  growing  season.  The  broad- 
leaved  trees  and  the  two  and  three  needled  Pines  are  the  species 
best  adapted  to  regions  of  extreme  dryness  or  of  sudden  changes 
in   atmospheric   moisture. 

N.  The  association  of  trees  into  a  forest  has  the  effect  of  in- 
creasing the  relative  humidity  by  not  to  exceed  10%.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  maintaining  forest  in  regions  where  the  tension  of 
watery  vapor  is  close  to  50%.  The  partial  destruction  of  a  forest 
may  entail  the  death  of  the  remainder  rendering  reforestation  impos- 
sible unless  it  is  started  from  the  nearest  adjoining  forest.  Inside  a 
forest  the  greater  atmospheric  humidity  acts  as  beneficially  as  a 
moist   ocean  wind,   lacking,  however,   the   latter's   violence. 

O.  It  is  in  moist,  cool  localities  (mountains  and  northern  cli- 
mate) that  climatic  variations  are  the  least  extreme  during  the 
growing  season.  It  is  here  that  the  annual  rings  are  equal,  the 
grain  fine  and  regular,  and  the  timber  of  the  greatest  commercial 
utility. 

P.  The  moister  the  climate,  the  easier  becomes  forest  culture, 
and  the  forester  is  apt  to  make  the  least  mistakes  in  thinnings, 
regeneration,  fellings,  etc.  Air  moisture  seems  to  exercise  a  favor- 
able influence  on  the  straightness  of  the  stems. 

Q.  It  is  known  that  a  failure  of  rain  for  several  days  may  be 
fatal  to  young  plants.  The  faculty  of  persistence  increases  with 
age,  and  the  grown  trees  can  endure  long  periods  of  drought.  If, 
however,  the  lack  of  rain  is  such  as  to  bring  the  sum  total  of 
precipitations  during  the  four  months  of  the  growing  season  below 
the  two-inch  mark,  then  the  forest  disappears,  even  if  the  humidity 
38 


SYLVICULTURE. 

of  the  air  remains  above  50%.  Exception — immediate  neighborhood 
of  lakes  and  rivers  with  their  sub-soil  percolation. 

R.  A  fairly  moist  soil  is  the  best  for  all  species  in  their 
optimum  climate.  In  hotter  places  the  locality  must  be  more 
damp,  while  in  colder  ones  it  may  be  dry  without  hindering 
growth  (White  Pine  in  the  Pink  Beds  in  swamps,  in  Canada  on 
dry  soil;  Sitka  Spruce  in  Washington  in  swamps;  in  Alaska  on 
dry   land). 

S.  Snow  protects  those  parts  of  a  plant  which  it  covers;  it 
increases  the  danger,  however,  for  the  parts  just  above  the  snow 
level.  Snowy  winters  are,  therefore,  useful  to  low  plants,  but 
harmful  to  trees    (except  broad-leaved  trees). 

T.  As  regards  the  winds,  the  most  dangerous  are  those  which 
follow  the  direction  of  the  barometric  minima,  which  in  Eastern 
America  travel  from  east  to  west;  in  Europe  from  west  to  east; 
in  East  Asia  from  south  to  north.  Next  dangerous  are  the  winds 
traveling  in  the  opposite  direction,  whilst  those  from  other  points 
of  the  compass  are  more  harmless.  Every  mountain,  however,  cre- 
ates a  deflection  of  the  current  and  possibly  a  return  in  the  oppo- 
site direction. 

U.  In  their  youth  trees  are  almost  indifferent  to  the  quality 
of  the  soil;  with  increasing  age  their  exigencies  increase.  Thus 
plantations  on  poor  soil  may  thrive  well  for  a  number  of  years, 
only  to  be  suddenly  arrested  at  the  beginning  of  the  pole  stage. 

V".  In  their  most  suitable  Bituation  (natural  optimum)  a  species 
succeeds  on  soil  of  any  mineral  description.  In  a  less  favorable 
climate  the  soil  requirements  of  the  species  increase. 

W.  The  light  most  favorable  to  activity  of  the  chlorophyll  is 
not  the  light  of  the  blazing  sun,  nor  is  it  the  diffused  light  coming 
through  rain  or  fog,  but  that  light  which  is  reflected  by  brilliant 
white  clouds.  Leaf  cover  overhead  is  favorable  when  it  filters 
the  rays  of  a  burning  sun  and  unfavorable  when  it  excessively 
reduces  the  intensity  of  insolation.  Under  a  continental  climate, 
cloudless  days  are  more  numerous  than  near  the  coast.  The  influ- 
ence of  thinnings  and  removal  cuttings  on  the  remaining  growth 
consequently  depends  on  the  continental  position  of  a  forest — not 
solely  on  species  and   soil. 

X.  The  regeneration  of  forests  approaching  exploitable  age  is 
easiest  in  their  optimum  climate.  If  the  climate  is  too  warm,  seed 
will  be  more  abundant,  and  the  young  plants  will  endure  cover 
better.      The    moisture    of    the    air,    however,    is    wanting,    and    the 

39 


SYLVICULTl  RE, 

denser  cover  overhead  may  intercept  too  much  of  the  needed  rain- 
fall. 

If  the  climate  is  too  cold,  the  moisture  of  the  air  indeed 
increases;  but  the  production  of  seeds  and  the  persistence  under 
cover  decrease. 

Y.  In  mixed  forests  artificial  regeneration  is  more  difficult  than 
natural  regeneration.  A  clean  felling  results  in  a  capricious  com- 
plication of  natural  laws  and  phenomena  whose  contrary  actions 
are  not  easily  understood.  Natural  regeneration,  a  mixture  of 
species  suitable  to  the  locality,  a  crop  resembling  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible the  primitive  state,  such  are  the  conditions  which  the  forester 
should  seek  to  realize  for  the  avoidance  of  dangers  as  well  as  for 
the  greater  possible  yield  of  the  most  valuable  produce.  No 
method  of  treatment  harmonizes  better  with  nature's  laws  than 
the  so-called  selection  system,  when  each  tree  is  placed  in  a  con- 
dition most  favorable  to  its  development,  and  when  no  single  tree 
is  removed  for  a  purpose  other  than  that  of  regeneration  or  im- 
provement of  the  crop. 


40 


CHAPTER   II. 


Paragraph  IX.     Genesis  of  the  high  forest  and  its  methods. 

Wood  crops  can  be  started  either  naturally  I  from  stump  shoots, 
root  suckers  and  self-sown  Beed)  or  artificially  (by  planting  seeds, 
seedlings  or  cuttings).  Forests  starting  from  stump  shoots,  root- 
suckers  and  cuttings  are  called  "coppice  forests."  Forests  start- 
ing from  seeds  or  - llings  are  termed  "high  forests." 

A.  Planting   in   Europe. 

Up  to  1830  Beed  planting  only  was  practiced  to  start  high 
forests  artificially.  Since  then  seedling  planting  has  gradually  con- 
quered the  European  field,  especially  in  the  east'  of  Yellow  and  White 

Pine,  Spruce.  Ash,  Maple  and  Larch.     Bi h  and  Fir  are  invariably 

regenerated  abroad  from  self-sown  seed;  also  Oak  in  France,  while 
in   Germany    acorns   are    usually    planted. 

B.  Advisability  of  planting  in  America. 

Excepting  the  case  of  the  prairies  and.  possibly  the  case  of  fields 
abandoned  by  farmers  in  the  Eastern  state-,  the  idea  of  artificial 
propagation  of  forest  crops  (by  planting)  seems  preposterous  in 
America.     As  long  as  an  acre  of  virgin  forest   can  be  bought   for  a 

1 r  sum  of  money  than  is  required,  in  the  same  locality,  for  the 

successful  reforestation  of  an  acre  of  ground,  the  chances  for  a 
remunerative  outcome  of  planting  seem  very  -lim.  However,  the 
following   points   should   not    be    lost    sighl    of: 

I.  The  stumpage  prices  apt  to  prevail  in  America  in  the  year 
1960  are  likely  to  equal  those  now  prevailing  abroad.  Hence  the 
same  practice  which  is  now  remunerative  abroad  must  prove  paying 
in  this  country:  possibly  more  paying  for  the  reason  that  the  value 
of  the  soil  on  which  the  growing  crop  must  yield  an  annual  dividend 
i-  abroad  about  ten  times  as  high  as  it   i-  in  the  United  States. 

IT.  An  expense  for  taxes  and  administration  i~  incurred  annually 
by  the  forest  owner,  whether  the  forest  ground  i-  kept  fully  or  only 
partly  stocked:  hence  it  seems  a  remunerative  venture  to— at  least — 
reinforce   natural   regeneration   by    artificial    planting. 

III.  The  growth  of  weeds  naturally  plentiful  in  primeval  con- 
ditions cannot  he  overcome  unless  radical  artificial  remedies  are 
adopted. 


£7 


SYLVICULTURE. 

C.  On  the  other  hand,  the  following  objections  to  planting  must 
be  considered: 

I.  As  long  as  the  American  forest  is  much  endangered  by  fire,  it 
is  unwise  to  invest  any  money  in  young  growth  for  which  the 
danger  of  destruction  by  fire   is  excessive. 

II.  Trees  of  a  condition  now  considered  "weeds"  may  gradually 
attain  a   stumpage  value    (as  Chestnut  at  Biltmore). 

III.  Even  European  forestry  is  now  reverting  to  a  natural  propa- 
gation of  forests  owing  to  the  dangers  usually  inherent  to  artificial 
planting. 

D.  Definitions. 

The  word  reforestation  is  used  if  the  area  to  be  planted  has 
been   previously   occupied  by   tree  growth. 

The  word  afforestation  is  used  if  there  was  no  tree  growth  on 
tha  plot  for  a  number  of  years  beforehand. 

Paragraph   X.     The  Seed. 

The  quality  of  seeds  is  shown  by  their  size,  weight,  color,  scent. 
A  tree  standing  in  an  open  position,  not  too  young  and  not  too  old, 
produces  the  best  seeds. 

A.  Seed  years: 

The  atmospheric  conditions  of  the  year  or  years  during  which 
the  seed  is  formed  further  influence  the  quality  of  the  seed.  Drought 
in  summer  and  early  frosts  in  fall  cause  the  seeds  to  drop  immature. 
Black  Oaks  and  Pines  require  two  years  for  the  formation  of  seeds. 
Juniper  three  years.  It  seems  as  if  all  trees  require  a  number  of 
years  for  the  preparation  of  seeds,  inasmuch  as  the  medullary  rays 
before  a  seed  year  are  found  full  of  starch,  and  after  a  seed  year 
devoid  of  starch.  This  phenomenon  may  explain  the  periodical 
occurrence  of  seed  years  in  Bamboo  and  Canebrakes,  in  Chestnut, 
Oak,  Beech,  Pine,  etc. 

The  length  of  the  period  elapsing  between  seed  years  depends  on 
the  local  climate  and  the  position  of  the  trees,  being  short  for  trees 
standing  in  orchard-like  positions  on  warm  and  sheltered  ground 
where  abundant  heat   allows   of   the  rapid  accumulation   of   starch. 

B.  Rest: 

After  dropping  from  the  tree,  all  seeds  undergo  a  period  of  rest 
in  our  climate.  This  rest  is  very  short  in  the  case  of  Cottonwood, 
Willow,  Elm  and  Soft  Maple.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  in  Eastern 
North  America,  it  lasts  from  November  to  April.  In  rare  cases 
(German  Ash.  German  Linden,  Red  Cedar,  Hornbeam)  the  period  of 
inactivity  covers  about  seventeen  months.  Seeds  which  get  too  dry 
42 


SYLVICULTURE. 

while  stored,  often  show  a  prolonged  period  of  rest.  For  White  Oak 
seed  the  period  of  rest  is  only  two  months;  for  Red  Oak  five  months. 
The  assumption  that  frost  is  required  during  the  resting  period  for 
the  benefit  of  the  seed  is  erroneous.  The  germinating  percentage  is 
greatest  immediately  at  the  conclusion  of  the  period  of  rest. 

0.  Tests: 

Germinating  tests  are  made  with  from  50  to  200  grains. 

1.  Water  test  applicable  to  large  seeds.  Thrown  in  water  the 
good  seeds  will  sink,  and  the  bad  seeds  will  float. 

II.  Cutting  tests,   made   with  a    knife,   used   for   testing   acorns, 
chestnuts,    nuts    of    Xutpines,    also    seeds    of    Ash,    Yellow    Popla 
Beech,  etc. 

III.  Hot-pan  tests  for  conifers,  which  causes  good  seeds  to  jump 
and  burst,  poor  seeds  to  burn  and  char. 

IV.  Pot  tests  made  in  the  following  manner:  Fill  the  lower  half 
of  a  flower  pot  with  sawdust,  the  upper  half  with  sand  in  which  the 
seeds  are  embedded.  Place  the  pot  in  a  basin  partially  filled  with 
Winter,  in  a  warm  room. 

V.  Ilannel  test:  Place  the  seeds  between  two  strips  of  flannel 
kept  moist  by  running  their  ends  into  a  bowl  of  water  standing  at 
a  lower  level. 

VI.  Test  in  the  commercial-test  apparatus,  which  consists  of 
bottom  plate  (glass  or  china),  a  bell-shaped  top  (same  material)  and 
a  clay  disk  containing  100  small  groove,  which  tits  into  the  bottom 
plate.  All  three  parts  are  open  in  the  center.  The  clay  disk  is 
burned  in  such  a  way  as  to  retain  good  hygroscopic  qualities,  and  is 
boiled  for  a  number  of  hours  (in  water)  before  using,  to  kill 
adherent  spores  of  fungi.  Moist  sand  is  kept  hot  ween  the  disk  and 
the   bottom    plate.      The    grains    are    inserted    into    the    grooves 

Paragraph  XI.     Preparations  for  planting  seed  on  open  ground. 

The  germinating  bed  must  offer  the  seed  a  proper,  constant  and 
equal  supply  of  heat,  oxygen  and  moisture.  The  actual  amount  of 
heat,  oxygen  and  moisture  required  has  not  been  ascertained  scien- 
tifically. Observation  in  the  woods  is  the  best  teacher  of  the  condi- 
tions securing  the  largest  possible  germinating  percentage  for  any 
given  species. 

The  preparation  for  seed-planting  may  extend  over  the  entire 
area  to  be  planted;  or  only  over  certain  strips  which  may  be  inter- 
rupted or  continuous:  or  it  may  merely  involve  the  grubbing  of  plots 
or  spots.  Where  the  ravages  of  game  or  mice  are  feared,  irregular 
working  is  advisable. 

43 


s  VLV  ICll/JT  i:  E. 

A.  Removing  the  soil  covers,  such  as  briars,  Kalmia.  Chinquapin, 

mosses,  dead  leaves,  humus.  A  plow  and  grubber  (cultivator)  it  a 
barrow  can  usually  nut  he  used  for  the  purpose;  the  In"-  (a  strong 
make)  i-  largely  used  abroad;  weeds  arc  removed  with  brush  hooks 
or  scythes  or  machetes  or  are,  if  possible,  killed  by  deadening.  In 
certain  cases  an  iron  rake  might  do.  Often  it  i-  necessary  to  remove 
the  cover  by  tire:  tire,  however,  produces  a  heavy  growth  of  weeds 
on  fertile  soil  (as  in  Pisgah  forest). 

B.  Loosening  the  -oil.  Jnst  after  logging,  the  -oil  has  enough 
porosity  to  allow  of  the  development  of  a  second  growth.  On  aban- 
doned fields  or  in  prairies  thorough  working  with  the  plow,  often 
continued  for  a  number  of  years,  may  or  musl  precede  the  act  of 
planting. 

Paragraph  XII.     Securing  and  preparing  the  seeds. 

A.  European  tree  seeds  are  usually  bought  from  reliable  dealer-. 
who  rival  in  furnishing  the  best  seed  at  the  lowest  price,  guarantee- 
ing a  certain  percentage  to  germinate.  In  America,  the  forester  musl 
secure  seeds  himself,  collecting  them  by  contract,  or  preferably,  by 
day  work.  Some  European  sylviculturists  in-i-t  that  seeds  should 
be  taken  only  from  the  best  and  strongest  trees.  Mayr  considers 
special    care    superfluous. 

B.  Under  "coning'  is  understood  the  method  of  obtaining  seeds 
of  coniferous  species  from  their  cones.  Coning  of  Spruce.  Pine,  Fir 
and  Larch  on  a  commercial  scale  is  practiced  in  Europe  by  Henry 
Keller.  Appel  &  <  o.  and  A.  Lecoq,  all  of  Darmstadt.  Germany. 

Certain  Pine  species  (Nutpines)  have  wingless  seeds.  The  wings 
of    other   Pine    seeds   hold    the   grain   in    a    claw. 

The  seed  of  Spruce  lies  in  the  wing  as  in  a  spoon;  the  seed  of 
Larch  and  Fir  is  attached  to  the  wing  and  is  not  easily  separated. 

Among  the  broad-leaf  cone  bearers —Alders.  Birches  and  Magno- 
lias— the  coning  of  Magnolias  only  offers  some  difficulties. 

I.  The  methods  of  coning  are  a-    follows: 

a.  Coning  by  insolation,  the  oldest  and  safest  method.  Tray-, 
the  bottoms  of  which  contain  open  lath  work  or  wire  netting,  are 
placed  in  the  sun  and  removed  to  a  shed  if  rain  threaten-  to  fall. 
'I  he  cones  are  -pread  on  the  trays  in  layers  not  over  two  cones  deep 
and  are  stirred  with  a  rake.     In  place  of  trays,  drum-  mighl    lie  used 

to  g 1   advantage.     In   a   cold  climate   the    sun   process   allow-    ,,f 

obtaining  the  seeds  only  at  a  time  too  late   for  - 1   planting.     The 

germinating  percentage  of  seeds  obtained  by  the  sun  process  i-. 
otherwise,  superior  to  that  of  seeds  coned  by  other  methods. 

b.  Coning  by  stove  heat. 

44 


S  Y  L  V  I C  U  L  T  U  R  E. 

It  is  essential  that  the  heat  in  the  coning  room  should  not  reach 
110  degrees.  Thorough  ventilation  is  required  to  prevent  sweating 
and  moulding  of  cones.  The  cones  are  spread  in  the  coning- room  in 
thin  layers  on  shelves  or  screens,  through  the  interstices  of  which  the 
seeds  drop.     The  cones  are  stirred  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

It  is  unwise  to  have  the  stove  in  the  coning-room.  An  American 
hot-air  furnace  in  the  basement  is  well  adapted  to  furnish  the  heat. 

Many  of  the  large  European  forestry  administrations  have  such 
or   similar    establishments    for   coning. 

c.  Commercial    method. 

In  the  commercial  establishments,  heat  i-  supplied  l>v  steam 
pipes,  controlled  by  automatic  devices.  The  trays  or  drums  arc  kept 
in  a  constant  rocking  motion  by  machinery.  The  seeds,  after  falling 
through  the  crevices  of  the  trays,  arc  at  once  conducted  to  a  cool 
room. 

II.  Separating  seeds   from  their  wings. 

In  the  case  of  Pine  and  Spruce  seeds.  Hailing  is  sufficient.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  wet  the  seeds  before  flailing.  For  Larch,  rubber 
millstones  are  used,  the  distance  between  the  stones  being  equal 
to  the   smallesl    diameter   of   the   seed. 

III.  Cleaning  the  seed  from  dust,  needle-  and  wings.  The  seeds 
are  freed  from  admixtures  by  tanning,  shoveling,  centrifuge  or  any 
grain-cleaning  machine.  The  large  commercial  establishments  drop 
the  seeds  on  endless  rolls  of  cloth,  which  are  moving  on  an  incline. 
The  heavy  seeds  slide  down,  whilst  dust  and  wings  are  carried  uphill. 

IV.  Statistical  note-. 

a.   Spruce    in    the    Adirondack-    latter    Clifford    lb    Pettis). 

1.  Cost  of   picking  cones   50c    per   bushel    (green). 

2.  One  bushel  of  green  cones  yields  two  bushels  of  dry  ci  nes, 
containing  1%  lbs.  equal  to  1  \  •■  qts.  of  Spruce  seeds. 

3.  One  bushel  of  cones  weigh-  60  lbs.,  one  bushel  of  seeds  40  lbs. 

4.  One  pound  of   seed   contains    150,000  grains. 

5.  Tt    costs    95c    to    collect,    cone    and    clean    one    pound    of    seeds. 
1>.  White  Tine  at   Biltmore. 

1.  100  bushels  of  cones  will  weigh  2.21)0  lbs.  (a  "long  ton"). 

2.  One  bushel  contains  000  to  700  cone-,  and  yield-,  on  an 
average,   yz   lb.   of  absolutely   clean,   wingless   seeds. 

3.  One  pound  of   such   seed  contains   2.1.000  to   30,000  grains. 

c.  Yellow  Pine  ( ponder osa)  in  Xew  Mexico  (after  Win.  H.  Mast). 

1.  One  bushel  of  cones  yields  1.55  lbs.  of  clean  seed. 

2.  The  expense  of  collecting,  coning  and  cleaning  averages  23c 
per   pound. 

45 


SYLVICULTURE. 

(I.  Colorado  Blue  Spruce  in  New  Mexico  (after  Win.  II.  Mast). 

1.  One  bushel  of  cones  yields  1.2  lbs.  of  clean  seeds. 

2.  The  expense  of  coning,  collecting  and  cleaning  averages  23c 
per   pound. 

c  Short  leaf  Pine  at  Biltmore   (Pinus  echinata). 
One  bushel  of  cones  yields  one  pound  of  clean,    wingless   seeds 
at   an   expense  of  $1.00  per  pound. 

C.  Seeds  stored  beyond  the  duration  of  their  natural  period  of 
resl  snow  a  reduced  percentage  of  germination.  The  percentage 
might  be  increased  by  the  use  of  slightly  acid  solutions,  lime  water 
or  hoc  water.  Coniferous  seeds  are  often  placed  in  cold  water  for 
from  three  to  seven  days  previous  to  planting;  seeds  thus  treated, 
however,  must  be  supplied  with  moisture  artificially  after  planting 
if  drought  sets  in. 

D.  ihe  ''malting"  of  seeds  (placing  the  seeds  in  heaps,  moisten- 
ing them  and  stirring  them  in  a  warm  room)  is  a  rather  dangerous 
procedure.  After  Weise, -Douglas  Fir  and  White  Pine  seeds  should 
be  mixed  with  moist  and  fertile  soil  and  stable  manure,  to  be 
then  exposed  to  a  hot-house  temperature  until  the  germs  begin  to 
show.  S.  B.  Green  recommends  to  pour  boiling  water  on  the  seeds 
of  Locust.  Honey-Locust  and  Coffee-tree,  and  to  allow  the  seeds 
to  remain  in  the  water  until  it  is  cold,  planting  immediately  there- 
after. 

Paragraph  XIII.    Actual  planting  of  seeds  on  open  ground. 

Seeds  should  not  be  planted  on  rainy  days,  especially  not  <>n 
clay  soil.  For  broadcast  planting,  the  area  to  be  planted  and  the 
seed  are  divided  into  equal  lots.  The  quantity  of  seed  allotted  to 
the  unit  of  space  is  subdivided  into  halves.  Each  half  is  -own 
separately   by   Lining  over  the  ground  crosswise. 

Broadcast   planting  is   rare   nowadays. 

Rough  nursery  beds,  (either  running  full  length  of  the  area  or 
interrupted  beds),  furrows  or  banks  are  frequently  provided.  Nar- 
row trenches  may  be  pressed  into  the  beds  or  banks  with  the  help 
of  a   board,  a  hoe  handle  or  a  wheel. 

The  seed  is  usually  sown  by  hand,  possibly  with  the  help  of 
a  I r  bottle,  a  so-called  seed  horn  and.  rarely,  with  a  seed- 
planting  machine.  The  machine  should  only  be  used  on  ground 
as  well  prepared  as  a  wheat  field  (prairies  or  abandoned  fields). 
On  land  newly  cleared,  roots  and  stumps  prevent  the  use  of  a 
machine. 


4G 


S  1  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  R  E. 

"  Covering "  purports  to  place  or  rather  press  the  seeds  into 
contact  with  the  mineral  soil  on  all  sides;  to  prevent  sudden 
changes  of  air  temperature  from  striking  the  seed;  to  prevent  the 
seeds  from  drying  out  under  excessive  exposure  to  the  air.  The 
cover  must  be  such  as  to  allow  a  young  germ  to  push  its  cotyle- 
dons easily  through  the  cover.  The  seeds  keeping  their  cotyledons 
below  ground   (Oaks,  Sassafras,  Chestnut)    allow  of  a  heavy  cover. 

In  the  case  of  coniferous  seeds,  a  proper  cover  is  secured  with 
the  rake  or  with  a  brush  drag;  or  by  marching  the  planters,  a 
band  of  sheep  or  a  herd  of  cattle  over  the  plantation.  Heavy  seeds 
are  often  strewn  on  the  ground  without  any  preparation  and  then 
covered  with  a  shovelful  of  dirt.  In  America  seed-planting  in  the 
open  is  an  unadvisable  measure  as  long  as  the  prices  of  seeds 
maintain  their  present  figure. 

"Planting  of  cones"  was  the  leading  method  used  a  hundred 
year--  ago  by  European  foresters.  The  cones  were  strewn  on  the 
ground  and  stirred  periodically   by  sheep,   with  good  results. 

Seeds  more  than  one-quarter  inch  thick,  especially  nuts,  are 
usually  dibbled  with  dibbling  hammer,  wedge,  knife,  hoe,  spade,  etc. 
The  hole  made  should  place  the  seed  at  the  best  depth.  The  hole 
is  closed  by  side  pressure,  by  the  foot  or  the  hammer,  or  by  allow- 
ing a  lifted  sod  to  drop  back  in  place.  The  common  planting  spade 
often  puts  the  seeds  too  deep. 

A.  The  quantity  of  seeds  used  per  acre  depends  on: 
Price    of   seed. 

Density   of   stand  desired. 

Tenderness,   sensitiveness   and   rate   of   growth    of   species. 

Local  damage  from'  late  frost,  drought,  weeds,  insects,  mice, 
squirrel-,    rabbits,   game,    birds,   etc. 

Quality   of  both   soil    and    seeds. 

Fineness    of   prepared   soil. 

Method  of  planting  by  hand  or  machine,  regular  or  irregular, 
broadcast  or  in  patchwork.  Planting  seeds  in  bands  or  strips 
only  requires  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  broadcast  amount: 
planting  in  patches  one-half,  in  holes  one-fourth  of  the  same. 

B.  Figures  adopted  at  Biltmore  for  broadcast  planting  arc.  per 
acre: 

White    Oak   and   Chestnut   Oak.    12   bu. 
Red  oak  and  Black  Oak.  8  bu. 
Ash.  40  lbs. 
Beech.  130  lbs. 
Maple.  40  lbs. 

47 


s  V  L VI CULT  l ■  l;  I  . 

Elm,  :>4  lbs. 

Birch,  32  lbs. 

Kirs.  4.'.    Lbs. 

Spruce,    Hi   lbs. 

Larch,    in  lbs. 

Ycilnw    Pine,  8   His. 

White  Pine,  12  lbs. 

('.  Small  seeds:  Number  of  seeds  in  one  pound  (approximately, 
all  eoniferous  seeds  withoul    wings): 

Ash    '. . . .        6,200 

Elm  ~ 55,000 

Silver   Fir   9,000 

Tamarack    Td.iioii 

White   Pine    30,000 

Maple    5,000 

Birch     80,000 

Spruce    56,000 

Yellow  Pine    70,000 

D.  Large  seeds:  Number  (if  seeds  in  one  bushel  are:  White 
Oak.  8,000;    Red  Oak.   3,00(1:    Walnuts.  800. 

Paragraph  XIV.     Season  for  seed  planting  on  open  ground. 

For  Cottonwoods,  Elms  (excepting  Red  or  Slippery  Elm).  Soft 
Maple.  Black,  Birch  and  Mulberry,  the  besl  time  id'  planting  i- 
nature's  time, — immediately  after  the  fall  of  the  seeds — in  early 
summer.  In  the  ease  of  the  species  enumerated,  the  period  of  rest 
is  very  short  and  the  seedlings  starting  rapidly  have  time  to  lig- 
nil'y  before  winter.  In  all  other  cases  the  forester  can  plant  either 
in  fall  or  in  spring.  Planting  in  winter  is  usually  prevented  by 
the  condition  of  the  soil. 

A.  Planting   in   fall   invites: 

I.  Inroads   of   animals   in    winter. 

II.  Washing  of  seed   when   snow  melts. 

III.  Damage  from  late  frost,  since  planted  seed-  sprout  early 
in    spring. 

P>.  Spring   planting  necessitates: 

I.  Expense  for  seed  storage  over  winter. 

IT.  Cheeks  during  storage,  injurious  to  germinating   percentage. 

III.  Higher  expense  for  planting,  planting  taking  place  at  a 
time  when   labor  is  scarce. 

Spring  planting  forms  the  rule,  except  with  fir.  Beech,  Chest- 
nut, White  Oak. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

In  semi-tropical  regions  or  places  of  periodical  drought,  the  best 
planting  time  is  the  fortnight  preceding  the  rainy  period.  On  dry 
soil  seeds  are  planted  as  early  in  spring  as  possible  so  as  to  profit 
from    the   moisture   left   l>y   melting   snow. 

Seeds  which  naturally  germinate  18  months  after  maturity 
(Red  Cedar,  Hornbeam,  some  Ashes,  some  Basswoods)  require  strati- 
fication: Place  seeds,  in  dry  soil,  in  a  ditch  ten  inches  deep  and  ten 
inches  wide,  to  a  depth  of  five  inches.  Cover  seeds  with  straw  and 
dry  weeds,  and  finally  with  dirt.  After  the  lapse  of  a  year  the 
seeds    arc    ready    for  planting. 

Paragraph  XV.     Auxiliaries  to   seed  planting. 

A.  .Means   to  protecl    species   needing  shade  in  earliest   youth. 

I.  Plant  seeds  with  oats,  barley  or  summer  rye.  planting  the 
grain  seed  in  quantities  nol  to  t'\rfr<\  7-V ;  ,,f  the  normal.  Cut 
grain  crops  high.  This  method  «^  used  regularly  loo  year-  ago, 
for  European  Tine  and  White  Oak,  possibly  with  a  view  to  early 
returns,    possibly    re   distract    ravages    of    held    mice   and    birds. 

II.  Certain  species,  tender  and  shade  demanding  in  early  youth 
like  Beech  and  Fir,  cannot  well  he  raised  in  the  open,  unless  an 
usher  growth  12  to  15  years  older  (of  Yellow  Pine,  Sassafras,  Black 
Locust,  Birch)  i-  previously  started  on  the  ground.  The  usher 
growth  i-  graduallj  removed  when  the  seedlings  underneath  want 
"skylight."  In  semi-arid  parts  such  usher  growth  is  perhaps 
doubly  advisable;  further  in  prairies,  where  Poplars  and  Willows. 
Box    Elders  and   Soft    Maple   might    serve  as   ushers    (also   Locust). 

P..  Means  to  protect  the  seed  plantation  from  animals  and 
weeds. 

I.  Against  seed-eating  animals.  Planting  in  late  spring  offers 
some  protection.  Planting  in  sprouting  condition  protects  heavj 
seeds  from  rodents;  3light  coating  of  red  lead  protects  conifers 
from  birds.  A  watchman  might  he  kept  on  large  plantations,  to 
scare    the    birds    away.      By    coating    large    seeds    with    tar,   crows 

might    he    kept    away. 

II.  Light  cover  of  weeds  i-  no  disadvantage.  Where  weed-  arc 
heavy,  seedlings  should  he  planted,  rather  than  seeds.  Mowing  (with 
scythe)  weeds  and  ferns,  crushing  briars-  preferably  before  weeds 
are  seeding — is  recommended.  Where  seeds  are  planted  in  rows 
or   furrows   on  abandoned  field-,   cultivation  check-   weed-. 

ITT.  Pasture  is  not  allowed  in  seed  plantations  before  the  thicket 
stage   is  past. 

C.  Reinforcing.     Bare  -pot-  where  seed   planting  has   failed  are 


tila^-vic^i     Je*^  <~t^-^-*w     ^^f 


-  5   LVICULTURE. 

usually  reinforced  by  planted  seedlings.  The  latter  are  taken  from 
adjoining  dense  Bpots.  In  broad-leaved  species.,  the  blanks  where 
planting  has  failed,  had  better  be  marked  during  the  preceding 
summer. 


Paragraph  XVI.     Planting  seeds  of  the  broad-leaved  species. 

A.  Acorns. 

The  germinating  acorn  leaves  the  cotyledons  below  ground. 
If  the  first  shoot  is  killed  another  forms  at  once.  A  shelter  (or 
usher)  growth  to  husband  a  plantation  during  its  first  years  is 
hardly  needed.  Still  plantations  of  Yellow  Pine  made  to  protect 
the  Oaks  planted  between  the  Pines  are  often  found  abroad.  Its 
long  tap  root  prevents  the  Oak  from  being  lifted  by   frost. 

The  soil  cover  given  varies  between  one  and  three  inches, 
according  to  the  looseness  and  porosity  of  the  soil.  In  case  of 
spring  sowing,  germination  requires   from  five  to  six  weeks. 

At  Biltmore,  White  Oak  and  Chestnut  Oak  acorns  planted  in  fall 
are  often  found  sprouting  before  Christmas.  The  germ  in  such 
cases,  however,  does  not  appear  above  the  ground.  Red  Oak  and 
Black  Oak  seem  to  sprout  only  in  spring.  Acorns  may  be  sown 
broadcast,  especially  on  abandoned  fields.  Formerly  acorns  wTere 
planted  often  with  oats  and  barley  or  summer  rye.  The  cover 
is    given    with    a    harrow    in    case    of    broadcast    planting. 

More  often  acorns  are  planted  in  furrows  from  two  to  seven 
feet  apart.  It  is  better  to  plant  acorns  closely  within  furrows 
far  apart,  than  sparingly  in  furrows  near  together.  The  cover  is 
given   either  by  a   second  furrow   or  by  hoe   or   rake. 

Cultivation  between  rows  (during  summer)  is  not  practiced 
aoroad.  On  abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore  it  seems  required  for  the 
pin  pose  of  checking  mice,  squirrels  and  rabbits. 

Where  acorns  are  planted  for  mixture  merely  with  Beech,  Pine 
and  Chestnut,  the  planting  in  irregular  patches  or  else  "  oversoiling " 
are  often  used.  In  the  latter  case  a  handful  of  acorns  is  roughly 
covered  by   a   shovelful   of  dirt. 

The  usual   method  adopted   abroad    for   raising  Oak   is  dibbling. 

The  answer  to  the  question  whether  spring  or  fall  planting  is 
better,  depends  on  the  number  of  enemies  preying  on  the  acorns  in 
winter.  Since  the  Black  Oaks  are  not  much  molested,  it  might  be 
as  well  to  plant  them  in  fall.  Black  Oaks  suffer  little  in  germinat- 
ing percentage  during  winter  storage.  White  Oak  acorns,  however, 
are   much   eaten   by  mice,   squirrels,   turkeys,   hogs,   etc.,  and    would 

50 


S  Y  L  V  I  OU  L  X  U  R  E. 

be  planted  in  spring  it  winter  storage  did  not  invite  a  large  loss 
of  germinating  percentage.  For  wintering  White  Oak  acorns,  it 
i-  best  to  place  them  (imitating  nature)  in  slight  layers  under  a 
cover  of  humus  on  fairly  dry  soil.  After  Charles  Heyer:  Large 
baskets  are  roughly  made  on  dry  soil,  the  bottom  and  walls  lined 
with  moss:  within  are  placed  alternate  layers  of  moss  or  sand 
and  acorns.     The  basket   is  roofed  with  straw. 

After  Von  Alemann:  Ditches  S  feet  wide  by  10  inches  deep  are 
made  on  dry  soil.  The  acorns  must  not  be  too  wet  when  put  into 
the  ditch.  The  cover  consists  of  a  layer  of  vegetable  matter.  A_ 
rough  hut  is  made  all  over  the  ditch,  out  of  -labs.  bark,  twigs, 
etc.  The  acorns  are  stirred  up  twice  a  week  during  winter. 
Beyer's  method  also  requires  a  steep-walled  ditch  around  the  place 
(  f  storage  to  keep  mice  out.  Possibly  it  might  he  wise  to  keep 
sacked  acorn-   submerged   in  running  water. 

B.  Chestnuts. 

Chestnuts  require  more  fertile  and  hence  better-prepared  soil 
than  acorns.  The  nut  lias  still  more  enemies  than  the  White  Oak 
acorn.  Its  germinating  power  is  much  reduced  by  dry  storage  over 
winter.  The  devices  for  storing  acorns  might  he  used  as  well  for 
chestnuts.  Possibly  storage  in  the  husk  is  preferable.  At  Bilt- 
more  planting  of  Chestnut  on  abandoned  fields  is  very  unsuccessful, 
owing  to  enemies  and  poorness  of  soil.  But  abandoned  fields  in 
Pisgah  Forest  often  show  fair  growth  of  chestnut — on  better  soil, 
especially  on  moister  soil.  Xo  experience  is  at  hand  relative  to  nut- 
plantations  on  good  land  newly  cut  over.  Chestnuts  dibbled  in  at 
Biltmore  to  form  a  lower  story  beneath  Yellow  Pine  are  always 
eaten  by  squirrels. 

C.  Walnuts. 

Walnuts,  both  Black  and  White,  can  be  held  over  winter  like 
potatoes,  without  loss.  Yet  fall  planting  is  better  where  squirrels 
do  not   endanger  the   nuts. 

Walnut  has  done  well  planted  in  furrows  on  abandoned  fields 
at  Biltmore  where  soil  was  good,  without  cultivation:  on  poor 
soil  the  weeds  are  choking  it  to  death.  The  dibbling  of  walnut 
into  woods  just  cut  over  has  been  badly  handicapped  in  Bilt- 
more and  Pisgah  Forest  by  Bquirrels.  Otherwise  dibbling  is  the 
best  method  in  the  woods.  Possibly  the  attacks  ,,f  squirrels  might 
he  prevented  by  late-spring  dibbling  of  nuts  in  sprouting  condition. 

D.  Birch. 

Bircn    seeds   are    very    small,    two-winged.      European    price    for 
Betula    lenta.    lutea    and    nigro,    $2.50    per    lb.:    Betula    papyrifera, 
51 


^ 


S  Y  I.  VIC  r  LT  I    i;  E. 

62c  per  II'.:  for  European  White  Birch  (Betula  alba),  8c  per  lb. 
Germinating  percentage  i-  bad,  especially  it  seeds  me  uo1  kepi  in 
loose  storage.  The  -oil  requires  little  preparation  for  seed  plant- 
ing. A  large  layer  of  humus  must  lie  removed.  Seed  can  be 
planted  any  time  from  tall  to  spring.  The  old  foresters  used  t<> 
plant  the  seed  on  the  snow,  -so  as  to  have  the  seeds  washed  into 
the   soil    by   melting   snow. 

The  southern  Birches,  being  solitary,  tnighl  he  planted  in 
irregular  patches  or  trenches,  or  in  places  where  the  mineral  -oil 
is  exposed  by  the  tali  of  trees  whirled  out  of  the  ground  with 
stump-  and  roots.  European  Birch  is  very  modest,  thriving  well 
on   dry   soil. 

The  seedlings  are  very  hardy.  They  Buffer,  however,  from 
grass  or  leaves  blown  over  them  and  depriving  them  of  air 
and   sunlight.     Betula   lenta,  at  Biltmore,   i-  apt    to   ••damp  off/' 

E.  Beech. 

Xut.;  appear  every  three  to  seven  years  in  the  wood-.  The 
nut-  ripening  in  October  had  heller  he  planted  at  once  after 
ripening,  though  much  endangered  in  winter  \<\  mice.  Storage  over. 
winter,  possible  as  in  White' Oak  acorn-,  requires  -till  more  care. 
If  spring  planting  is  resorted  to.  nuts  germinate  within  live  or  six 
weeks.  Beech  seedlings  must  have  a  shelter  growth,  arid  cannol 
survive  in  the  open  (excepting  moist  mountain  slopes).  The  prepara- 
tion of  soil  is  made  with  hoe  or  spade  roughly,  to  a  depth  of  three 
inches.  Abroad,  Beech  is  often  used  for  an  undergrowth  in  pole 
woods  of  Pine,  Oak,  Tamarack.  Ash.  etc..  with  a  view  to  im- 
proving the  humus  and.  indirectly,  the  holes  of  the  tie.-  forming 
the    upper   story.     "  Beech  .is   the   mother  of    the   -oil."    because    it 

furnishes    tie'    besl    humus.      B :h    i-   exacting;    it    requires    strong 

and  moist  -oil.  Pure  forests  of  Beech  are  found  at  Biltmore  at 
6.000  feet  elevation;  and  extensively  in  Swain  country  at  1,000- 
4,500  feet,  with  Poplar-  a-  standards  in  an  upper  story.  The  price 
of  German  Beechnuts  is  two  pounds  for  five  cent-. 

P.    Alders. 

The  western  Alder.  Alnus  Oregqna,  ami  the  European  Aldei 
are  valueahle.  while  the  eastern  Alder  is  only  a  shrub  lining  the 
creek-.  European  Alder  i-  invaluable  as  a  swamp  tree  and  for 
plantations  on  very  binding  soil  (clay  pits).  The  seed  of  the 
European  species  is  worth  10  cents  per  pound.  Seeds  ripen  in 
Octobei  am!  arc  liest  kept  over  winter  IV  tin-  cone-.  The  -mall 
seedling  i-  not  sensitive  t"  heaf  and  cold,  hut  suffers  under  the 
heavy  grass  usually  found  in  swamps.    Since  swamps  are  inaccessible 


. 


S  V  L  V  If  U  L  T  U  R  E. 

in  early  spring, — planting  of  seedlings  is  preferable  to  planting  of 
seeds. 

G.  Ash.        ■  ^/ 

Seeds  are  abundant,  showing  about  70%  germination.  The 
seedling,  in  the  first  year,  develops  to  a  length  of  eight  or  ten 
inches,  from  seeds  covered  with  three-eighths  inches  of  dirt.  Little 
preparation  of  soil  is  needed.  During  the  first  two  years,  on  good 
soil,  a  heavy  shelter  overhead  is  easily  borne.  American  White  Ash 
may  be  grown  in  slightly  swampy  soil,  or  soil  subject  to  long 
inundations.  Prices  of  Ash  see*  European  Ash  4c  per  pound:  White  . 
Ash.    25c  per   pound.  * 

At  Biltmore,  White  Ash  seeds  planted  in  rows  six  feet  apart, 
on  abandoned  fields,  have  done  well  when  soil  cover  was  not  too 
heavy. 

H.  Maple. 

Hard  Maple  seeds  ripen   in  September.     Silvei 
seeds  in  June.     H    is  wise  to  plant   the  seeds  jusl 
daily  American    species.     Price   of   seeds:    Acer   r 
pound;   Silver   Maple,  $1.00   per  pound:    European   species,   4c   to  5c 
per  pound:  Sugar  .Maple.  80c  per  pound.     The  green  germ  of  Amer- 
ican   Maples    is    said    to    die    if    the    seds    are    not    at    once    planted. 
Sofi  Maples  develop  the  seedling  in  the  year  of  the  seed.     For  seeds 
lo   be   planted   in  woods,  the  soil    is   prepared   with  the   rake,  and   the 
seeds  covered  with  one-half  inch  -it  -oil.     .Maple  planted  on  abandoned 
fields   on   Northern    slope-,    well    watered   and    well   drained,    is    likely 
to   be  successful.     'I  he   young   seedlings   are   sensitive,   and   a   cover 
overhead  is  advisable,   where  late   frosl    prevails.     On   rocky   soil  in 
Northern  cove-.  Maple  seed   is  often   strewn  on   the  rocks,  the  rain 

being    expected     to    wash     1  he    seeds     into    1  he    crevice-.       At     Kill  more. 

Hard  Maple  is  found  only  al  elevations  exceeding  3,500  feet.  Sugar 
Maple  is  more  exacting  i  in  -oil)  than  Soft  Maple.  It  doe-  ii"t 
e-row  as  well  in  swampy  -<>il  a-  Soft  or  Red  Maple.  Acer  negundo 
(Ash  Leaf  Maple)  doe-  very  well  in  'the  northern  prairie-.  Seeds 
ripen  in  fall. 

1.   Kims. 

Seed-  Hat.  roundish,  winged,  the  wing  surrounding  the  seeds. 
Seeds,  ripening  in  June,  must  be  planted  at  once,  since  they  cannot 
be  kept.in  dry  storage  (except  slippery  Elm  pubescens).  Germinat- 
ing percentage  is  always  small.  Elms  require  such  good  -oil  that 
they  can  be  raised  only  on  strong,  northern,  moist  soil  of  agri- 
cultural value.     Never  planted  broadcast;  in  suitable  localities,  seed 


SYLVICULTURE. 

mighl  be  planted  in  patches  on  soil  roughly  prepared  with  rake. 
\"ii  \     little   cover   must   be   given. 

Seeds  cost:  Uhnus  americana  22c  per  pound.     Ulmus  campestria 

(ic  per  pound. 

J.  Buckeye. 

The  Asiatic  species  is  valuable  in  deer  parks,  its  fruit  being 
eaten  by  deer  and  boar.  The  American  species  are  poisonous  (flava 
and  glabra).  Seeds  ripen  in  October,  winter  well,  but  can  as  well 
be  planted  in  fall.  After  Weise,  the  seeds  should  be  planted  with 
the  navel  down.  First  class  soil  (Ohio)  is  required,  or  at  Biltmore 
strong  North  coves  at  higher  altitudes,  where  Buckeye  is  some: 
times  found  in  small  groves.  Planted  in  furrows  od  abandoned 
fields  (Biltmore),  Buckeye  has  shown  rapid  progress  during  the 
first  year,  but  has  since  made  small  shoots  only.  Seeds  of  the 
Asiatic   species   cost   2y4c  per  pound. 

K.  Black  Locust, 
1  The  seeds  ripen  in  fall  and  are  easily  kept  over  winter  un- 
injured by  mice,  birds  or  insects.  To  prevent  seeds  from  lying 
over,  S.  B.  Green  advises  to  pour  boiling  water  over  them  just 
before  planting,  a  treatment  causing  many  seeds  to  sproul  at  once. 
The  fleshy,  oval  cotyledons  and  the  primordial  leaves  are  not 
pinnate.  The  tree  is  an  exception  to  the  rule  of  optimum  depth 
of  covering  (the  depth  of  long  diameter  of  seed)  since  it  dues 
best  wiien  covered  2  to  3  inches  deep.  The  seedlings  are  sensitive 
to  late  frosts.  The  planting  had  better  be  delayed  until  the  danger 
of  frost  is  past.    The  price  of  seeds,  5-10c  per  pound,  renders  Locust 

seeds  the  cheapest   - I  obtainable  since  the  germinating  percentage 

is  high.  The  seedlings  grow  until  late  fall,  when  they  reach  nearly 
two  feet  in  height.  At  Biltmore,  Black  Locust  is  planted  into  Oak 
coppice  on  raked  patches,  with  the  rake,  and  on  abandoned  fields 
in  furrows  5  to  6  feet  apart.  Five  pounds  per  acre  is  enough.  Plan- 
tations suffer  from  ground  mice  and.  later  on,  from  a  moth.  Locusl 
thrives  on  exhausted  agricultural  soil  and  is  used  in  Europe 
exclusively  to  reforest  the  Hungarian  prairies;  further  along  rail- 
road cuts.  Forest-grown  Locust  is  much  superior  to  field-grown 
Locust. 

L.  Hickories. 

The  nuts  of  the  thin-shelled  species  (ovata  and  minimal  can- 
not  be   held    over   winter   and   need    fall    planting.      S 1    plantations 

suffer    from   mice    and    squirrels,   and   especially    from    voles,    which 

bite    off    the    seedlings    below    ground,    row    after    row.      Bitternui 

seems  exempt   from  such  attacks.     The  seedling,  in   the   lir-i    years, 

54 


SYLYI#ULTL  RE. 


spends  all  its  energy  in  developing  a  large  tap  root.  The  planta- 
tions at  Biltmore  made  in  furrows  on  abandoned  fields  might  have 
been  better,  had  they  been  cultivated  continuously  to  check  the 
mice  and  voles.  Hickoria  ovata,  13c  per  pound;  Bitternut,  Pignut 
or  Mockernut,  loc  per  pound.  Hickory  needs  fertile,  fresh 
the  "Hickory  flats"  in  virgin  forest  are  convertible  into  superior 
farm    land.  *■"' 

M.  Linden  or  Basswood. 

Seeds  falling  in  early  fall  are  always  poor.  The  ripe  seed  (in 
bunches,  attached  to  wingbracts)  falls  in  late  fall  or  winter.  Linden 
is  very  exacting  and  pure  woods  are  very  rare.  Planted  in  the 
forest,  it  serves  only  as  an  admixture.  Seeds  are  planted  in  sprin 
on  soil  roughly  prepared  with  rake  or  hoe.  The  cotyledon 
typically  five-pronged,  hand  shaped.  The  young  plant  is  so  seii 
sitive  that  cover  overhead  is  strongly  advisable 

X.  Cucumber  tree. 

Seeds  ripening  in  cones  late  in  fall  are  removed  with  great 
trouble  by  hand.  Many  seeds  lie  over.  The  seeding  develops  on 
good  soil  a  very  long  and  strong  shaft.  For  forest  planting. 
Cucumber  is  used  only  in  patches,  mixed  with  Chestnut  and  Yellow- 
Poplar.  / 
"^^BTTellow  Poplar  or  Tulip  Tree. 

Seeds    appear    annually:     of    wry    low    germinating    percentage 
Nature    plants    the    seed    between    October    and    May.    slowly    dis- 


membering the  cone.  Seeds  may  he  planted  in  spring  after  loose 
storage.  The  cones  are  apt  to  heat  and  mould,  if  tightly  packed. 
The  cotyledons  (size  of  a  nickel)  do  not  show  the  typical  lack 
of  the  tip  of  the  leaf  blade.  They  drop  oil'  (in  strong  seedlings) 
before  July  15th.  Seedlings  do  not  sutler  from  mice.  Heavy  rains, 
however,  are  apt  to  wash  them  out  of  the  ground.  The  young 
seedling  stands  a  good  deal  of  shade.  If  deprived  of  ligbl  entirely, 
it  is  certain  to  be  killed  by  the  first  frost.  Seeds  cost  15c  per 
pound.  Large  quantities  are  required  for  planting,  say  50  pounds 
per  acre.  -Elajitations  at  Bilinear  pare  Miter  t'ailuu1.  - pr 
rvuri^rr  jfrjout  feUfgd.  The  seedling  grows  very  fast  when  young;  at 
the  age  of  two  years  the  seedling  is  three  feet  high,  on  good  soil. 
Where  planted  in  the  woods  it  i-  necessary  to  check  the  weed- 
especially  on  north   slopes. 

P.  Sassafras. 

It  might  lie  planted  on  poor  abandoned  fields  as  usher  growth. 
At  Biltmore,  seeds  gathered  in  late  summer  have  failed  to  sprout. 
whether   planted    in    fall'  or    spring.      The    fleshy    cotyledon    i-    kept 


S  V  L  VI CULTURE. 

below  ground  at  a  depth  of  say  one  and  one-half  inches.  Possibly, 
the  seed  must  pass  through  a  bird  before  ii  can  sprout,  or  the  flesh 
be   peeled   off   by    hand   or  by   malting. 

Q.   I '.lack   Cherry. 

Primeval  trees  arc  found  only  on  fairly  rich  soil.  The  Cherry, 
however,  can  be  easily  raised  on  abandoned  fields  not  bettei  than 
those  at  Biltmore.  During  early  youth,  until  pole  stage,  mice  and 
rabbits  peel  the  bark  badly.  The  end  of  the  annual  shoot  is  almosl 
always  killed  in  winter.  The  small  wm&^mul^  ripening  in  early 
autumn  are  eagerly  eaten  by  biters'.  The  seeds,  after  passing 
through  the  bird,  arc  scattered  all  over  the  woods.  The  seeds  are 
isily  kept  in  winter,  but  lie  over  if  kepi  in  a  dry  condition.  A 
hot- water  bath  before  planting  might  cause  the  seeds  to  germinate 
simultaneously.  In  woods.  Cherry  should  be  planted  under  one- 
half  inch  dirt  cover,  irregularly,  with  full  enjoyment  of  light.  Seed 
"•He  per  pound.  The  seeds  might  be  planted  in  rows  on  abandoned 
tield-jnure    cheaply    than    the    seedlings. 

R.  Black   Gum. 

Xyssa  sylvatica  has  never  been  raised  on  a  large  scale,  owing 
to  the  low  value  of  its  timber.  As  an  undergrowth  or  admixture 
with  Hickory,  Ash,  Oak,  etc.,  it  might  prove,  however,  a  valuable 
tree,  owing  to  its  dense  leaf  canopy  and  owing  to  its  shade- 
bearing  qualities.  The  seeds,  cherry-like,  dark  blue  in  fall,  of 
acid  taste,  seem  to  appear  annually,  and  old  trees  are  often  sur- 
'  rounded  by  an  abundance  of  seedlings;  the  latter,  very  lighl  colored, 
are  four  inches  high  by  July,  showing  two  heavy  oval  entire  cotyle- 
dons, whilst  the  primordial  leaves  show  the  proper  form.  Seed- 
lings do  not  seem  to  suffer  from  frost,  heat  or  animals.  On 
abandoned  fields,  however.  Black  Cum  seems  to  come  up  from 
Sprouts  and   not    from   seeds.     The   seed    is  not    on    the  market. 


^**^  Paragraph  XVII.     Planting  seeds  of  the  coniferous  species. 

A.  Firs. 

W~<l£*A  Very  intensive  shade-bearers,  the   Firs  cannot.be  raised   without 

I  .  shelter   overhead.      The  young  seedling   sutlers   much    from    frost   and 

,0-+*r    heat.     Its  six  to  ten  cotyledons  show  two  white  stripes  on  the  upper 

■+"    side.      The    young    plant   is    apt    to    die    from    leaves    smothering    it. 

Its  height  growth,  to  the  seventh  year,  is  small  whilst   the  seedling 

tries  to  establish  a   root  system  and  to  cover  its  growing  space  by 

long    —  i <  1  < •    branches.       Fir    is    usually    planted    in    irregular    patches 

as    an    admixture,    moss    and    mould    being    raked    away.      The    -ceils 

l^  jajAA*   ^ji£t\      Hy^J*      *~^4(J!>^+Jb£ 


SYLVK    U  LTLEE. 

Losing  vitality  quickly  when  winter-stored  (unless  stored  in  the 
c  nes)  are  usually  planted  in  tlie  tall,  in  spite  of  impending  ravages 
of  mice  and  birds.  The  covering  is  from  one-fifth  to  one-third  ot 
an  inch.  Since  the  cones  begin  to  dissolve  in  November,  they  mus! 
be  gathered  in  early  winter.  Abies  concolor,  $3.00  per  pound:  Abies 
fraseri,  $3.50  per  pound;  Abies  amabilis,  $4.50  per  pound:  Abies 
balsamea.  $1.00  per  pound:  Abies  grandis,  $3.00  per  pound: 
Abies  magnifica,  $5.00  per  pound;  Abies  nobilis,  $2.00  per  pound; 
Abies   pectinata.   5c   per   pound. 

B.  Spruce. 
Seeds  ripen  in  the   year  of  the  flower  and  are  emitted   from  the 

cones,  becoming  pendulous,  between  November  and  April.  The 
seeds  arc  easily  wintered  either  within  or  without  the  cones;  after 
some  authors,  preferably  in  the  cones.  Seed  years  occur  at  intervals 
of  aboul  five  years.  The  germinating  percentage  i-  high.  The 
seeds  are  usually  planted  late  in  spring  after  bird  migration,  either 
broadcast  on  ground  roughly  raked,  or  more  often  on  interrupted 
beds  from' one  to  two  feel  wide,  prepared  witb  hue  and  slightly  raised 
over  the  general  ground  level.  It  i-  -aid  that  a  man  can  plant  die 
acre  of  ground  in  eight  hours,  using  the  rake.  Previous  to  planting 
it  i-  wise  t"  moisten  the  seeds  in  cold  water  for  from  three  to  five 
days,  especially  if  the  seeds  are  planted  in  late  spring.  The  cover  «^ 
should  be  one-fifth  inch.  Germination  take-  place  after  four  weeks 
with  from  six  to  eighl  cotyledons,  serial*  on  the  upper  side.  Young 
plant-  are  sensitive  tB  drougb.1  and  readily  raised  by  the  frost. 
Spruce  suffers  from  suppression  by  weeds  and  leave-.  It-  height 
growth  is  more  rapid  than  thai  of  Fir.  Prices  of  seeds:  Picea 
canadensis,  $1.10;  excelsa,  13c;  engelmanni,  $5.50;  rubens,  ^4. J.">: 
pungens,  $5.00;    sitkaensis,  $5.50   per   pound 

C.  bellow    Pine 
<  >n  dry  sandy  soil,  n   i-  wise  co  i 

find  a  moister  seed  bed.  The  young  seedings  do  not  suffer  from 
late  frosts  and  are  not  apt  to  he  lifted  by  winter  frost.  The  removal 
of  stumps  stops  the  attack-  of  -tnmp  breeding  lark  beetles  and 
snout  beetle-  (weavils).  intensive  loosening  of  the  -oil  invite-  the 
attacks  of  junebugs,  wire  worms,  etc..  and  i-  not  needed  on  sandy 
soil.  Broadcast  planting  i-  advisable  on  -oil  slightly  covered  with 
grass;  the  cover  should  just  he  scratched  with  the  harrow.  The 
-eed.  mde--  planted  with  the  rake,  i-  embedded  in  the  -oil  by 
driving  sheep,  cattle  and  hogs  over  it.  Before  planting  it  might 
he   wise    to   tire   the   ground,   notablv    so   in    the   case   of   Jack    Pine. 


•n-i-.   $5.50   per   pound.  . 

I.  it    i-   wise  to  plant    in  early   spring,  so 


l  ,0- 


S  Y  L  V 1 C '■  U  L  T  U  R  E. 

Lodgepole  Pine  and  Norway  Pine.  Yellow  Pine  is  never  planted 
in  patches,  since  it  comes  up  in  larger  groups  only,  of  even  age. 
Planted  under  shelter  it  would  not  obtain  enough  sunlight.  The 
seeds  are  often  planted  on  long  strips  two  or  three  feet  wide, 
separated  by  trenches,  the  weeds  and  dirt  removed  from  the 
trenches  being  heaped  on  the  strips.  On  the  very  driest  soil,  Jack 
and  Red  Pine  will  do  in  the  north:  in  the  south,  Long  Leaf  Pine. 
The  moisture  demands  of  Pinus  taeda  exceed  those  of  Pinus  mitis. 
Wet  ground  is  required  by  Cuban  Pine.  Pinus  ponderosa  may  grow 
on  any  soil  and  aspect,  north  and  south.  European  Pine  should 
not  be  tried  in  places  where  snowfall  is  heavy.  The  sand  dunes 
at  San  Francisco  are  planted  in  Monterey  Pine.  A  method  much 
used  abroad  some  80  years  ago  was  the  planting  of  Pine  cones 
(eight  bushels  of  cones  per  acre).  The  cones  were  moved  from  time 
to  time  by  a  brush  drag.  Another  old  method  for  raising  Pine 
consisted  in  planting  the  seeds  on  top  of  oats,  barley  or  summer  rye. 
The  cover  given  should  be  one-fifth  of  an  inch.  The  seeds  are 
mulched  for  three  to  seven  days,  before  planting,  in  cold  water.  Old 
seeds  are  apt  to  lie  over  for  a  whole  year.  Germination  occur-  In 
from  three  to  four  weeks.  The  first  leaves  stand  singly,  and  not  in 
sheathed  bunches.  The  primordial  leaves  are  strongly  serrate.  The 
germinating  percentage  is  high,  say  seventy  to  ninety  per  cent.  The 
seedlings  of  Pinus  rigida^  creep  on  the  ground  the  first  two  years  as 
if  dwarfed.  Prices:  banksiana,  $5.00;  murrayana,  $10.00;  inops  or 
virginiana,  $1.10;  jeffreyi,  $4.00;  mitis,  $10.00;  ponderosa,  $2.50;  pun- 
gens,  $4.50:  resinosa,  $9.00;  rigida,  $2.50;  European  Scotch  Pine,  50c ; 
tuberculata,  $4.50;  taeda,  $10.00;  palustris,  $4.50  per  pound.  In 
Jack  Pine,  Lodgepole  Pine  and  Table  Mountain  Pine  the  seed  is  not 
emitted  for  a  number  of  years  from  mature  cones.  At  Biltmore, 
mitis  drops  the  seed  between  November  1  and  December  15;  Palustris 
seeds  seem  to  drop  before  December  15,  since  seedlings  appear  by 
middle  of  January. 

D.  White    Pine. 

White  Pine  seeds  cannot  be  kept  as  easily  over  winter  as  Yellow 
Pine  seeds.  The  seed  matures  at  Biltmore  aboul  September  15, 
and  thn  falls  at  once.  The  European  recipe,  to  gather  the  seeds 
when  drops  of  rosin  appear  on  the  cones,  is  misleading.  After 
gathering,  the  cones  should  be  fully  matured  by  exposure  to  sunlight. 
Cones  placed  in  heavy  layers — over  six  inches— after  gathering  are 
apt  to  mould,  when  the  seeds  will  be  destroyed.  White  Pine  emits 
seeds  easily,  placed  in  light  layers  on  wire  netting,  when  heat  is 
applied,  and  when  the  cones  are  stirred  several  times  a  day.  The 
58 


Jis\A^~>   Au^6m  Jus*XlA  >-«  Z&   %**r% 

•C&ward  the  end  of  September,  are  very  small  o&n 


(J2 

SYLVICULTURE. 

i  aoms  in  which  Uie  coning  takes  place  must  be  well  ventilated. 
Seed  year-  occur  in  the  South  every  three  years — in  the  North  say 
every  -even  years.  Mulching  before  planting  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary. Germination  after  three  to  four  weeks:  seven  to  ten  cotyle- 
dons, primordial  leaves  singly.  Seedlings  sutler  still  more  from  fungi 
(honey  fungus)  than  Yellow  Pines.  Owing  to  the  high  price  of  seeds 
of  White  Pine,  the  seed  is  usually  planted  in  nurseries  only.  An  ex- 
periment at  Biltmore,  namely  planting  of  seed  without  preceding 
preparation  of  soil  in  patches  with  the  rake,  under  light  cover,  has 
proved  a  failure.  White  Pine  does  well  on  abandoned  fields  after 
fires — except  on  East  and  Southeast  slopes  where  flat-rooted  plant- 
are  apt  to  be  lifted  by  frost.  Germinating  percentage  only  from 
forty   to  fifty  per  cent.     Seeds  cost  about   $1.50  per  pound. 

K  Hemlock. 

Seeds  mature' 
easily  removable.  Seedling-  are  very  -hade  bearing  and  minute. 
Hemlock  cannot  be  grown  in  the  open.  Price  of  seed  being  high  and 
natural  regeneration  being  easy,  plantations  will  not  be  made  on  a 
large  scale.  Price  of  seeds:  canadensis,  $3.50;  heterophylla.  $8.00; 
mertensiana,  $5.50  per  pound. 

F.  Larch. 
The  cones  are  very  tough  and  not  easily  opened  by  heat.     It  is 

hard  to  separate  the  wing  from  the  seed.  The  germinating  percent 
age  is  low.  The  seed  is  planted  in  spring  on  open  ground,  usually 
in  patches,  mixed  with  Pino.  Spruces  or  Hardwoods.  The  planting 
of  seed  of  Northern  Tamarack  in  Northern  swamps  is  out  of  the 
question.  The  height  growth  in  early  youth  i>  rapid.  Larch  puts 
heavy  demand  on  light.  Cotyledons,  five  to  seven  in  number,  appear 
four  weeks  after  planting.  The  seeds  are  mulched  in  cold  water  foj 
at  least  a  week  before  planting.  The  primordial  leaves  stand  singly; 
brachyblast-   are    formed    only    from    the   third    summer   <m.      Yotmg 

sl is  never  -how  brachyblasts,  but  n lies  only.     Price  of  seeds: 

European  Larch  50c  per  pound:  Japanese  Larch  (leptolepis)  $2.50 
per    pound. 

G.  Douglas    Fir. 
It   bad  better  be  called   Pseudoabies   than   Pseudotsuga.     Cones 

are  ripe  in  October:  bracts  are  twice  as  long  as  scales:  seeds  fall 
immediately.  Germinating  percentage  is  20  to  30  per  cent.:  seed 
received  from  dealers  i-  apt  to  lie  over.  Thorough  mulching  or  hot- 
house  treatment  (after  Weise)  increases  the  percentage  and  the 
rapidity  k\   sprouting.     Germination  takes  place  after  five  to  seven 


S  \  LVIUU  I-  I  I  E  E. 

weeks,     fhe  five  to  seven  cotyledons  arc  pointed  and  show  two  white 
Btripes  and  a    raised  midrib  above. 
Two    varieties   of    Douglas    Fir: 

a.  facific  Coasl  Douglas  Fir,  growing  rapidly,  foliage  bluish, 
large  cones,  two  top  shoots  during  summer,  the  second  one  usually 
from   a    side    bud. 

b.  Rocky  Mountain  Douglas  Fir.  known  as  varietas  glauca,  owing 
to    it-    grayish    foliage,    of    very    slow    growth,    greater    hardiness, 

smaller  cones,  developing  only  one  -I t    annually.     Price  of  seed: 

.-:'>. 7.">   per  pound. 

H.  Lawson's   Cypress. 

(ones   blue  brown,  globular,  only  -i\   scales,  small,  three   - Ls 

under  scale,  seeds  two  winged.  Wing  one-twenty-fifth  inch  wide. 
Seeds  mature  in  September  and  October,  falling  at  once.  150,000 
grains  per  pound.  Sprouting  with  two  cotyledons  only,  one  fifth  to 
one-third  inch  long.  Young  seedlings  stand  shade.  In  the  sapling 
stage,  fungi  seem  to  play  havoc  in  the  plantations,  a  fact  which  may 
explain  the   small  range  of  the  species.     Seed  60c   per  pound. 

I.  Western    Red  Cedar    (Thuja  plicata). 

Scales  of  cones  oval  and  upright,  covering  pairs  of  seeds.  Seeds 
two-winged;  wings  one-quarter  inch  long,  elliptical,  drawn  in  at  top. 
One  pound  contains  300,000  grains.  Two  cotyledons  only.  Seed  cost 
$2.25  per  pound.     Seedlings   stand  heavy   shade. 

Paragraph    XVIII.      Actual    planting     of     seedlings:      Introductory 
remarks. 

A.  The  forester  uses  seedlings  one  to  ten  years  old  or,  better 
still,  one  to  live  years  old.  'I  he  planting  expenses  increase  at  a 
cubical    ratio  with   the   increasing   weight   of   the   plants. 

B.  Seedlings  are  planted  either  with  or  without  "  hall-"  of  dirt. 
They  are  taken  from  the  oursery  or  from  the  wood-.  Yellow  Tines 
over  three  years  must  be  planted  as  "ball  plants."  Ball  planting 
is  always  safer,  as  it  involves  a  small  loss  of  root  fibre.  Under  any 
circumstances,  it  is  wise  to  leave  as  much  dirt  as  possible  attached 
to  the  root-,  preventing  the  roots  from  drying  and  allowing  them  to 
quickly  re-establish  their  sucking  contact   with  the  pores  of  the  soil. 

( '.  The  small  stemlet  of  young  seedlings  might   !»•  cut   oil'  before 
planting   (stump  plants).     Advantages  of  planting  -tump-: 
L    In    case   of    Locust,  etc.   lack   of   thorns. 

II.  In  case  of  tap  rooters  I  Walnut.  Hickory.  Oak-  where  |i  --  of 
root  fibre  is  great),  rapid  re-establishmen1  of  the  equilibrium  pre- 
vious-h  existing  between  water-sucking  power  and  evaporation. 

60 


s  Y  L  V  I  C  I'  L  T  I  EEJ 

LLL  Certainty  of  planting  the  seedlings  neither  deeper  nor  higher 
than  they  were  in  the  nursery. 

Conifers   cannot   be   stump   planted. 

If  stump  plants  of  Ash  or  Maple  are  to  be  used,  stumps  one  and 
one-half  to  two  inches  high  should  be  left.  In  the  case  of  Oak.  the 
stemlet  should  he  cut  off  just  above  the  point  of  differentiation. 
Stumping  seems  practicable  in  the  case  of  Chestnut  as  well,  and  is 
often  applied  to  Catalpa,  Locust  and  Honey-Locust.  Stumping 
objectionable  on  account  of  the  rabbits  eating  the  new  shoots  ,,i 
where  weeds   are   rank. 

D.  Bunch  planting  is  often  practiced  where  very  small  seedlings, 
cheaply  raised  and  not  transplanted  in  the  nursery,  are  thereafter 
exposed  in  the  woods  to  atmospheric  hardships  or  to  damage  by  ani- 
mals. From  two  to  thirty  such  seedlings  form  a  bunch  planted  into 
one  hole.  Bunch  planting  is  applied  to  German  Spruce  and  Beech, 
although   losing   favor   with  the   foresters   abroad. 

E.  Plants  may  be  planted  irregularly  or  else  in  triangles, 
square-,  rectangles.  The  advantage  of  an  exact  regular  arrange- 
ment, which  may  be  obtained  with  the  help  of  long  planting  strings, 
bearing  blue  and   red    marks,  are: 

I.  Saving  of  time  and  expense.  Each  workman  is  kept  busy  by 
the  work  of  his  neighbor,  and  none  can  fall  behind.  Supervision  by 
rangers   is   facilitated. 

[1.  I  he  number  of  plants  needed  is  easily  found  and  the  probable 
expense  is  more  accurately  estimated. 

III.  Small  s llings  ran  he  found  easily  in  high  weed-  or  grass. 

IV.  A  plantation  may  be  opened  to  pasture  at  an  earlier  date. 

V.  A  mixture  of  species,  and.  later,  underplanting  are  more 
readily  obtained. 

VI.  'the  cleaning,  thinning  and  pruning  of  the  plantation  is 
facilitated. 

VII.  Possibility  of  cultivation  between  the  row-  in  prairie-  and 
on  abandoned  fields. 

The    triangular    form   gives   the    largest    number   of   plants 
acre,  distributes  th.'  growing  9pace  equally,  and  i-  therefore  -aid  to 
raise  cleaner  stems.    The  arrangement  in  squares  allow-  for  a  given 
planting    distance    1.".',     less    plant-    per    acre    than    the    triangular 
system. 

The     rectangular     system,    though    scientifically     objectionable, 
practically   prevails  over  the  other-.     The   plantlets   standi]  g 
within  a   row  assist   one  another  from  early  time-  on.     Planting  be- 
tween the  rows  and  the  cultivation  of  -lope-  are  facilitated  within 


S  Y  I.  V  I  '.    I    I.T  i    i;  E. 

rectangles.  Ii  i>  said,  however,  thai  the  saplings  form  large  Bide 
branches  and  retain  the  same  for  a  longer  period  pf  years.  Rectangu- 
lar  plantations  are  known  to  suffer  less  from   Bnowbreak. 

K.  Usually  it  is  best  to  make  the  holes  for  the  plants  before 
planting— unless,  on  clay  soil,  the  holes  are  apl  to  fill  with  water. 
The  making  of  holes  takes  more  time,  in  many  a  case,  than  the 
planting  itself.  It  should  not  be  clone  during  the  few  spring  days 
favorable  to  tree  planting. 

<;.  The  rangers  should  make  all  needful  preparations  for  plant- 
ing several  days  or  weeks  before  planting,  securing  the  seedlings, 
"heeling  them  in"  close  to  the  plantation  and  getting  the  imple- 
ments and  tmd>  in  proper  condition. 

Planting 

distance. 

1  foot     

2  foot  

3  foot  

4  fool  

5  foot  

6  foot  


Paragraph  XIX.  Criteria  of  good  seedlings. 

A.  The   lent    system: 

The  rool  system  should  lie  as  compact  as  possible  and  as  rich 
in  line  hair  fibres  as  possible,  qualities  which  are  only  obtained  in 
a  well-fertilized  nursery.  It  nm-t  be  remembered  thai  the  small 
hair  fibres  are  the  feeders  of  seedlings,  and  that  the  stronger  roots 
aci  merely  as  bones  or  as  the  skeleton  giving  the  plant  a  linn 
anchorage  in  the  soil. 

\  -linn  exposure  to  sunlighl  and  to  dry  winds  kills  the  root 
hair-.  Roots  cannol  live  in  air  any  better  than  fish,  though  requiring 
oxygen  like  fish.  Toumey  claim-  that  "many  successful  planters 
never  sel  evergreens  until  the  rout  tip-  show  Bigns  of  growth."  This 
experience  is  entirely  at  discord  with  the  universal  European  experi- 
ence. Conifers  are  very  sensitive  againsl  l"--  of  rool  fibres. 
Fresh  tips,  evidently,  are  mosl  apt  to  he  injured  in  handling  <>r  by 
drought. 

The  pruning  of  the  mm  system  i-  a  necessary  evil  in  the  case 
of  very  long  tap  roots.  I  onifers  dn  nol  allow  of  it.  Badly  damaged 
roots  may  he  clipped  with  a  -harp  knife  jusl  above  the  damaged 
point. 


No.  of  plants 

No    of  plants 

per  acre  in 

pel    acre  m 

squan  s, 

triangles. 

4:;..".tii) 

50,650 

10,900 

12,674 

4.s:,l) 

5,640 

■2.ri:> 

3.  It38 

1,750 

2,034 

1,210 

1.4H7 

SYLVICUL  T  U  R  E. 

B.  The  shaftlet:  Crooks  are  not  injurious,  the  plant  healing 
them  quickly.  Slender  plants  are  not  desirable,  partly  because  they 
sway  badly  in  the  wind,  thus  getting  loose  in  the  soil;  partly 
because  slender  shafts  are  due  to  excessively  close  position  in  the 
nurseries.  In  the  case  of  broad-leaved  seedlings  one  or  two  years 
old  the  shaft  of  spindling  specimens  may  be  cut  off  without  lasting 
injury    (not  in  confers). 

0.  Ihe  buds:  The  buds  must  have  a  healthy  color,  a  large  size 
ana  a  goodly  number.  Small  buds  prove  the  plant  to  be  weak;  so 
that  it  has  a  poor  chance  to  withstand  the  hardships  of  transplant- 
ing. In  conifers,  the  condition  of  the  buds  is  especially  telling.  Poor 
and  few  buds  in  hardwoods  render  it  advisable  to  lop  the  stemlets. 

Paragraph  XX.     Age,  size  and  number  of  seedlings  used. 

A.  Young  plants  are  more  easily  transplanted  than  old  plants, 
the  loss  of  root  system  being  smaller.  Large  saplings  (10  ft.  high 
to  4  inches  in  diameter)  are  transplanted  only  at  great  expense  and 
great  risk.  They  must  be  transplanted  with  big  balls  of  dirt 
attached. 

B.  The  number  of  plants  used  per  acre  in  Europe  varies 
between  1,000  and  40,000  specimens  per  acre  in  case  of  Pines.  Spruces 
and  Beeches.     The  advantage  of  a  large  number  of  small  plants  is: 

1.  Better    chance    for    nature    to    select    the    fittest. 

II.  Bess    reinforcing    required. 

III.  Even  unexperienced  planters  can  he  used. 

IV.  Plant   material   is  very  cheap. 

V.  Larger  returns  from   first    thinning  and   clearer   boles. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  advantage  of  planting  stronger  seedlings, 
especially  transplants  three  to  six  years  old.  lies  in  the  following 
points: 

VI.  On  poor  soil,  strong  plants   have   a   better   chance. 

VII.  Older  plants  have  already  overcome  the  "  measles  "  of  child- 
hood— fungi,  insect   diseases — to  a  large   extent. 

VIII.  Such  plantations   suffer  less  from   snowbreak. 

IX.  Tne  rotation  is  shortened  by  a  number  of  years.  In  a 
White  Pine  plantation  made  with  seedlings  seven  years  old,  instead 
of  seedlings  two  years  old,  the  rotation  is  reduced  from  fifty  to 
forty-five  years:  and  the  original  cost  of  planting  may  be  27^ 
higher,  figuring  at  5%  interest ;  22%  higher,  figuring  at  4%  interest ; 
13%  higher,  figuring  at  3%  interest. 

('.  Generally    speaking,    Oak.    Hickory    and    Walnut    should    be 
planted  one   year  old  on  account  of  the  large  size  of  the  tap  roots. 
63 


S  i   I.  \   I  (    I    l.T  I    l;  i. 

Spruce,  l-ir  and  Hemlock  should  be  planted  three  to  five  years  old, 
after  previous  transplanting  in  the  nursery.  Ash  should  be  planted 
six  years  old  when   used  in   half  swamps   baving  luxurious  growth 

of  w Is.     Yellow    fine   musl    always  be  planted  one  or  two  years 

old.  unless   hall   plant  inn   i-  reported   to. 

After  Tourney:    For  the  prairies,  yearlings  are  best  in  case  "i 

(  "Hi.iiw Is,    Box    Elder,  Sofl    Maple    (Soft    Maple   sprouts   in   June 

and  is  very  small  in  fall),  Russian  Mulberry,  Catalpa,  Walnut,  Black 
Cherry,  Locus!  and  II y-Locust.  At  Biltmore,  Black  Cherry  trans- 
plants three  years  old  do  very  well.  Locusts  two  years  old  are 
clipped  back.  Maple  and  Ash  are  transplanted  and  used  three  to 
four  years  old;  Yellow  Pines  are  used  one  oi  two  years  old;  White 
Pines  two,  three   or   four  years  old;    Catalpa    one  year  old,  etc. 

Paragraph  XXI.     Lifting  seedlings  from  nursery  beds. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  plow  the  seedlings  out  of  the  ground  oi 
to  tear  them  oul  with  tongs.  In  the  rase  of  species  having  small 
reproductive  power  (Conifers,  Beech,  Birch)  additional  care  is  needed. 
The  -pade  should  be  used;  and  the  plant  should  be  lifted  togethei 
with  large  clumps  of  dirt  which,  thrown  on  the  ground,  collapse  and 
allow    of    safe   extrication   of   the   plants   contained   in   the   clumps. 

It  is  wise,  carriage  charges  permitting,  to  allow  some  dirt  to 
stick  to  the  roots.  <  >n  more  binding  soil  the  hollow-  cylinder  spade 
might  be  used  for  lifting  small  plant-.  Plants  should  be  well  cov- 
ered with  burlaps,  wel  moss,  dirt,  etc.,  at  once  after  digging.  Plants 
left  for  a  number  of  days  between  the  plantation  and  the  nursen 
should  be  heeled  in  thoroughly,  shinglelike,  one  row-  covering  the 
other,  in  a    shady   place. 

Paragraph  XXII.     Transportation  of  seedlings. 

If  the  roots  are  thoroughly  protected,  a  voyage  from  Europe  to 
Biltmore,  though  it  may  take  six  week-  time,  will  no!  injure  the 
p. ants.  Plants  are  loosely  put  together  in  bunches  of  one  hundred  to 
two  hundred  pie<e>.  are  placed  iii  baskets  or  open  crate-,  the  roots  ill 
the  center,  the  tips  at   the  circumference.     Layers  of  plants  alternate 

with   layers  of  damp  moss.     S llings  packed   tightly,  especiallv   in 

boxes,  are  apt    to  mould. 

Plants  merely  taken  to  a  nearbj  plantation  on  wagons  should 
be  well  covered  with  branches,  moss  or  sacks,  and  should  1"' 
sprinkled  during  transportation.  Ball  plants  ,|o  noj  need  packing 
unit  ss  Kills  dre  eerj  Iocs,.,  when  burlaps  are  necessary.  One  liun- 
!red    Fellow    Tine  ball    plants,  after    Rankin,   with    halls    ten    inches 


S  YLVI  C  U  L  T  U  R  E. 

square,  make  up  a  tw.o-horse  Load.  Fifty  thousand  seedlings  without 
balls  and  well  watered,  or  eighty  thousand  seedlings  slightly  damp- 
ened, usually  make  a  wagon  load. 

Paragraph  XXIII.  Common  methods  of  planting  seedlings  in  the  open. 

A.  Planting  in  furrows. 

The  furrows  should  be  made  deeply  with  a  subsoil  plow.  The 
plants  are  distributed,  at  proper  distance,  in  the  furrows.  Then 
another  furrow  is  at  once  given  with  a  turning  plow,  throwing  the 
needful  dirt  over  the  plants,  which  are  thereafter  adjusted  and 
pressed  into  proper   site,  by  hand. 

This  i>  a  quick  method  of  planting,  but  is  practical  only  on 
prairies  or  on  abandoned  fields.  It  involves  the  danger  of  reckless 
spreading  of  roots  and  of  loose  imbedding  of  the  plant  in  loose  soil. 
The  plants  are  also  apt  to  be  placed  too  deep  and  to  be  shaken 
badly  by  wind.     The  method,  however,  yields  good  results  in  case  of 

I.  Stump  planting  (Oak,  Locust.  Catalpa). 

II.  Planting  many  one-year-old  seedlings  (so  that  a  large  per- 
centage might  be  lost   without  great    injury). 

III.  Plants  not  sensitive  to  deep  planting  (not  for  White  Pine 
and  Spruce  i.  Plants  placed  too  deep  form  a  second  root  system 
close  to  the  surface  and  develop  a  bushy  bole,  useless  in  forestry, 
pleasing  in  a   garden. 

At  Biltmore,  the  furrow  method  was  used  by  Pinchot  at  the 
Shiloh  Crossing  plantation.  A  modification  of  the  furrow  method 
was  used  at  the  Pace  farm  in  1003.  where  deep  furrows  were  drawn, 
the  plants  inserted  by  hand,  covered  by  hand  and  adjusted  by  hand. 
A  planting  machine  (Dr.  Fernow's),  resembling  a  tobacco  planting 
machine,  is   not    used. 

B.  Planting  in  holes.  The  holes  are  either  holes  dug  with  the 
spade  or  clefts  wedged  into  the  soil.  Most  planters  mulch  the  roots 
in  loamy  water  so  as  to  increase  their  weight  and  so  as  to  reduce 
their  spread  before  insertion  into  the  hole.  The  root  fibres  suffer 
from  this  mulching,  however,  being  1. raided  unnaturally.  The  root 
tips  should  not  be  bent  upward.  The  depth  and  width  of  the  hole 
should  correspond  with  the  actual  size  of  the  root.  Several  plants 
might  be  placed  in  the  same  hole  to  save  expense.  Theoretically  it 
is  best  to  place  each  plant  in  the  center  of  its  hole.  At  Biltmore, 
howver.  planting  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  hole  is  preferred  because: 

I.-  No  root  is  hemispherlcally   developed. 

II.  Planting  at  the  edge  is  the  best  preventive  against  deep 
planting,  the   planter  holding   the   plant    with   the   left   hand  at    the     * 


SYLVICU  l-T  I    RE. 

jHinii  of  differentiation  againsl  the  edge  of  the  hole,  when  drawing 
with  the  righl   hand  the  dirt   required  to  till  the  hole. 

III.  Such  plants  are  firmly  imbedded  and  are  less  shaken  by  the 
wind.  On  forest  soil  it  is  wise  to  place  the  top  dirt  dug  from  the 
hole  around  the  root  tips,  and  the  bottom  dirt  of  the  hole  close  to 
the  -in  face.  The  workmen  should  be  shown  daily  by  the  forester 
how  to  plant.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  pulverize  and  loosen 
the  dirt  first,  and  to  then  press  and  beat  it  tightly  with  fist,  heel 
or  mallet  around  the  roots.  Some  planters  give  a  trifle  of  forest 
humus  into  the  hole;  others  carry  fertile  garden  dirt  in  baskets  to 
the  plantations.  The  placing  of  stones  on  the  hole  (as  refrigera- 
tors) is  rec tended.     One  man's  work  at  hole  digging  per  day  is 

300  to   3,000  according  to   root-size  and  conditions    of   soil. 

C.  The   seedling  musl    stand,  after  planting: 

I.  Firmly,  the  dirt  being  tightly  packed  around  it-  roots,  so  that 
it  cannot  be  shaken  and  so  thai  the  roots  may  establish  their 
sucking  conta<  I  s. 

II.  Naturally,  the  roots  having  the  same  manner  of  spreading 
and   ramifying   which    they   had    in    the    nursery. 

III.  Erect  and  jusl  as  deep  as  it  stood  in  the  nursery  (exception: 
barren  sand). 

Paragraph  XXIV.  Special  methods  and  tools  used  for  planting 
seedlings  in   the  open. 

A.  Biermans  spiral  spade,  costing  $2.00,  i-  pointed  parabolically, 
th'  blade  being  7'..  inches  long  and  .">  inches  wide  When  used  bor- 
ingly,  this  spade  forms  a  parabolic  hole  and  loosens  the  soil.  With 
the  It't't  hand  the  seedling  i-  pressed  againsl  the  side  of  the  hole, 
while  the  righl  hand  places  some  sod  ashes  (See  Par.  XXIX,  D.  VI.) 

iiiii liately  over  the   fine   rool    fibres.     Then   the  best    part    of  the 

soil  i-  used  to  fill  the  near  half  of  the  hole,  and  the  pooresl  for 
filling  tlic  far  half.  The  instrumenl  is  adapted  to  hardened  soil. 
•  in  wel  and  binding  soil,  the  dirt  clogs  in  the  curves  of  the  spade. 
Capacitj    per  hand   in  Germany  320  plant-  per  day. 

I'..  The  Planting  Dagger1  i-  used  for  Yellow  Pine  - llings  one  or 

two  year-  old,  to  be  planted  on  sandy  soil.  The  dagger  is  three 
inches  longer  than  the  longest  root.  It  is  made  of  wood,  iron  shod 
at  the  point.  It  make-  a  narrow,  funnel-shaped  hole,  which  is 
closed  bj  pressure  from  another  hole  made  a  few  inches  from  the 
first.  <>n  loose,  sandj  soil  it  is  wise  to  plant  Yellow  Pine  seedlings 
deeply  up  to  firsl  needles-  3ince  Yellow  Tine  is  nol  affected,  in 
thai  soil,  by  deep  planting.  Daggering  i-  the  cheapesl  possible 
.it; 


SYLVIOULT  V  RE. 

method  for  planting  Long  Leaf  Pine,  Jack  Pine.  Lodgepole  Pine,  etc. 
Capacity  800  to  900  per  day   and  hand.  )LW 

C.  The   Buttlar   Iron,  once   much  used  for  thrusting  holes   into  ^     ^ 
the    -oil,   is    now    in    disfavor   since    it    causes    the    seedlings    to   be     BV    BQfc 
inserted    into    holes    having    walls    as    impenetrable    as    those   of    a     ^^^^^\|l  '"' 


flower-pot.     Only  plants  one  or  two  years   old  can  be  thus  planted    yjb% 
("cleft  planted").  gmP^    \| 

I).  The   Wartenberg   Iron   consists    of    a    sword    18  inches   long,  &y\ 
attached  to  a  heavy  handle.     Price  .$2.25.     Similar  irons  were  made 
at  Biltmore  out  of  three-inch  wagon  tire,  at  a  -mall  cost.     A  deep 
cleft  is  made  by  the  iron  in  which  tap-rooted  seedlings  are  readily 
inserted.    On  binding  soil,  however,  or  in  a  broomsedge  field,  the  ttse     $Cv**/^"'u* 
of    this    iron   cannot    be   recommended. 

E.  The  planting  hammer  is  used  to  make  small  holes  for  small 
roots.  The  iron  part  of  the  hammer  is  about  five  inches  long.  The 
planting  hatchet,  a  similar  make,  may  be  used  to  advantage  for 
planting  one-year-old  plants.  The  holes  arc  closed  by  heating  the 
dirt  round  the  holes  with  the  back  of  the  hammer  or  with  the 
hatchet. 

F.  Von  Alemann  constructed  a  very  heavy  square  spade  which 
is  pushed  and  drawn  in  a  particular  way,  like  the  lexer  of  a  handcar 
on  the  railroads,  so  as  to  make  the  lower  pari  of  the  whole  wider 
than  the  middle  part,  the  cross-section  of  the  whole  forming  an  X. 
If  Oaks  are  planted,  an  extra  hole  i~-  made  at  the  bottom  of  that 
made  with  the  spade,  by  means  of  a  long  dagger  in  which  the  tap 
root  of  the  oak  i-  to  lie  imbedded.  The  hole  is  closed  by  pressure 
from  the  sides.  It  seems  doubtful  whether  the  soil  will  close  entirely 
over  the  roots  unless  it  be  sandy.  One  man  can  plant  580  Oaks  two 
year-  old  or  1,270  Yellow  Pines  two  years  old  with  this  instrument 
on   ]  >lo\\cd  ground. 

G.  The  Planting  Beack.  constructed  by  Baith.  makes  and  empties 
a  triangular  hole,  taking  out  the  dirt  tilling  the  hole.  Plants  one  or 
two  years  old  are  placed  along  the  vertical  side  of  the  hide.  Then 
the  dirt  kept  in  the  beak  is  filled  in.  The  instrument  is  3y3  feet 
Ion-  aim  weighs  15  pounds.  It  is  -aid  to  be  superior  to  all  cleft 
planting  tools,  whilst  it  works  just   as  cheaply  on  loose  soil 

H.  Planting  under  sod   cover,      i  Von   Alemann).     Two   sod 
turned  over,  like  the  covers  of  hook-,   and   laid  back,   upside   dow 
without    loosening  the   "  hinge  "  of  the   sods.     The   soil   in   the 
is  deeply  worked  with  a  spade.     In  the  middle  of  the  hole  the  plant      Q     ^*Jt  jA^ 

hole.     Then  the  two  sods  are  turned  hack  into  their  original  position,      &>S\A        \A^Q , 


down,   ^/3j  U . 

i  hole    ^H^fuv-t/  •*** 


placed,  with  the  root-  spread  a-  much  a-  possible  within  the  entire 
nei 
67 


*4 


SYLVII   i    l.T  i    I;  E 

so  that  the  seedling  stands  between  them.  This  i-  a  good  method 
on  ground  where  frosl  i-  in  !»■  dreaded,  and  is  used  for  Ash,  Alder 
and   Water  Birch  one   to   three   year-   old. 

I.  Mound  Planting  (Manteutfel).     small  unds  are  made  con- 

^■S    *iy\J(*      sisting  of  rich  nursery  soil  to  !><■  carried  in  baskets  t<>  the  plantations. 

*  The  plant  i-  placed  into  the  mound,  it-  roots  touching  the  vegetable 
'  /2T~*  —*+*>f  mould  underneath.  The  mound  is  covered  with  sods  to  prevent 
<-£-^  J£st  erosion.  The  method  works  well  on  very  drj  and  hard  ground, 
i      -  About  100  plants  are  planted  per  day  and  per  man  after  this  method. 

•   ■***  .     .*__-.   Its   advantages  are: 

-«*»**^-u  |     II,,.    y-egetable  cover  of  the   Boil,   by   it-   disintegration,    fur- 

/  nishes  food  for  the  rootlets. 

II.  Tin'  quafitj    of  the  -nil   surrounding  the  roots  i-  very  good. 

III.  The  soil  in  the  mounds  is  kepi  moist  with  condensed  atmos- 
pheric vapor,  owing  to  it-  greater  porosity. 

IV.  The  planter  is  nut   likely  in  plant  the  seedling  tun  deep. 
'I'lic  method  is  also  applied  on  very  wet  soil.    The  mounds  may 

be  replaced  by  ridges.  Experiments  have  Bhown  thai  planting  in 
mounds  does  better  in  years  of  droughl    than  planting  in  holes. 

Modifications  of  the  Manteuffel  method  are  in  common  use. 
Ordinary  -nil  dug  oul  at  the  planting  site  may  be  used  to  make  the 
mound:  or,  where  there  are  heavy  sods,  a  sod  is  turned  upside  down 
and  left  to  rot  fur  a  year.  The  mound  thus  made  i-  rich  in  plan! 
food -resulting  from  the  disintegration  of  runt  fibres  ami  \  .■•_■.  stable 
malt  rr. 

Disadvantages  of   mound  planting  are: 

a.  The  mounds  are  easily  washed  away  on  slopes  unless  under 
cover   of   mother    trees. 

b.  The  be-t  -nil  i-  washed  mil  if  the  mound  i-  no!  covered  with 
sods,  stones  or  brush. 

c.  Insects  and  mice  find  hiding  and  breeding  places  in  t! 
covered  mounds. 

d.  Mound   planting  i*   very   expensive. 

.1.   Ballplanting,  with   diaries  Tfeyer's  hollow  cylinder  spade. 

The  cylinder  spade  can  be  used  to  best  advantage  on  binding  soil. 
It  lifts  the  plant  (seedlings,  notably  conifers  one  oi  two  years  old) 
from  the  nurserj  withoul  loss  of  roots  and  prepares  fur  it  a  hole  on 
the  ground  to  be  planted  having  the  exact  form  of  the  ball  of  dirt 
adhering   to    the    roots. 

The  method  is  particularly  safe  and  seems  particularly  adapted 
for  prairie  planting  since  it  protects  the  seedling  before,  during  and 
after  the  aet  of  planting;  since  it  prevents  the  seedling  from  loosing 


6 


Edward      V— 


SYLVICULTURE. 


its  foothold  in  the  soil  under  the  intluence  of  high  wine 
allow-  of  planting  at  almost   any  season  of  the  year. 

i  in  -tony  soil,  the  cylinder  spade  cannot  be  used 
Heyer's  '*  cone  spade "  facilitates  the  transfer  of  larger  seedlings 
with  heavier  balls  of  dirt  from  the  nursery  or  from  the  woods  to 
new  plantations. 

Paragraph  XXV.     Season  for  planting  seedlings. 

Factors  influencing  the  season  are: 

Local  climate. 

Labor  available. 

Time   available. 

Species  planted. 

Theoretically  seedlings  should  be  planted  during  the  period  of 
inactivity  of  roots  and  buds,  or  in  mid-winter.  This  theoretical 
demand,  however,  in  a  Northern  climate,  cannot  be  carried  out,  the 
ground  being  frozen  at  that  time.  Hence  the  choice  only  remains 
between  planting  in  late  fall  and  planting  in  early  spring.  After 
Engler,  roots  show  two  periods  of  active  growth,  viz.:  a  spring-and- 
sunnner  period  influenced  by  soil  moisture,  and  a  fall  period  in- 
fluenced by  soil  heat.  The  growth  of  the  roots  during  August  and 
September,  between  the  two  periods  mentioned,  is  very   weak. 

In  spring,  the  growth  of  the  roots  starts  in  March  and  April 
and  shows  the  highest  activity  in  May,  June  and  July. 

A.  Spring  Planting. 

The  seedlings  are  planted  before  the  opening  of  the  buds.  The 
moisture  left  in  the  soil  by  the  melting  snow  is  very  favorable  to 
their  growth.     Objections   to    spring  planting   are: 

I.  Scarcity  of  labor,  unless  forest  planting  begins  at  a  time  at 
which  fields  are  too  wet   to  be  worked. 

II.  Larch.  Maple,  Cherry  and  Birch  sprout  so  early  in  spring 
that  it  is  impossible  to  adopt  spring  planting  in  their  case. 

III.  Moist  ground,  hummocks  and  swamps  are  not  accessible  in 
spring. 

TV.  The  soil  is  not  packed  as  tightly  around  the  roots  on  the 
arrival  ol  spring  as  is  the  case  in  fall  planting. 

±J.     Fall  Planting. 

Fall  planting  is  preferred  on  wet  areas  and  in  the  case  of  early 
Bprouting  species.  The  disadvantages  of  fall  planting  otherwise 
outweigh  the  benefits  combined  therewith. 

I.  Seedlings  planted  in  fall  are  apt  to  be  heaved  up  by  the 
winter's   freeze. 


*9 


81  I.  \ '  I  (   i    I.  i  I    i:  E. 

II.  The  severe  winds  of  the  winter  loosen  the  foothold  of  coni- 
fers planted   in  fall. 

III.  Fall-planted  seedlings  are  re  suhject  to  late  frost,  open 

ing  their  buds  some  ten  days  earlier  than  spring-planted   seedlings. 

IV.  (in  weedj  soil,  fall-planting  i-  handicapped  by  the  presence 
of  a  rank  growth  oi  weeds  which  has  rotted  down  at  the  arrival  of 
spring. 

In  tlic  Southern  Btates,  even  ai    Biltmore,  planting  in  January 

and   February    is  very  feasible,  perhaps  advisable   in  average  years. 

Ball   plant-  can   be   planted  ai    any   season   of  the   year. 

In  countries  of  periodical   rainfall    (California,  India  and  Porto 

Rico)  it  i-  besl  to  plan!  jusl  before  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season. 

In    swamps,    summer    planting    or    early     fall    planting    1-    a 

necessity. 

}J- ~f~  Paragraph  XXVI.     Cultivation  of  plantations. 

^-LA-o-%  \    Practice:  The  European  forester  never  cultivate-  any  planta- 

)~J^rs^  4  ,  -■*  tions  for  the  reason  thai  his  plantations  are  made  immediately  after 

'  J   lumbering,  when  the  rootwork  and  the  stumps  on  the  ground  render 

,  ju      cultivation  difficult.     Under  the  incident  conditions  of  soil   (humus: 


porosity),  cultivation  is  usually  not  required  for  the  success  oi  a 
plantation.     Lrregular  plantations  cannol    be  cultivated. 

The  forester  afforesting  -and  dunes  obviously  objects  to  culti- 
vation. 

The  forester  afforesting  swamps  finds  cultivation  impracticable. 

B.  Advisability:   Cultivation  i-  advisable: 

Where  there  is  neither  humus  nor  rootwork  in  the  ground; 

Where  the  soil,  like  prairie  soil,  i-  compact  and  hard,  lacking  in 
aeration,   porosity,  capillary  power,  hygroscopicity ; 

Where  competing  herbaceous  weed-  threaten  to  smother  -mall 
seedlings; 

Where  mice  or  soil  breeding  insects  prevail,  which  are  disturbed, 
exposed  or  killed  by  continuous  cultivation.' 

(  .   Frequency. 

The  forester  may  cultivate  up  to  three  times  per  annum,  during 

one.  t  w more  years     sometimes   till    the    leaf  canopy   overhead 

secures   for  the  soil  a   solid  layer  of  humus  by  dense  shading. 

D    Tools. 

A  bull-tongue   plow    i-   used,  on   rough  ground,   for   plant    rowB 

placed    less   than   three    t'eet    apart. 

Cultivator-  are  used,  a-  in  agriculture,  where  the  soil   i-  loose, 

and    where    the    rows    are    tar    enough    apart    and    the    ground    i-    tree 
from  si  unip-  or  root-  or  bouldei  s. 
70 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Hoes  are  used  in  exceptional  cases  only,  where  labor  is  cheap 
and  where  the   soil  does  not  allow  of  using  teams  and  machinery. 

Mule-  and  horse-  are  muzzled  to  protect  broad-leaved  seedlings 
from  being   browsed. 

Paragraph  XXVII.     Prairie  planting  in  particular. 

A.  The  prairie  exhibits  as  marked  climatic  differences  as  the 
state   of  Georgia  compared  to  the  District   of  Labrador. 

"General  prescriptions  for  prairie  planting"  are  impossible. 
owing  to   these  climatic   diversities. 

B.  The  species  used  must  be  adapted  to  the  quality  of  the  soil, 
the  intensity  of  summer  heat,  the  duration  of  the  summer,  the  soil 
moisture,  the  air  moisture.  Native  tree-  should  be  given  the  pref- 
erence in  case  of  doubt. 

C.  Prairie  plantations  are  meant  either  for  production  of  timber 
itie-.  posts,  etc.),  or  for  -belter  to  stock,  house,  orchard  and  field. 

1).  specie-  recommended  for  prairie  planting  are: 

I.  For  Canada: 

A\  bite  spruce.  Cottonwood,  Balm  of  Gilead,  Box-elder,  Green  Ash 
Russian   Poplar;    further   Yellow   Pine-. 

II.  Tor  Minnesota   and   Dakota: 

Cottonwoods,  Soft  .Maple-.  Willows,  Ashes,  Box-elder,  Tamarack 
in   swamps,   Bur  Oak   along   rivers. 

III.  For  Nebraska   and    Iowa: 

The   same    species    and    Red   Cedar,    Russian    Mulberry. 
I\~.  For  Kansas,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma  and  Missouri: 
Osage    Orange,    Flack    Locust,    Hardy    Catalpa.    Post    Oak    and 
White  Oak. 

E.  Naturally  we  should  expect  Xerophytic  species,  like  Yellow 
Pines,  to  do  best  in  the  prairies,  and  the  old  stumps  found  buried  in 
the  ground  bear  testimony  to  their  possibilities.  Being  evergreen 
the  Pines  protect  the  fanner-  best  from  blizzards.  Still,  just  Pines 
are  most  apt  to  meet  with  distress  previous  and  after  the  act  of 
planting.  Ball  planting  should  be  tried.  The  European  Finns  mon- 
tana    resists   wind   particularly    well. 

F.  ^reparation  of  soil:  It  is  best  to  prepare  the  soil  thoroughly 
by  several  years'  field  crops.  Deep  plowing  is  required  (Tourney) 
in  the  fall  previous   to  planting  and  in  the  spring  of  planting. 

G.  Preparation  of  plants:  The  seedlings  arriving  at  the  farm 
should  be  removed  from  the  package:  heeled  in  under  shade,  pro- 
tected from  winds  and  sprinkled  if  frost  i-  not  to  I  e  feared.    Tourney 

71 


s  \  i.  \  I »  l   i.T  i   i:  I.. 

wishes  to  puddle  plants  before  heeling,  and  desires  to  plant  the 
conifers   invariably    after    the   broad-leaved    kinds. 

H.  Planting:  The  planter  must  patiently  wait  for  proper 
weather.  Thorough  protection  of  the  roots  during  every  moment 
of  the  act  of  planting  is  essential.  Each  individual  musl  be  planted 
by  itself  no  dozen  methods!  The  plants  should  be  sei  closely 
within  the  rows;  the  soil  must  be  packed  tightly  round  the  roots. 
Reversed  sods  or  stones  may  be  used  to  ballast  the  roots  and  to 
prevent  the  wind  from  shaking  them  loose. 

I.  Cultivation:  Cultivation  is  necessary  up  to  the  time  when 
the  trees  cover  the  ground  fully.  littering  it  with  humus.  Where 
barefrost  is  dreaded,  cultivation  should  end  in  late  summer, 

Paragraph  XXVIII.     Methods  of  obtaining  plants  for  planting. 

A.  Frequently,  seedlings  are  obtained  from  the  woods  nearby, 
a  method  which  seems  to  recommend  itself  as  cheap  and  natural. 
It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  the  roots  and  the  buds  of  wild  seed- 
lings are  badly  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  planting.  The  former 
are  far-spreading;  the  buds  are  weak  and  few.  In  addition  it  is 
risky  to  take  plants  from  the  shelter  of  mother  trees  suddenly 
onto  open  ground.  The  use  of  wild  seedlings  over  two  years 
old  is  particularly  unsuccessful.  The  failure  of  the  timber  culture 
act  to  prove  efficient  is  largely  due  to  the  use  of  wild  plants  in 
prairie   plantations. 

At  Biltmore,  seedlings  of  Yellow  Poplar,  Yellow  Tine.  Ash  and 
Maple  are  often  picked  up  with  a  spade  and  taken  to  the  nurseries 
with  good  results.  Such  seedlings  are  taken  at  a  very  young 
age,  without  loss  of  dirt,  to  nurseries  placed  under  lath  screens. 
They  are  never  removed  direct  1\  to  "pen  plantations,  with  the 
exception  of  ballplants  of  Yellow  Pine. 

B.  Purchase  of  plants  from  commercial  nurseries: 

During  the  last  15  years,  a  number  of  financially  strong  com- 
mercial nurseries  have  arisen  abroad  which,  buying  seed  cheaply, 
located  on  suitable  ground  at  good  shipping  points,  enjoying  many 
years'  close  acquaintance  with  the  needs  of  Sylviculture,  have  sup- 
plied the  various  German  administrations  with  cheap  plants  of  a 
superior  grade.  The  Biltmore  Estate  has  often  obtained  plants 
raised  by  Heins  Sons.  Ilalstenbeek,  near  Hamburg,  notably  White 
Pines,  which   have   been   very   successful    in    spite   of   a    six   weeks 

voyage.     On    il ther   hand,   American   nurseries    usuallj    prepare 

plants  only  for  ornamental  purposes  and  not  with  a  view  of  foster- 
ing the  development   of  the  tree  hole. 


SYLVIGUL  T  U  R  E. 

since  the  rangers  and  the  helper-  in  forest  planting  should 
know  the  sylvieultural  need-  of  the  seedlings,  it  is  surely  wise  to 
offer  them  object  lessons  at  home  through  self-administered  nurs- 
eries. 

C.  Nurseries  proper,  in  charge  of  the  forester. 

Where  mice  are  much  feared  the  nurseries  should  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  deep,  straight  walled  ditch.  Fences  are  made  of 
wire.,  lath,  rails,  etc.,  differing  in  material,  strength,  height  and 
fineness   of   mesh   according  to   the   enemies   locally    dreaded. 

Proper  nurseries  yield  the  largest  percentage  of  seedlings  out 
of  a  given  quantity  of  seeds.  The  seedlings  raised  therein  have  a 
better,  more  compact  and  more  fibrous  rout  system  than  wild  plants. 
Expensive  and  exacting  species  should  always  be  raised  in  "forest 
gardens.'' 

There  may   be  distinguished: 

Nurseries  under   tree   cover. 

Shifting  nurseries. 

Permanent  nurseries. 

I.  Nurseries  under  tree  cover  form  the  exception,  being  required 
only  for  the  production  of  seedlings  ot  tender  species;  notably  of 
Hemlock,  Hard  Maple.  Beech.  The  nursery  is  formed  by  a  pole- 
wood  Heavily  thinned  and  dug  over  with  the  spade.  Here  Beech- 
nuts are  planted  broadcast  or  in  furrows  and  the  seedlings  removed 
when  two  years  old,  without  transplanting.  Hard  Maple  and  Hem- 
lock should  be  raised  as   in  open  nurseries. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  broad- leaved  kinds  often  thrive 
best  under  conifers  (Oak  and  Beech  under  Pine)  and  conifers  best 
under  broad-leafed  kinds  (Spruce  besl  under  Beech.  Maple.  Birch). 
Only  theoeretical  explanations  can  be  given  for  this  truism,  the  best 
explanation  being  the  difference  of  enemies  attacking  such   species. 

Objections  to  nurseries  under  nee  cover: 

a.  Soil  preparation  is  costly  and  insufficient. 

b.  Plants  raised  cannot  be  planted  in  the  open  without  loss. 

c.  Nurseries  under  tree  cover  sutler  badly  from  mice  and 
squirrels  and  obtain  insufficient  rainfall.  On  the  other  hand,  weeds 
and  grasses  are  kept  down  by   the  shelter  overhead. 

Nurseries    under   tree    cover   form    the    exception,    not    the   rule. 

II.  Shifting   versus   stationary   nurseries. 

The  advantages  of  stationary  forest  nurseries  over  shifting 
forest   nurseries    are: 

a.  Reduced   cost    of    tilling. 

b.  Reduced  cost  of  fencing. 

73 


b  1LVICULT  I    l;  E. 

c.  Reduced  cosl   of  supen  ision. 

On  the  other  hand,  stationary  nurseries  suffer  from: 

1.  Excess  of  weeds. 

-.!.  Higher  cost  of  transportation  of  seeds  and  Beedlings. 

3.  Large  needs  of  artificial  fertilizing. 

4.  Danger  from  mice.  insects  and  fungi  for  which  such  nurs- 
eries  act  as   incubators. 

For  raising  ball  plants,  the  shifting  nurserj  i-  undoubtedly 
best;  otherwise  the  selection  between  shifting  ami  permanent  nurs- 
eries depends  on  local  conditions;  such  a-  the  price  of  manure 
and  of  fencing;  charges  for  transportation,  etc.  Seed  plantations 
made  on  open  ground  arc  often  used  a-  shifting  nurseries  espe- 
cially so  in  the  case  of  Yellow    Pines. 

Paragraph  XXIX.     Permanent  nurseries  in  particular. 

A.  The  size  of  "foresl  gardens"  (the  German  name  for  sta- 
tionary nurseries)  depends  upon  the  quantity,  the  age  and  the  size 
of  the  seedlings  annually  needed.  Further,  on  the  presence  or 
absence  of  transplanting  beds,  fallow  beds  and  paths  between  the 
beds.      Regular   forest    management  has  forest   garden-   fitted  with: 

I.  Transplanting  beds,  their  total  size  being  equal  to  trans- 
planting space  by  number  of  plants  yearly  needed  by  number  of 
years  which  the  transplants  are  left   in  such  beds. 

II.  Seed-beds,  their  total  size  being  equal  to  one  fourth  oi  size 
of  transplanting  beds  for  one  age  class  by  number  of  year-  which 
the   seedlings   are  allowed  to  stand  unt ransplanted. 

III.  Foot   paths  and  roads  equaling  30%  of  I  and  II. 

IV.  Fallow  beds  equaling  100%  of  I,  II,  and  III.  ii  seedlings 
and  transplants  are  left  for  one  year  only  in  their  beds;  50' 

II  and  III.  if  left   for  two  years;  and  33%,  if  left   for  three  years. 

B.  Form  of  beds.  Bed-  are  usually  four  to  six  feel  wide, 
separated  by  paths  one  or  two  feet  wide,  the  beds  preferably  ele- 
vated over  the  paths  by  from  three  to  twelve  inches,  so  as  to 
check  the  migration  of  insects,  mice  and  nude-.:  and  so  as  to  allow 
of  better  aeration  of  the  soil.  Sometimes  the  beds  are  kept  in 
hoard    frame-,    an    expensive    though    useful    arrangement. 

C.  The  following  factors  must  be  considered  in  selecting  the 
site   of  a   nursery: 

I.  Soil:  A  sandy  loam  or  marl  i-  best  for  seedlings.  The  correct 
degree  of  looseness  i-  secured  by  mixing  sawdust,  spent   tan,  humus, 

ashes    and    weed-    with    the    mineral    soil.      The    soil    should    ha\e    no 
7+ 


S  YLVICULTUR  E. 

stones,    in    order   to   allow   of   proper  seed  planting  and  in   order   to 
facilitate    the   digging  of   the   plant-. 

II.  Exposure:  The  best  expo-ure  is  a  gentle  northwest  slope. 
The  bottom  of  a  valley  js  too  frosty  in  spring.  Southwest  and 
southeast  slopes  are  subject  to  rapid  atmospheric-  changes.  Eastern 
aspects  invite  damage  by   frost. 

III.  Proximity   to   water   and   possibility  of   irrigation. 

IV.  Accessibility   and  distance  from  ranger's  house. 

D.  Fertilizing:  Stationary  forest  gardens  require  continuous 
fertilizing.     Crops  of   seedlings  exhaust   the  soil  like  grain. 

The  following  table  exhibits,  in  pounds  per  acre,  the  amounts 
of  fertilizing  matter  annually  consumed  by  Pine  seedlings,  Pine 
poles  and  crops  of  rye. 

Yellow  pine         Yellow  pine  Crop  of 

Fertilising  matter.  one  year  old.  eighty  years  old.  rye. 

Phosphoric  acid   '. 9.8  lbs.  1.7  lbs.  L 6.7  lbs. 

Potash    20.7   lbs.  2.8  lbs.  24.2  lbs. 

Calcium    17.2  lbs.  10.1  lbs.  9.7  lbs. 

Magnesia     3.0  lbs.  2.0  lbs.  4.2   lbs. 

Sulphuric  acid    0.0  lbs.  0.3  lbs.  1.1  lbs. 

The   following   fertilizer-   are    used    in    foresl    gardens: 

I.  Animal  manure,  which  i-  considered  best.  Cattle  manure 
is  preferred  to  horse  manure ;  on  clay  soil,  however,  horse  manure 
is  better.  Heavy  weeds  come  up  from  stable  manure  which  has 
not   bad  time  to  fully  decompose. 

II.  Commercial  fertilizer-:  Experiments  conducted  with  super- 
phosphate, bone  meal  and  so  on  have  failed  to  yield  conclusive 
results.  The  best  kalium  fertilizer  seems  to  be  kainit  (kalium 
chloride)  ;    the  best  nitrogen   fertilizer  is   sajt peter. 

After  Von  Schroeder,  the  following  quantities  of  phosphates, 
potash  and  nitrates  are  needed  to  raise  4,000,000  plant-  on  an 
acre   of  nursery: 

520   lbs.   kainit. 

60  lbs.  superphosphate. 

320  lbs.  whale  guano. 

III.  Humus,  the  natural  foresl  manure,  is  the  cheapest  fer- 
tilizer obtainable  in  the  wood-,  lluinu-  of  Pines  mixed  with  that 
of  broad-leaved  species  is  best.  Humus  just  one  year  old  is  said 
to  be  richest  in  bacilli  favorable  to  tree  growth,  and  to  be  devoid 
of  filiform  fungi  disastrous  to  plants. 

The  weed-  removed  from  nurseries  furnish,  through  their  de- 
composition, a   valuable   humus. 


SYLVICU  I.Tl   RE. 

A  mixture  of  humus  with  street  sweepings,  kitchen  refuse,  loam, 

burnt  lime,  etc.,  is  often  placed  in  huge  heaps  near  the  nurseries. 
The  heaps  are  kept  in  a  rotation  so  that  the  heap  made  in  1903 
is  used  only  in  190G.  The  heaps  are  stirred  up  repeatedly  so  as  to 
be  acted  upon  by  the  air. 

IV.  Vegetable  matter  other  than  humus.  Such  fertilizer  may 
be  obtained  by  raising,  on  the  fallow  beds,  during  the  fallow  year, 
cowpeas,  clover,  lupine  (the  latter  on  sandy  soil)  and  other  legumin- 
ous plants,  all  to  be  plowed  under  in  fall.        , 

Leguminous   plants   increase   the   nitrogen   in    the   soil. 

V.  Wood  ashes:  Excessive  use  of  wood  ashes  is  disastrous  to 
sprouting  plants,  especially  on  sandy  soil.  Besides  kalium,  wood 
ashes  contain  from  5%  to  20%  of  phosphoric  salts.  Wood  ashes 
should  be   used,  however,  moderately  in   Yellow   Pine    nurseries. 

VI.  Sod  ashes  are  recommended  where  other  fertilizers  are  too 
costly.  Sods  of  grass,  of  weeds  or  of  huckleberries  are  dried,  the 
majority  of  the  dirt  removed  and  used  to  build  a  chimney  and  a 
kiln  resembling  a  charcoal  kiln,  wherein  layers  of  sod  alternate 
with  layers  of  brushwood,  waste  thinnings,  etc.  The  kiln  is  covered 
with  sods  and  wet  dirt.  Kilns  burn,  according  to  size,  for  from 
two  days  to  two  weeks.  The  sod  ashes  contain  all  mineral  fertil- 
izers needed;  have  great  hygroscopicity  and  are  free  from  insects, 
fungi  and  other  bearers  of  plant  diseases. 

Sod  ashes  should  be  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  for  a  year  he- 
fore  use,  and  should  then  be  well  mixed  with  the  top  layer  of 
nursery   dirt. 

Paragraph  XXX.     Seed  planting  in  seed  beds. 

Seedbeds:  Prescription  for  preparation:  Plough  and  cross- 
plough  to  a  depth  of  one  foot;  mix  manure  well  with  soil:  heap 
the  dirt   taker,  from  the   paths  on  top  of  the  beds;   remove  stones. 

Seeds  are  planted  either  broadcast  or  in  drills  tn  a  depth  gen- 
erally equaling  their  longest  dimensions. 

A.  Broadcast  planting  is  always  used  in  commercial  nurseries 
while  the  sylvieulturists  use  it  only  for  seeds  of  small  germinating 
percentage  (Birch,  Elm,  Beech,  Alder  and  Yellow  Poplar]  or  in  case 
id'  very  light  grained  species  which  do  not  allow  of  any  covering. 

Broadcast  planting  is  permissible  if  seedlings  are  kept  in  the  bed 
one  year  only.  Economy  in  size  of  nursery  and  le>s  weeding  are 
the   advantages   of   broadcast   planting. 

With  the  help  of  a  roller  or,  better  still,  of  a  heavy  plank, 
the  surface  of  the  seed   led   i-  pressed  down   until  an  even   surface 


tj^t^fcCA*       J  *^~*.   -    IAvl^"^   ^^^T^        /J*"*} 


SVLVICULTIEE. 


is  obtained.  Then  the  seeds  are  planted,  dirt  or  fertilizer  or  sod 
ashes  sifted  on  top,  and  the  surface  of  the  bed  again  pressed  down 
as  before.  To  prevent  the  formation  of  a  crust,  a  cover  of  moss  or 
leaves  is  often  given,  to  be  removed  before  the  time  at  which 
the  cotyledons  are  expected  to  appear.  Better  than  moss  or  leave- 
are  coverings  consisting  of  pine  branches  (exception:  on  Pine  seeds). 

B.  Planting  in  rills.  The  rills  are  from  one-fourth  to  three  inches 
wide;  made  with  a  "rill  board,"  a  plank  well  seasoned  to  which 
mouldings  are  nailed.  These  mouldings  may  either  be  square  or 
triangular  in  their  cross  section-. 

The  rills  are  from  five  to  ten  inches  apart.  Double  rills  are 
preferred,  lately,  in  Germany.  In  order  to  economize  in  the  use  of 
fertilizer  and  in  order  to  obtain  a  compact  rout  system,  trenches 
are  sometimes  made  and  filled  with  particularly  fertile  soil,  at 
a  distance  apart  equaling  that  of  the  rills.  These  trenches  are 
made  with  a  special  ••trench  hoe,'  triangular  in  shape.  The  seed 
is  put  in  the  rill  with  the  hand,  with  the  help  of  a  reduplicated 
playing  card,  a  bottle  of  seed  or,  better,  a  -tick  2"x4"  grooved  on 
one  side  and  as  Ion-  a-  the  width  of  the  Led.  or,  best  of  all,  a 
banged  -utter  into  which  the  seeds  are  tilled  by  "  thimblefuls "  or 
"spoonfuls.''  evenly  distributed  in  the  base  of  the  guttei.  Th. 
miner  i-  placed  over  the  rill  and  opened  by  pie-sing  the  two  sides 
together,  when  the  seeds  drop  through  the  "slot."  To  insure 
even  distribution  of  the  seed  in  the  gutter,  small  niche-  mav  be 
provided  at  short,  equal  intervals  at  the  base  of  the  -utter,  the 
ice  size  of  the  cavities  corresponding  with  the  quantity  of 
seeds  to  be  planted  in  each  rill. 

Advantages  of  rill  planting: 

I.  Economy    in    seed. 

II.  Stronger  plants  of  more  compact  form  grown  at  proper 
interval-   apart. 

III.  Economy  in  manure. 

TV.  Seeds  put  at   proper  depth. 

V.  The    foot    of    plantlet    can    lie    easily    covered    with    moss 
leaves. 

VT.  Weeding  is  made   easy. 

I  nless  very  experienced  help  can  be  had.  rill-planting  i-  cer- 
tainly preferable.  Undoubtedly,  however,  insects,  mice  and  moles 
following  the  rill-  do  greater  damage  than  in  broadcast  planting. 

The  quantity  of  seed  per  square  foot  of  seed  bed  depend-  on 
the  number  of  seeds  in  a  pound:  the  germinating  percentage;  the 
quality  of   -oil:   the   number  of  years   which   the   seedling  i-  meant 


f 


SYLVII   i    I  -  11    i;  E. 


f 


to    stay    in    tin    beds;    rapidity    of   growth.     <»;ik    -' <    oi    a    quart; 

B li  and  Chestnut,  4',;   of  a  quarts  Locust,  Ash,  Maple,  Elm,  Birch, 

.in  grains;  Alders,  4.">  grains;  Fir,  160  grains;  yellow  Pine,  15 
grains;  Spruce,  20  grains;  Tamarack,  30  grains;  avoirdupois — all 
per  square  foot. 

The  figures  given  are  illustrations,  no!   prescriptions. 

Eeavy  seeds  (nuts)  are  usually  dibbled  in,  with  a  "dibhling 
board." 

Paragraph  XXXI.     Transplanting  in  transplanting  beds. 

'|-nnMl!imii1'£j_>J^  It    jnii-1    1  u-   done   at    a    time    \\  li«-n 

fore-tal  labor  is  anyhojv_J[uJi^^cu|Heil.  Transplanting  i-.  there- 
fore,   resorted    to    onlj 

.\.   In  case  of   very   expensive   seeds   or  seedlings. 

1!.   In   case  of   very   slow  growing  seedlings. 

('.  In   case   of   plants   exposed    in    the    open    to   severe 
(drought,    frost,    game,    mice,    insects,    weeds). 

To   amid    transplanting,    the    following    alternatives    ai 

I .  'ljjo  offspring  of  very   cheap  -*w\tls    (Gorman  iSpruce ) 
weaklings  or   indi\  idual-    -tandine.   ■  rowdedlv  bein 


qui    bj   hand,  or  being,  cu_t_out_  l>v 

II.   ".Hoot    pJuninu  "    is    adopted 


fgled  out. 


dangers 

■e    used: 

i-  ••  sin- 


ompact  root 
roots 


J^y___rnt_^ng_^)fl'.   will 
long  .tap   roots 

Tin'  transplanting  distance  i-.  at  leasts  three  by  six  inches  and 
i-  governed  by  rapidity  of  growth  expected  and  by  the  number  of 
years   which  the  transplant   is  to  he   left   in  the  transplanting  bed. 

Transplants  are  sel  in  clefts  in  the  transplanting  lied  made 
witli  the  help  of  a  transplanting  dagger,  or  are  placed  into  trenches 
made  with   a    hoe   or   -pade. 

Planting  hoards  may  I..'  used,  along  which  the  seedlings,  whilst 
pressed  into  equidistant  slight  grooves,  are  beld  in  proper  posi- 
tion  by   a   string   tightly   spanned. 

Tran-plant-  an-  often  left  for  one  year  only  hi  the  trans- 
planting bed,  although  the  acl  of  transplanting  weaken-  the  plant 
temporarily,  thus  cheeking  the  first  year's  growth  in  the  trans- 
planting I ied.  Conifers  should  not  lie  transplanted  more  than  once. 
Hardwoods  are  rarely  transplanted  more  than  once,  exceptin 
Ash,  saplings  of  which  are  used   for  planting  hummocks. 


Paragraph  XXXII. 

A.    Protect  ion 
eh  th  covers,  drain 


Protection  of  nurseries. 
nursery  plant-  against 

to, 


es,  cornstalks 


Lrought  :    Lath   covers, 
ring  of  slabs,  laths,  etc.; 


SYLVICULTURE. 

cultivating  rows  of  plants;    watering    which    must    be   continued  if 
once  begun. 

B.  Protection  of  nursery  plants  against  frost:  Same  measures 
as  in  "A"  inclusive  of  watering:  smoking  lives:  prosing  seedlings 
lifted  by  frost  back  into  the  bed;   no  weeding  from   September  <>n. 

('.   Protection   against   excessive   rain    (which   washes   the   plants 
out,   or   splashes   them   with   mud-pant-,    or    incrusts    the    surface): 
Top   dressing  of  leaves,  moss   or   Pine   branches;    "combing"   mud- 
pants  off  the  seedlings;   lath  or  brush  covers. 
Paragraph   XXXIII.     Nursing   in   nurseries. 

A.  Weeding:  Weeding  is  facilitated  in  nurseries  by  a  regular 
arrangement  of  the  plants  and  by  narrow  beds.  Tools  are:  knife, 
fork,  hoe  or  special  weeding  wheels.  Wee. lino-  should  be  stopped 
a  month  before  frost  comes  in.  The  purpose  of  weeding  is  not 
onlv   the   removal   of   competitors;    it    is   also   aeration   of   the    -oil. 

Weeding  can  he  dispensed  with  in  dense,  broadcast  seed  beds: 
in  thinly  stocked  beds  planted  broadcast  it  i-  mosl  oecessary  and 
most    difficult. 

B.  Cultivation:  Cultivation  in  the  transplanting  beds  of  com- 
mercial nurseries  (Beadle  ;it  Biltmore)  i-  done  by  cultivators  drawn 
by  a  horse.  Cultivation  in  foresl  nurseries  proper  purports  to 
break  the  crust  forming  under  the  influence  of  heavy  rain  fall. 
Usually  the  act  of  weeding  cultivates  the  so'il  a-  well.  Cultiva- 
tion is  most  easily  effected  by  drawing  some  strong  nails  driven 
into  a  stick  along  each  rill.  This  cultivation,  at  the  same  time, 
disturbs    and    scare-   away    mice,    voles   and    insect-. 

( I.  Carpeting  the  intervals  between  rill-  or  rows: 
Reversed  mo--,  spent  tan,  sawdust,  straw,  hay.  twigs  (always 
of  another  species),  poles  i never  fresh  cut  pine  ii.de-.  which  are 
incubators  to  snout  beetles)  ate  often  laid  between  the  rills  or 
row-  so  a-  to  preserve  moisture,  to  prevent  mud-pants  from  forming 
on  the  stemlets  and  to  check  weed-.  These  carpets,  however,  har- 
bor mice  and  insects.  Large  leaves  in  the  carpet  threaten  to 
smother   young   seedlings   if   blown    upon    them. 

D.  Trimming.  The  top  shoot  when  killed  by  early  frost  or 
drought  might  he  cut  oil'.  In  no  other  case  must  it  be  touched. 
The  side  branches  of  broad-leafed  species  and  of  winterbald  coni- 
fers might  be  clipped  before  or  after  planting  and  transplanting  so 
a-  to  reestablish  the  previous  equilibrium  existing  between  water 
sucking  power  of  the  roots  now  checked  by  transplanting  and  water 
evaporation  from  the  crownlets  left  unchecked  by  planting.  Species 
having  a  heavy  central  pith  column  should  not  be  trimmed  too 
70 


bYLVIC  I  I.  J  l   i;  E. 

close  to  tlu-  stemlet  (Ash,  Catalpa,  Maple).  Ash  and  Catalpa  are 
apt  tn  Form  forks  which  may  be  prevented  by  timely  trimming. 

Large  broad-leaved  plants  planted  in  furrows  often  die,  when 
shaken  loose  by  winds.  They  may  be  saved  it'  cut  to  the  ground 
previous   to   June    15th. 

Paragraph  XXXIV.  Special  nursery  methods  proclaimed  by  re- 
"■•*.     nowned  sylviculturists. 

A.  Biermans'  method. 

Peel  the  soil  cover  of  an  area  four  times  the  size  of  the  seed 
bed  and  burn  the  sods  thus  gotten  into  sod  ashes.  Leave  them  over 
winter.  In  Bpring,  mix  one-half  of  the  sod  ashes  with  the  stirred 
up  top  dirt  of  the  intended  seed  bed.  Spread  the  other  one-half 
pure  on  top  of  the  bed.  Smooth  the  surface  of  the  bed  and  press 
it  with  a  board.  Spread  seeds  broadcast  as  close  together  a-  pos- 
sible, so  thai  the  soil  i-  hardly  visible  between  the  grains.  Covei 
seeds  with  sod  ashes  sifted  on  top,  and  press  the  cover  down  with 
a  Imaiil.  Transplant  the  young  germs  in  June.  Shorten  the  taproot 
n!  Oaks  by  cutting  with  a  sharp  knife.  Oak  nurseries  should  lie 
underlaid  with  impenetrable  soil.  Yellow  Pine  and  Larch  should 
he  used  in  the  open  when  one  year  old:  all  other  species  two  to 
three  years   old. 

This  method  yields  very  well  incited  seedlings.  The  use  of 
sod  ashes  i-.  perhaps  nut  an  essentia]  feature  of  the  method;  fer- 
tilizer nr  manure  might  he  taken  instead.  The  striking  point 
i-   tlie  transplanting  of  germs   in  June. 

]'..  Von  Buttlar  method:  Von  Buttlar  wants  to  raise  long  roots, 
nut  compact  roots,  fur  use  in  sandy  soil.  The  nursery  i-  worked 
to  a  depth  of  three  feet,  the  bottom  soil  being  brought  to  the  sur- 
face. Larch.  Fir  and  Elm  seed  are  planted  broadcast:  all  other 
species  in  rills.  No  transplanting.  All  species  are  used  one  or 
two   year-   old. 

C.  Manteuffel  method.  The  plants  required  by  Manteuffel  musl 
bave  short,   flat    roots.     Consequently,  the  best    -oil  in   the  nursery 

shimld  he  the  tup  -nil.  and  the  ground  underneath  should  not  he 
worked    tu   any   depth. 

Remove   by    | ling   the    top    layer   of   the   soil,   and   heat    the   dirt 

out    of  the  peeled   -ml-  onto  the  - 1   beds.     Mix   it    with   the  dirt 

id"  the  underground  in  fall,  hi  spring,  hum  the  sods  and  other 
vegetable  matter  at  hand  on  the  l>ed-.  mixing  tlie  wood  ashes  thus 
(ihtained  with  tin-  Eop  soil  Spruce  -hall  not  he  transplanted  and 
i-  tn  be  used  when  Ewo  years  old.  Fir  and  all  broad-leafed  species 
must  be  i  ransplanted. 

an 


SYLVICULTURE.  • 

Paragraph    XXXV.     Raising   and    planting   hardwood    seedlings    on 
open  ground. 

Beech:  Usual  age  of  plants  fit  for  use,  two  to  five  years. 
Transplants  rarely  used.  Ball  plants  very  successful.  Bunch  plant-  ** 
ing  best,  especially  for  underplanting.  Do  not  cut  stemlet  to  the 
ground  and  avoid  pruning.  Planting  in  open  hardly  successful. 
Beech  best  for  underplanting.  Almost  light  demander  on  poor  soil. 
Beech  is  exacting  (good  soil  and  moisture).  Instruments  used 
hoe,  spiral  spade,  cleft   irons. 

Black  Locust:  Seeds  should  be  planted  two  to  two  and  one-half 
inches  deep,  an  exception  from  the  rule  considering  the  small  size  of 
the  seed.  Drills  eight  inches  apart.  Germinating  percentage  of  seeds 
very  high.  Seedlings  are  tit  for  planting  when  one  year  old.  Usually, 
however,  they  are  left  in  the  seed  bed  for  two  years,  and  are  then 
planted  directly  in  the  open.  The  planting  of  stumps  and  fall 
planting  are  strongly  recommended.  Plantations  handicapped  by 
twigboring  moth  (Ecdytolopha  species)  and  by  voles.  Locusi  grown 
in   the  open  is  inferior  to   forest   grown    Locust. 

Linden:  Is  usually  planted  in  the  open  as  a  transplant  three 
to  four  years  old,  or  as  a  hall  plant  two  to  three  years  old.  Spring 
planting.  Good  -oil  required.  Pruning  of  branches  a  necessity. 
Plantations  in  Biltmore  mad.'  in  '98  cm  splendid  soil,  but  without 
cover  overhead,  were  -low  to  develop. 

Oak-:  The  nursery  treatment  differs  greatly  according  to  local 
like-  and  forestry  authorities  relied  upon.  The  treatment  of  the 
tap  tout  i<  a  continuous  point  of  dispute.  Manteuffel  cuts  the  tap 
coot  one  am!  one-half  inches  below  ground  (just  as  the  voles  did 
in  Biltmore  nurseries).  Butt  la  r  ties  a  knot  into  the  root.  Alemann 
forbids  any  crippling  of  the  tap  root,  making  an  extra  cleft 
in  the  planting  hole  to  receive  the  tap  root.  Levret  prevents  the 
development  of  a  tap  root  by  placing  the  acorns  on  small  macadam. 
covering  them  with  one  inch  of  dirt.  The  ground  underneath  the 
macadam  must  be  hard. 

Large  areas  of  Oak  planted  in  Northern  Germany  with  the  tap 
root  cut  off  prove  the  success  of  Manteuffel's  method.  The  hollow 
borer  cannot  be  used.  Trimming  of  branches  is  all  right.  Roots 
should  be  pruned,  after  Fiirst.  with  a  sharp  spade  at  six  inches 
below  ground  in  the  second  spring.  Spring  planting  is  best.  Some 
planters  remove  the  first  germ  of  the  acorn  ("  offgerming ")  with 
«  view  to  stopping  the  development  of  the  tap  root — very  costly. 
Stump  plants  do  very  well,  especially  in  the  coppice  woods.     Usually 

81 


SYLVICUL  T  U  R  E. 

seedlings  one  and  two  years  old  arc  planted.     The  use  of  saplings, 

transplanted  repeatedly,  is  not  advisable.  Cleft  planting  of  seed- 
lings on  broomsedge  fields  at  Biltmore  proves  unsuccessful;  the 
weeds  choking  and  the  rabbits  eating  the  seedlings.  Cleft  planting 
fn  cut  over  woodlands,  however,  on  fairly  loose  soil  is  a  method 
to  be  strongly  endorsed.  In  France  the  clefts  are  made  inclined, 
not  vertical;  saplings  20  years  old  do  not  show  any  crooks  due  to 
the  method.  Planting  of  seedlings  or  of  young  transplants  in 
spade  holes,  in  furrows  or  in  clefts  made  between  the  lid  and 
the  pit  formed  by  reversed  sods  prove  successful  at  Biltmore. 
Young  plants  are  not  subject  to  lifting  by  frost  nor  do  they  suffer 
from  drought.  The  nursery  should  not  be  worked  deeper  than 
one  foot  while  the  success  of  the  final  plantation  largely  depends 
on  looseness  of  ground  at  a  greater  depth.  Generally  Red  Oak  is 
more  vigorous  in  early  youth  than  White  Oak.  At  Biltmore, 
Chestnut  Oak   is  the  best  species  for  abandoned  fields. 

Chestnut:  Soil  well  worked  to  a  depth  of  sixteen  inches,  kalium 
a  necessity,  lime  disastrous.  Seedling  planting  (plants  one  or  two 
years  old)    forms   the   rule;    planting  of  stumps  is   also  good. 

Since  Chestnut  is  very  sensitive  under  changed  conditions  of 
growth,  ball  planting  is  probably  the  best  method.  Seeds  are  kept 
in  the  burrs  over  winter,  or  in  layers  alternating  with  layers  of 
dry  sand.  Immediate  fall  planting,  however,  is  best.  Nuts  are 
planted  in  drills  two  inches  deep  two.  inches  apart,  the  drills  six 
to  twelve  inches  apart.  At  Biltmore  planting  of  seedlings  has  met 
with  continuous  failure.  Planting  under  cover  or  under  an  usher 
growth  is  probably  advisable.  Chestnut  is  exacting,  needing  atmos- 
pheric as   well   as  soil  moisture. 

Tree  Alder:  It  is  usually  planted  as  a  transplanl  three  to  five 
years  old.  Yearlings  are  too  small;  seedlings  two  years  old  can 
be  ball  planted.  Trimming  allowed.  Seeds  planted  broadcast  on 
the  beds,  one- fourth  inch  of  dirt  <>n  too/'  Sprinkling  necessary.  No 
protection  against  atmosphere  needetl.  <  >n  swampj  ground,  fall 
planting  of  transplants  is  best. 

Birch:  Seeds  very  poor;  those  of  Black  Birch  mature  in  sum- 
mer. Seed-  mii-t  be  covered  very  slightly  <>r.  better  perhaps,  must 
be  beaten  with  a  shovel  into  the  nursery  soil  after  broadcasting. 
Formation  of  crust  over  seeds  is  besl  prevented  by  a  cover  of 
Pine  branches.  Under  lath  screens,  sterna  are  apj  to  damp  off  in 
.June.  Seedlings  are  planted  either  as  two  year  <dds.  with  or 
without   balls,   or  as   transplanfecl   stumps  three   to   five   years  old. 


. 


SYLVICUL  T  U  K  E. 

birch   is   sensitive    to   deep   planting;    is   not   affected   by    heat,   frost 
or   drought. 

Ash:  The  easiest  species  among  hardwoods  to  raise,  plant  and 
transplant.  Planted  as  a  seedling  one  year  old  or  transplanted  up 
to  three  times.  Plants  as  old  as  eight  years  can  be  planted  suc- 
cessfully without  balls.  Seed  is  placed  in  rills  seven  to  twelve 
inches  apart.  Where  soil  is  very  weedy,  large  and  strong  trans-  +J 
plants  must  be  used.  Planting  in  holes,  on  mounds  or  in  furrows. 
The  cleft  spade  is  also  permissible  in  planting  yearlings  Trimming 
is  not  advisable,  except  to  prevent  formation  of  forks.  Transplant- 
ing of  germs,  in  June,  is  quite  successful. 

Elm:  Seeds  to  be  planted  in  summer  (excepting  Slippery 
Elms),  just  after  ripening,  in  rich  nurseries,  and  to  receive  very 
light  cover  of  sand.  Seed  beds  must  be  sprinkled,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  a  crust  must  be  prevented.  Seedlings  cannot  penetrate 
a  layer  of  one-half  an  inch  of  dirt.  Usually,  transplants  three  to 
five  years  old  are  used.  Fall  planting  is  preferred.  Elms  stand 
trimming   easily. 

Maple:  Drills  three-fourth  inches  deep,  one  inch  wide,  twelve  ^>t£+* 
inches  apart.  Transplanting  takes  place  when  seedlings  are  one 
or  two  years  old.  Seedlings  grow  rapidly.  Fall  planting  is  pre- 
ferable. Planting  in  large  holes  is  best,  since  Maple  cannot  form 
a  compact  root  system.  Sugar  Maple  planted  at  Biltmore  on 
abandoned  fields  four  years  old  did  very  well  on  North  Slopes, 
in  pure  stands  as  well  as  mixed  with  White  Tine.  Maple  is 
easily  transplanted,  and  even  yearlings  or  two  year  olds  might 
be  planted  in  the  open  on  good  soil.  In  swamps,  Red  and 
Soft  Maple  are  preferable.  Sugar  Maple  requires  well  drained 
soil. 

Yellow  Poplar:  Very  poor  seeds,  hence  broadcast  planting.  Cov- 
ering with  spent  sawdust,  instead  of  dirt,  seems  advisable.  Seed- 
lings transplanted  either  as  germs  in  first  summer  or  when  one 
year  old.  Very  rapid  growth  in  first  and  second  year.  Easily 
transplanted  in  holes  on  suitable  soil.  Seedlings  can  be  taken  in 
June  and  July  from  wood  roads  to  the  nurseries,  with  balls  of 
dirt.  Abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore,  planted  with  four  year  olds 
did  poorly  except  in  northern  depressions,  strong  soil  needed.  ** 
Compact    soil   not    unfavorable. 

Catalpa:  The  favorite  Kansas  prairie  tree.    Very  high  germinat- 
ing   percentage.      Very    fast    growth    in    first    year.      Rills    one    inch 
by   one   inch   by   twelve   inches.      Seedling  plants   one   year  old  are 
strong    enough    for    planting.      Stump    plants    are    preferable.      At 
83 


SYLVII   i    i.  i  i    i:  I. 

Biltmore  the  top  -1 1    is  often  killed   bj    frost;   il   should  certainly 

be  'Hi  off  after  planting.  (  atalparc()iiiiju^  yvlieat.  s<;il  in  -order 
to  ii'iin  proper  hole,  and  dot's  1 1 ■ .  1  answer  in  a  cold  climate  Spring 
planting  in  holes  or  furrows. 

Walnuts:  The  planting  of  seedlings  is  onlj  permissible  where 
mice,  squirrels  and  hogs  arc  sure  to  gel  the  outs.  Ver\  ling  taps 
tnake  planting  difficult.  Best  soil  needed.  Small  seedlings  are 
choked  mil  by  weeds.  Plants  one  to  three  years  old  to  be  used. 
Avoid  pure  plantations!  Cover  in  the  nurseries  three  inche  lis 
Mine   apart    lour  to  ten  inches. 

Eickory:  To  be  treated  like  Walnuts;  during  the  first  years, 
the  stems  remain  very  minute  while  a  large  tap  root  forms.  Voles 
follow  along  the  rows  of  plants  and  cul  off  the  roots  at  a  i>;«int 
about    one   inch   below  ground.     Loose,   porous   soil   is   needed. 

Cherry:  Planted  in  rills  one-half  inch  deep  and  eight  inches 
apart.  Transplants  two  or  three  years  old,  transplanted  when  one 
year  old  are  best  for  use  in  the  open.  Protection  from  rabbits 
peeling  the  stumps  is  required.  Rapid  growth  in  nurseries.  Twig 
tips  arc  usually  killed  by  the  first  frost  since  the  twigs  -row 
during  the  whole  summer  and  fall.  Pruning  required.  Black  Chern 
doc--  weii  on  abandoned  fields  mixed  with  White  Pine,  Pine,  Ash, 
Maple. 

Sassafras:  Planting  of  seed  in  nurseries  at  Biltmore  has  been 
an  entire  failure.  The  seeds  lived  through  the  first  summer  but 
did  not  begin  to  sprout.  Deep  cover  required,  since  cotyledons 
are  kept  under-round.  The  removal  of  the  flesh  enwrapping  the 
Beed    (by  malting,  etc.),  seems  required  before  planting. 

Paragraph   XXXVI.      Raising   and   planting    softwood    seedlings   on 
open  ground. 

Yellow  Pines:  Seeds  arc  covered  two-fifths  to  three-fifths  inches 
deep.  Nursery  soil  to  be  pressed  thoroughly  before  and  alter  seed 
planting.  Planting  of  yearlings  (from  5,000  to  10,000  per  acre) 
forms  the  rule.  The  roots  of  such  yearlings  arc  ten  inche-  long. 
(in  sandy  soil,  cleft  planting  is  universal  (with  planting  dagger). 
On   binding  soil,   ball   plants  one  or  two  years  old   are  best. 

Recently    some    foresters    began    to   use    transplants    two    years 

old    which    more   readily    overcome   the   infantile   diseases.      No   mound 
nor  lmnch   planting.     <  >n   verj    sandy   soil    Yellow    Pines  are  planted 
deeper    (up   to   first    needles)    than    they    stood    in    the    nursery.      A 
plantation  ten  years  old  should  densh   cover  the  ground. 
84 


* 


V*  SYLVICULTURE. 

•lack    Pine    (Pinus    divaricata)    does    very    well    on    the   poorest 
i    sand.      It    is,   however,    handicapped    by    deer;    very    rapid    growth. 

V  Pinus  rigida  crawls  on  the  ground  during  the  first  and  second  year, 
J  putting  up  a  strong  stem  thereafter.  Pinus  sylvestris  (Scotch  Pine) 
y    is  the  cheapest  that  can  be  planted  and  the  most   successful  species 

^  at  Axton.    At  Biltmore  it  does  exceedingly  well  on  dry  south  slopes.       -      _7 
%  White  Pine:   Quite  different  from   Yellow   Pine  is  the  ease  with       rT^ 

v  which   it   is   transplanted.      Seedlings    one_veaijjdd^_are   very    smalb/' 

V  and  apt  to  suffer  from  leaves  smothering  them.  Seedlings  two  years 
7  old  have"  been  planted  at  Hi  It  mure  on  abandoned  fields  (in  holes) 
3  yery~  successfully!  Transplants  "three ^  and^imrF~years  old  are  usually 
a  used.  Owing  to  its  greater  shade  bearing  qualities  White  Pine  may 
J  be  used  also  for  temporary  underplanting.  Seedlings  -utl'er  badly 
-  from  fungi.  White  Pine  is  subject  to  damage  from  too-deep  plant.  - 
^  bag.  At  Axton,  the  best  and  strongest  individuals  form  a  second 
^  summer  -1 t.  the  buds  of  which  are  killed  by  early  frost,  so  that 

J     no  top  shoot  grows  in   the  ensuing  year.     At   Biltmore,   the   second  -A- — ". 

*     shoot    seems    tu    be    safe    from    frost.  "  ' '~  "         yaM^t**** 

Relative  To  "other    YVlnte    Pines    (llexilis.    monticola,    albicaulis,  f 

\  Jambertiana,    aristata)    no    information    is    available. 

Spruce:  Nursery  rills  one  inch  wide,  live  inches  apart.  Trans- 
planting distance  usually  four  by  six  inehe--.  Slow  growth  at 
first.  Smallest  size  that  may  be  used  are  seedlings  two  years  old. 
Ball  planting  best,  bunch  planting  frequent  in  mountains.  Trans- 
plants three  to  five  years  old  are  preferable.  Plant  in  holes,  never 
4ff  clefts.  Very  sensitive  to  deep  planting.  Spring  planting  forms 
the  rule  except  in  high  mountains.  High  atmospheric  moisture  is 
a  prerequisite  for  Spruce,  pp  not  trim.  Number  of  plants  per 
acre  from  1,500  transplants  to  10,000  seedlings.  Picea  excelsa  might 
replace  P.  rubens  (the  former  being  cheaper),  if  the  resistance  to 
snow-breaks  shown  by  rubens  were  equalled  by  excelsa.  Planta- 
tions  twelve   years    old   should   fully    cover   the   ground. ___ 

Firs:  Seed  should  be  planted  in  fall.  Pvills  close,  say  four 
inches:  cover,  one  half  inch.  .Early  growth  very  slow;  lath  screens 
very  essential,  owing  to  sensitiveness  of  youngsters  to  heat  and 
cold.  Transplants  five  years  old  are  best.  Planting  on  open  ground 
is  dangerous:  underplanting  is  very  advisable.  Species  most  planted 
are  Abies  pectinata,  balsamea,  concolor. 

Larch    or    Tamarack :     The    Western.    European    and    Japanese 
Larch   are   scattering  species,  doing  badly   in  pure   stands.     Growth 
in   early   youth   is   rapid.     Seedlings   two   years  old  and   transplants^^" 
three  years  old  are  preferred  for  forest   planting.     The  distance  of/^-t- 


% 


SYLVICULTURE. 

the   rills,   and    the    transplanting   distance    must    be   comparatively 

wide. 

S Llings  mighl    be  clefl   planted;   but   1 1 < >  1  c  planting  forms  the 

rule.  Fall  planting  necessary.  Larch  permits  of  heavy  trimming. 
Mulch  seeds  for  one  week  before  planting.  European  Larch  does 
■well  at  Biltmore  and   in  the  Adirondacks. 

Eemlock:  Grows  very  slowly  in  youth.  Seedbeds  require  heavy 
sheltering  (under  cloth  screens).  Transplant  the  two  year  olds,  and 
plant   the  five  year  olds  under  cover  in  the  woods. 

Douglas  Fir:  Seeds  are  still  expensive;  hence  transplants  four 
years  old  are  usual,  though  seedlings  two  years  old  are  certain  ot 
success.  Hot-house  treatment  of  seeds  secures  early  and  simultane- 
ous sprouting.  Plant  seedlings  in  open  ground,  not  under  cover. 
Plantations  made  near  London,  England,  lose  the  long  top  shoots 
by  sea  winds:  at  Axton,  they  suffer  from  frost;  at  Biltmore,  the 
growth  is  strikingly  poor,  possibly  due  to  the  deficiency  in  atmos- 
pheric humidity.  Plants  14  years  old  are  hardly  chest  high:  plants 
11  years  old  only  knee  high.  In  all  cases  the  Washington  variety  i- 
used.  Varietas  glauca,  of  Colorado,  forms  one  summer  shoot  only. 
grows   slowly,  and  is  said  to  be  more  hardy. 

Red  Cedar:  Juniperus  virginiana :  Seeds  lies  always  dormant  for 
one  summer.  Seedlings  two  years  old  are  ready  for  planting.  High 
lath  screens  in  nurseries  advisable  (Green).  Very  -low  growth. 
Shade  bearing. 

Lawson's  Cypress:  Majids  intense  shade,  resists  frosts,  suffers 
from   fungi;    is    well    adapted   to   nnd^plantnig. 

Paragraph  XXXVII.     Results  of  planting  experiments  with  Amer- 
ican hardwoods. 

For  many  years,  the  governmental  forestry  bureaus  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire  have  been  examining  into  the  merits  of  some  Leading 
American   tree   species. 

Locust  and  White  Pine  have  been  planted  so  extensively  that 
they  arc  considered   to  be  "naturalized   forest   citizens." 

In  ;i  cumber  of  instances,  the  European  view-  tail  to  tally  with 
the  results  of  American  investigations  made  with  reference  to  the 
sylvics   of   our   leading   species. 

A.  Fraxinus  americana:  requirements  a-  in  excelsa;  stands  in- 
undation better     even  long  one- : 

Germination  in  firsl   spring;  no  overlying. 

Plant   Beeds  in   fall,  or  else  in   early  Bpring  after  three  days  soak- 
ing.    One  ynr  old,  one   foot   high. 
86 


a:    mild, 

fresh    soil    required,    and    long    warm 

old,  stron 

g   tap-roots  over  one  foot   long;   root 

-root  tip. 

-  old,  the 

tap-ioot  is  over  two  and  one-quarter 

5    years 

old,      .">    feet. 

10    years 

old.    13    feet. 

20    years 

old,    35    feet. 

SYLVICULTURE. 

Use   transplants   two   or   three   years   old. 

Root   is  a  tap-root  with  many   side  r 

Mayr  does  not  advocate  its  propagation  anywhere  in  Germany. 

B.  Catalpa    speeiosa:    suffers  badly   from    short   summers,  often 
freezing  down  to  ground.     Hence  frequently  spreading  growth. 

Seeds  of  high  germinating  percentage. 
Use  either  seedlings  or  transplants  two  years  old. 
Light    demanding,   but   fond   of   side   shade. 

Mice   peel    at   point    of    differentiation:    all    game    are    fond   of 
Catalpa. 

C.  Juglans    nigra : 
summers. 

When  one  year 

fibres  at  end  of  tap- 
When  two  year; 

feet   long. 

Height  growth: 


Decidedly  light  demanding:    fond  of  side  shade   in  early  youth. 

Yellow  Pine  shelter  wood  i<  very  good:  More  shade  prevents 
lignification.     In  close  stands,  it   is   free  from   branches. 

Xuts  sprouting  late  (being  dried  out)  cause  shoots  to  be  killed 
by  early  frost:   Hence  pregermination  advisable. 

Frost  hard  in   sapling   stage. 

Xo  game  or  mice  enemies. 

Plant  nuts  or  yearlings  on  well-plowed  ground,  and  cultivate. 
Plant  close  together,  so  as  to  avoid  branchiness.  Prune  lignified 
branches   only,  owing   to  heavy   pith  column. 

D.  Prunus   serotina:    Modest,  provided    soil  is   moist. 

Light  demanding,  but  does  well  under  slight  Pine  cover. 

Roots   many  tapped,  strong. 

Height  growth  better  than  that  of  any  European  hardwood, 
save  Ash.  ^^ 

5  years  old.     C  feet  high.  k \1/A 

10  years  old,  13  feet  high.  Jr  J^^^ 

15  years  old,  22  feet  high.  fi/^ 

Proof  against   all  effects   of   frost!  \\4tm 

Rabbits   cut   and  peel    (also   mice)    young   plants. 

Seed-beds:  plant  in  fall,  to  avoid  lying  over,  or  else  soak  in 
water  for  three  days  previous  to  planting  in  spring. 


SI  LVI<   I   LTUB  K. 

I  se  transplants  three  years  old;  planl  close,  to  avoid  >ide 
branches. 

E.  Ace]-  saccharum:  Fresh,  sandj  loam,  or  fresh  Band;  forming 
stool-shoots   on  dry   soil,  and   no   stem. 

Growth  quick;   lighl  demanding;  strong  root  -ystem. 

Forms  forks  frequently   15  feet  ahove  ground. 

Height  35   feet,   when   20   years  old. 

Most  t'nist  bard  of  anj  Maple  species.  Game  and  rabbits 
despise  it. 

Seeds  mature  in  June,  and  can  be  planted  at  once,  but  are 
just   as  well  preserved   and    planted    in    spring. 

Use  seedlings  two  years  old,  or  transplants,  four  years  old. 

F.  Acer  neguhdo:  Requires  strong  soil;  does  not  do  on  dry 
soil.  Growth  very  quick  to  start  with— up  to  G  feel  in  -  years, 
in  20   years   50  feet. 

Development  of  low,   branchy   crown. 

Light   demanding,   frost   proof. 

Use   seedlings   one  year  old. 

Damaged  by  game  and  rabbits. 
\S'\i>fa.      /ir  Acer  >aeeliarinum:   Requires  strong  soil;   not  clay. 

Growth  slower  than  in  other  Maples,  up  to  fifth  year.  20  years 
old  35  feet  high. 

Apt  to  form   forks. 
•  p_      Sensitive  agajpqj^jpfflj   and  drought :    requires  shade;  does  best 
when   used  for  underplanting. 

Use  transplanted  small  saplings. 

Never   plant   on   open   ground!!! 

Mayr  recommends  it  only  for  sugar  orchards — not  for  timber 
production. 

II.  Betula  lenta:  Avoids  wet  frost  dells  and  poor  dry  soil; 
forms  tap-root  on  sand  and   flat-root    mi   clay. 

Height  in  5  years  5  feet;  in  20  years  36  feet. 

Growth  bushy  to  start  with,  but  soon  straight,  elect  and  free 
from  branches. 

Decidedly  light   demanding,   bul    fond   of   side  shade. 

No  more  frost  -proof  than  Beech.  Late  and  early  frost  damages 
it,   especially    on    wet    clay. 

Game,  rabbits  and  mice  are  very  dangerous. 

Seed-bed  should  not  be  dug  over.  Peel  off  the  top  cover  of  grass 
and  weeds  on  humose  sand:  hoe  the  soil  and  then  use  roller.  Plant 
broadcast,  one  pound   for  two  Bquare   poles;   v^wy  by  sifting  one- 


SYLVICULTURE. 

twenty-fifth  inch  of  sand  on  the  seeds  and  roll  again  with  roller; 
keep  Pine   branches  on  the   seed-bed  until   alter  germination. 

Use  tall  transplants  for  planting  in  the  open,  owing  to  annual 
dangers. 

Red  Birch  is  said  to  do  well  planted  with  Pine  on  abandoned 
fields,    further  united   with   natural  regeneration   of  Beech. 

I.  Hicoria  ovata:  All  Hickories  require  strong,  deep,  fresh,  soil. 
Not  on  clay. 

Pignut  is  satisfied  With  more  sand. 

Mockernut  is   satisfied  with   more  clay. 

Butternut  requires  water,  more  than  the  others,  and  stands 
inundation. 

All  Hickories  require  hoi  summers  but  stand  severe  winters; 
hence   continental  climate   is   preferable   to   sea   climate. 

Tap-rooi  of  yearling  one  foot  long;  of  two  year  old  plant  one 
and  three-quarter  feet;  hence  transplanting  after  two  years  very 
difficult. 

Height  growth  begins  to  set  in  from  sixtli  year,  and  i-  good  then. 

Age      .">    years,    average    height      2.4    feet. 

Age    10   years,   average    height      7       feet. 

Age    15   years,   average    height    13      feet. 

Age,   20   years,   average    height   20      feet. 

Buds  open  late   but   shoot    is    quickly    made. 

Nuts  germinate  slowly;  hence  malting  or  better  repeated  sprink- 
ling with  liquid  manure  advisable:  many  nuts  lie  over,  even  for  two 
years.     Nuts  thoroughly  dried  lose  germinating  power. 

Malting  or  "  pregermination  "  advisable. 

In  the  case  of  Hickory  and  Walnut,  the  following  recipe  for 
pregermination  is  given: 

"Make  a  ditch  three  feel  deep  and  wide:  put  nuts  in  the 
ditch  to  a  depth  of  one  foot:  fill  ditch  with  water  up  to  top  of  nuts; 
then  add  a  slight  cover  of  straw;   then  dirt:  then  horse  manure. 

•'In  this  ditch  the  nuts  are  kept  until  planting  time,  when  the 
nuts  will  germinate  a  few  weeks  after  planting   (in  May)." 

Plant  seedlings  one  or  two  years  old,  or  else  nuts,  on  plowed 
ground.     Cultivating  advisable. 

Late  frost  is  avoided  by  the  late  formation  of  shoots.  Early 
frosts  are  bad,  if  seedlings  did  not  have  time  to  lignify  owing  to 
late  germination. 

Avoid  planting  on  open  ground:  shade  is  born  readily  for  a 
number  of  years!!  Straggling  plantations  often  develop  after 
natural  or  artificial   reinforcing  with  other  species. 


SI  LVIUULTURE. 

Young  plants  Buffer  from  mice.  Damaged  seedlings  Bhould  be 
coppiced  down. 

J.  Hicoria  minima-:  Height  growth  quicker  to  begin  with  than 
in  Shagbark. 

At    20    years,    however,   Shagbark    catches    up. 

Wood   much   poorer  than  in  Shagbark    (more   brittle). 

K.  Hicoria  glabra:  Like  Shagbark;  more  modest  as  to  soil; 
more  sensitive  as  to  frost  (?). 

L.  Hicoria    alba:    .Mure   sensitive    than   Shagbark;    same    rate   of 
growth:   does  well  in  the   Westerwald,  badly   in   river  valleys. 
Paragraph  XXXVIII.     Results  of  planting  experiments  with  Amer- 
ican softwoods. 

A.  Pinus  divaricata:  Very  modest:  Stands  frost  and  drought 
and  does  not  shed  needles. 

Root   system   tap-rooted,   many   fibred. 

Height  growth  very  rapid,  several  shoots  per  summer.  Better 
than  Scotch  Pine. 

2  years  old,     8  inches  high. 

S  years  old,     5     feet     high. 

8  years  old,  10     feet     high. 

(lame  and  hares  handicap  it,  still  there  is  strong  reproductive 
power. 

Seed  one-half  pound  per  square  pole;  seed  has  60%  germina- 
tion;  cones  fertile  from   sixth  year  on. 

Use  yearlings  or  transplants  two  to  three  years  old  for  the 
very  poorest  soil. 

B.  Pinus  ponderosa:  Fails  absolutely  in  (.ermanv.  probably 
wing  to  insufficient  summer  heat. 

C.  Pinus  rigida:  Very  modest;  does  well  in  salty  swamps; 
Buffers   badly   from    snow-pressure. 

When  5  years  old,  7  feet  high. 

When   2H  years  old,  32  feet  high. 

Growth  is  very  rapid,  but  from  12  years  on  P.  sylvestris 
catches  up  and  then  keeps  ahead. 

Diameter  growth  better  than  in  sylvestris,  too. 

Strong  reproductive  power  after  insects,  game,  fire. 

Very  lighl  demanding, 

Cones  seed-bearing  from  twelfth  year  on. 

More  proof  against  late  frost,  more  sensitive  for  early  frost 
than  sylvestris. 

Less  shedding  of  needles;  more  danger  from  game. 

Use  yearlings,  or  transplants  two  years  old. 
90 


SYLVICLLTU 


JL^f 


sis:   Requires  moist  soil  and  moist  air.  JL^*^(    t 

ts   as   in  P.   excelsa.  ^&l^t^lf    Jt\ 


D.  Picea  engelmanni/  likes  strong  hut  not  wet  soil — it  is  winter 
frost    hard ;    but   suffers    slightly    from    late    frosts. 

Hoot   system   deep,   many    fibred;    not   flat. 

Dislikes  top  shade. 

Yearling  only  one  to  two  inches  high;  two  years  old  four 
inches  high;    five  years  old  one  foot  high. 

Height  growth  always  slow,  hence  easily  outgrown,  and  pure 
stands  required. 

Use   transplants,   five   years   old. 

E.  Picea  parravana:   Very  frost  proof,  more   so  than  any  other 

•Stands  wet  soil;  not  exacting. 
No  top  shade. 

Root  system  compact,  fine  fibred. 
Slow  early  growth,  as   in   Engelmann's    Spruce. 
Plantations    10    years    old    average   one   and   three-quarter    feet 
only  in  height. 
Animal  proof. 

F.  Picea  sitchensis: 
Heat  requirements 
Soil  requirements  less  than  in  P.  excelsa,  growing  both  on  sand 

and  on  clay.    Not  in  stagnating  moisture,  but  stands  inundation  well. 

Does   well   on   seashore   and    on   high   altitudes. 

Height  growth  at  first  very  slow;  from  fifth  year  on  better  than 
in  excelsa. 

Short  branches,  slowly  dropped;  close  stand  required,  fond  of 
forking. 

No   head   shade!      Side   shade   welcome   but   not   required. 

Frost  and  drought  only  dangerous  during  first  and  second  year. 

Game   does   not  bother  it. 

Seed-beds  of  mild,  rich  soil  to  strengthen  weak  seedlings. 

Use  strong  transplants,  five   years  old. 

G.  Abies  amabilis:  Plants  live  years  old  are  still  very  sensitive 
against   direct   insolation   and  subject   to   late   frosts. 

Rate  of  growth  as  in  A.  pectinata. 

H.  Abies  concolor:  Spring  shoots  formed  late;  resists  jfrost 
and    any    other    climatic   attacks    well! 

Not  exacting  as  to  soil,  doing  well  on  Scotch  Pine  soil  of  second 
quality,  provided  that  it   be   fresh.  ^ttfU~  JLpjL^*2*j^  £ 

Tap-root   formed   in   second  year. 

Height   groAvth   in   early   youth   better   than   in   any   other   lir: 
plants  eight  years  old  have  average  height  of  three  feet. 
01 


s  \  LVICI    I.T  i    R  I-.. 
•  in  good  soil  even  Spruce  i-  outgrown  by  it. 

^ i  '■  "•'■<•  i*w-  rrnv-  n3£U' 

Seedlings  two  years  old  are  lit  for  planting. 

Sensitive  against    being  planted   tod  deep. 

Seed-bed  treatment  as  in  A.  pectinata. 

I.  Allies  grandis:  Treatment  as  in  pectinata,  which  it  exceeds 
in  height   growth.     Soil   requirements  are   the   same. 

■  I.  Abies  nobilis:  Frost  firm  in  winter,  even  unprotected.  Late 
spring  shoots  help  it   to  escape  late  frosts. 

stands  dry  soil]  from  fifth  year  on,  more  light  demanding. 
Forms  strong  tap-root,  and  sometimes  several  branch  whirls  per 
annum.  Plantation  seven  years  old  is  three  and  one-half  feet 
high. 

l'lant  seedlings  two  years  old,  or  transplants  four  years  old. 

i\.  Pseudotsuga  taxifolia:   Suitable  to  any  climate,  fros^  proof. 

Soil  should  not  be  poorer  than  third-class  Tine  soil;  no  dunes; 
no  swamps. 

Root  tap-root  on  loose  soil,  flat  on  shallow  soil  or  binding  soil, 
showing  great  adaptibility. 

Height   growth   marvelous! 

Age     5  years  height     1.7  feet. 

Age   10  years  height   12      feet. 

Age    15   years   height   29      feet. 

Age   20  years  height  45      feet. 

Age  23   years   height   53      feet. 

Diameter.  23  year-  old,  from  three  inches  to  ten  inches,  average 
sever,  inches;  number  of  trees   per  acre  350. 

Close  stand  required  to  clear  from  branches. 

Light  and  heat  demands  as  in  Picea  excelsa. 

Snow  and  sleet  throw  it  over,  or  break  top  -hoot,  the  latter  h>-s 
being  quickly  replaced  by  side  shout   taking  lead. 

Game    is   a    very    bad    enemy. 

Use   transplants   three   to   four  years  old. 

L.  Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana:  Does  splendidly  in  Germany 
especially  in  the  Eifel  Mountains  at   1,500  feel  elevation. 

Lro-t-proofj   but  sensitive   in   drought. 

l.xaeting  like  Beech,  fond~~oF limestone. 

Flat-rooted:    sutler-    from    -now. 

Shad"  bearing  in  early  youth:  fond  of  half  shade  later  on; 
always  fond  of  side   -hade. 

Slow  in  clearing  itself  from  side  branches;  forms  very  close 
stands. 

92 


S  V  L  VIOULTUE  E. 

Very  slow  growth  to  start  with;  one  year  one  inch  high;  two 
years  four  inches  high;  ten  years  eight  inches  high. 

Plant  seed-beds  broadcast.  Cover  completely.  Use  transplants 
four  to  five  years  old.     Sensitive  for  too  deep  planting. 

Game  are  very  bad:  wood  mice  peel  the  stump,  or  cut  the  roots. 

Less  sensitive  in  late  frost  because  late  sprouting;  more  so  in 
winter  frost. 

M.   Tuniperus  virginiana:  Avoid  poor  or  wet  soil. 

Seeds  lie  over,  always;  seedlings  one  to  two  years  old  are  very 
small  and  tender.  Side  shade  always  liked.  Suffering  from  weeds 
and  grass.     Eed  deer  and  Roe  deer  bite  and  beat  it. 

Seeds  kept  in  ditches  over  summer  are  planted  in  fall. 

Use    yearlings    and    hole    planting. 

N.  Thuja   plicata:    Desires   good,    fresh    soil. 

Xo    swampiness!       No    dryness! 

Top  shade  or  side  shade  i<  well  liked:  do  not  plant  in  open 
ground. 

Deep  root   system. 

Height,  growth  slow  to  begin  with,  rapid  from  seventh  year  on: 

Age     1      year;    height      1        inch. 

Age     5  years;   height     4v,  feet. 

Age  10  years;   height     8       feet. 

Age  15  years;    height   15       feet. 

Age  20  years;  height  23      feet. 

Slow   cleaning  of   bole;    very  dense   thickets  required. 

Seed  bearing  from   fifteenth  year  on. 

Sensitive    for   frosts    and   drought    during  first    year-. 

Game  does  not  attack  it:  mice  destroy  young  seedlings. 

Seeds  are  planted  broadcast;  slightly  covered  with  dirt;  shel- 
tered by  lath  screens. 

Strong  seedlings  three  years  old  (not  transplants)  are  used 
since  the  toot  system  is  comparatively  small,  whilst  the  stem  system 
is    comparatively   large 

0.  Tsuga  heterophy  11a :    Requires  strong  soil;  demands  side  shade, 
but   hates  top   shade.     Cannot   stand  open  situations. 

Root   is, a   strong   tap-root. 

Height   growth   good   from    third   year   on. 

Top-shoot-tips  are  frequently  killed  by  first  frost,  without  any 
apparent   permanent   damage! 

Use  seedlings   three  years   old,  raised  by   broadcast   sowing. 

Shelter  seed-beds  well!     Sjgjrsjtjye  against  deep  planting. 

Mayr  prefers  heterophylla  to  canadensis  for  planting  in  Ger- 
many. 

9Z 


J    SYLVICULTURE. 


Paragraph  XXXIX.     Difficulties  of  natural  seed  regeneration. 

American  foresters  frequently  make  the  statement  that  the  axe 
is  the  best  sylviculture!  tool  inasmuch  as  its  proper  use  secures  a 
good  regeneration  free  of  charge.  This  statement  is  misleading.  It 
is  true  that  the  density  of  the  stand  of  the  second  growth  obtain- 
able from  natural  regeneration  is  frequently  better  than  that 
obtained  from  artificial  planting.  On  the  other  hand,  such  a  stand 
can  only  be  obtained  under  favorable  conditions  and  at  a  great 
increase  of  logging  expenses.  While  the  cash  expense  of  natural 
reseeding  might  be  slight,  the  actual  expense  consisting  in  lessened 
receipts   frequently  exceeds  the  expenses  of  artificial   planting.     In 

i  lie   primeval    w Is   additional   difficulties   of  seed  regeneration  lie 

in  the  following  points: 

A.  '  iveraged  trees  have  jioor  seeds. 

B.  Interference  with  the  leaf  canopy  overhead  at  once  invites 
danger  from  fire,  increased  by  the  debris  on  the  ground,  and  by 
the   impossibility   of  battling  against  fires  in  the   underbrush. 

C.  In  the  primeval  forest,  the  age  classes  are  usually  mixed  in 
an  irregular  manner;  hence  uniform  measures  for  reproduction  are 
out  of  the  question.  The  forester  cannot  generalize;  lie  must 
individualize — a  very  expensive  procedure  in  the  face  of  low  stump- 
age  values. 

D.  The  virgin  forest  usually  contains  a  mixture  of  species;  the 
best  ones  only  are  removable;  the  weeds  and  worthless  species  are 
left  on  the  ground;  and  from  this  fact  arise  additional  difficulties 
to  propagate  the  most  valuable  kinds.  To  this  must  be  added  the 
difficulty  of  properly  gauging  light  and  shade  according  to  the 
individualities   of   the   species   mixed. 

E.  In  America  the  lack  of  a  permanent  system  of  transporta- 
tion necessitates  the  operations  to  extend  at  one  stroke  over  large 
areas,  whilst  natural  seed  regeneration  requires  the  gradual  removal 
of  mother  trees,  in  imitation  of  nature's  own  way  of  proceeding, 
on   small  and  restricted  areas  only. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  lack  of  permanent  means  of  transporta- 
tion in  primeval  woods  is  the  mosi  serious  obstacle  to  regeneration 
from   self-sown  seed  conscious  of  its  aim  and   its  effect. 

F.  Natural  seed  regeneration  requires  cutting,  according  to  the 
i  jcurrence  of  seed  years  and  according  to  the  development  and 
requirements  of  young  growth.  Hence  the  axe  must  be  inde- 
pendent from  the  fluctuations  of  market  or  mill  requirements,  an 
impossibility  in  the  United  state-  at   the  presenl    time. 

04 


\ 


SYLVICULTURE. 


The  term  "  natural  seed  regeneration "  does  not  preclude  arti- 
ficial help  to  increase  the  chances  of  regeneration.  The  term  merely 
implies  "  seeding,"  or  scattering  of  seed,  in  the  main  unaided  by 
man.  Man,  however,  may  carefully  prepare  the  seed-bed,  by  plowing 
or  hoeing  or  digging,  or  may  carefully  press  the  seeds  naturally 
fallen  into  contact  with  the  soil;  and  may  protect  the  seed  and 
the  seedlings,  at  great  pains,  against  external  dangers. 

Little  help  is  given,  where  soil  and  stumpage  are,  and  promise 
to   remain,   of   small   value. 

Under  the  reversed  conditions,  the  expense  incurred  for  natural 
regeneration  often  exceeds  that  required  for  artificial  regeneration. 

In  innumerable  cases,  natural  and  artificial  regeneration  are 
locally   and   irregularly   combined. 

It  might  be  asserted,  that  the  forest  has  secured  its  own 
regeneration  through  many  millenia,  and  that  it  will  continue  to  do 
so  unaided  by  human  activity.  Why  then,  it  might  be  asked,  is  it 
necessary  or  advisable  to  now  offer  costly  assistance  in  order  to 
secure  natural  reseeding  of  and  in  a  lumbered  tract  of  woodland? 

There  cannot  be  any  doubt  that  nature,  barring  bad  conflagra- 
tions or  heavy  pasturage,  will  start  and  develop  after  lumbering 
some  kind  of  a  second  growth  of  forest.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is 
usually  at  hand,  previous  to  lumbering,  in  an  embryonic  or  incom- 
plete state  waiting  for  the  chance  to  shoot  ahead  after  the  removal 
of  the  older  trees.  This  ready  nucleus,  however,  consists  as  a  rule 
of  inferior  or  worthless  species;  of  specimens  crippled  by  fire,  by 
the  fall  (accidental  or  otherwise)  of  nearby  trees,  by  the  logger's 
axe  or  foot,  by  teams  and  loads  passing  by,  etc.  In  addition,  many 
members  of  that  nucleus  will  die  when  suddenly  bereaved  of  the 
shelter  (against  drought,  cold,  hail,  etc.),  previously  exercised  by 
the   old  trees  now  removed. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  a  crop  of  weeds  usually  follows 
in  the  field  after  the  harvest  of  valuable  wheat;  in  the  forest 
after  the  harvest  of  valuable   timber. 

Such  "  weeds  "  are  unable  to  secure  for  the  owner  of  the  land 
a  sufficient  rate  of  interest  on  the  value  of  the  soil  and  an  adequate 
reimbursement  of  the  taxes  due  on  the  soil. 

Another  moment  worthy  of  attention  lies  in  the  poor  chances 
which  a  grain  of  seed  stands,  in  nature's  economy,  to  develop  into 
a  seedling,  sapling,  pole  and  tree.  The  probability  is  that  only  one 
grain  of  seed— out  of  millions  of  grains— produced  by  an  individual 
tree  during  its  lifetime  succeeds  in  reaching  tree  size,  replacing  its 
progenitor  on  the  forest  floor.  The  ecologic  incidents  bringing  about 
95 


S  Y  LVICULTTJ  K  E. 

i  In-  resuH  are  far  from  being  elearlj    undersl 1.     si  ill.  it  must  1..' 

the  sylviculturist's  aim  to  provide  tor  these  incidents,  it   he  desires 

t place  the  old  crop,  removed  at  an  unnatural  rale  of  rapidity,  at 

an  equally  fast  rate  by  an  offspring  resulting  from  self-sown  seed. 

If  the  forester  were  satisfied  to  merely  remove  nature'-,  mori- 
bunds,  then  he  might  gel  along  with  a  purely  natural  regeneration, 
entirely  unaided  by   human   -kill. 

As  soon,  however,  a-  hi-  axe  creates  in  the  forest  an  unnatural 
death  rate,  the  forester  is  compelled  to  also  secure,  bj  intelligent 
means,  a   supernatural   rate  of  birth. 

Human  aid  to  natural  regeneration  should  he  denied  where: 

a.  The  danger  from  forest  tin-  is  such  as  in  lender  investments 
in   second  growth   very    unsafe. 

b.  An  outlay  incurred  for  protection  from  lire  is  not  apt  to  be 
refunded    with    interest    by    the    value    of   the    second   growth. 

That    much    aid    and    that    iimcli    money    should    lie.    in    all    other 

cases,  -pent  for  the  purpose  of  regeneration  a-  promises,  in  the 
owner's  mind  and  according  to  the  forester's  forecast,  the  highest 
relative  revenue  on  the  investments   made. 

At  Biltmore,  H>\  of  the  annual  gross  receipts  are  annually 
reinvested,  to  he  applied  to  natural  regeneration  of  the  forest. 

Sylviculture  and  finance  are  continuously  at  loggerheads.  From 
the  business1  standpoint,  however,  that  Sylviculture  is  certainly  besl 
which    proves    lastingly   most    remunerative. 

Where  and  as  lone-  a-  the  prospective  value  of  seedlings  is 
small,  only  a  small  expense  can  reasonably  incurred  on  behalf  of 
Hi  sir    propagation. 

Again,  seedlings  are  more  endangered  by  fire  than  trees.  Where, 
and  as  lone-  as  the  danger  from  fire  prevails  in  the  forests  of  the 
United  States,  investments  made  for  raising  seedlings  are  so  risky 
as   to  be   inadvisable. 

Paragraph    XL.      Age    of    trees    fit    for    natural    seed    regeneration 
(Enesar). 

The  age  of  perfect  pubertj  depend-  on  species,  density  of  stand, 
quality  of  soil  ami  climatic  conditions.  Generally  speaking,  it  lies 
ahout    the  eightieth   year  of  the  trees. 

Birch,  Alder.  I. arch  and  Yellow  Tine-,  may  be  seed  regenerated 
from  their  twenty-fifth  to  thirtieth  year  on;  Oaks,  Beeches  and 
Firs  from  their  sixtieth  to  eightieth  year  on.  Tree-  of  verv  old 
age,  say  over  200  years  old,  have  poor  seeds  and  often  defv  natural 
regeneration    if    occurring    in    pure,    even-aged    -land-. 


IM\4 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Paragraph  XLI.     Methods  of  natural  seed  regeneration  (Enesar). 

A  fixed  method  is  applicable  in  the  arts  only  where  a  fixed 
type  of  conditions  exists.  Fixed  types  rarely  exist  in  primeval 
woods.  Hence  the  impossibility,  from  a  sylvicultural  standpoint, 
to  adopt  any  fixed  European  method  of  seed  regeneration  for  direct 
application  in  American  practice.  A  second  growth,  obviously,  pre- 
sents a  more  fixed  set  of  conditions  (it  certainly  lacks  everywhere 
the  hypermature  age  classes)  than  a  primeval  growth;  and  conse- 
quently, it  allows  of  a  more  methodical  treatment.  In  Biltmore 
Forest  methodical  treatment  is,  therefore,  permissible;  in  Pisgah 
Forest  it  is  not  or  not  yet  indicated. 

The  types  of  seed  regeneration  might   be  considered: 

A.  According  to  the  relative  position  of  old  and  new  growth: 

I.  The    young  growth    develops   underneath   the   old   growth:    . A 

a.  Whilst  the  old  growth  is  left  intact  (natural  seed  regenera- 
tion by  advance  growth),  or 

b.  Whilst  the  old  growth  is  gradually  reduced  (natural  seed 
regeneration  under  shelter  woods). 

II.  The  young  growth  develops  at  the  side  of  the  old  growth 
(natural  seed   regeneration   from   adjoining  timber). 

B.  According  to  the  size  of  the  units  of  regeneration,  which 
mavjbe : 

I.  Compartments,  i.  e..  a  cove,  a  slope,  a  top  or  a  coherent 
part    thereof,   comprising    from    ten    to   one    hundred    acres. 

II.  Strips,  i.  e.,  figures  of  a  more  or  less  rectangular  form,  in 
which  the  length  is  a  multiple  of  the  breadth,  the  latter  not 
exceeding  500  feet. 

III.  Groups,  i.  e..  aggregates  of  growth  of  a  more  or  less  cir- 
cular  form,  covering  0.-1    to   ::   acres. 

IV.  Patches,  i.  e.,  areas  covered  by  the  crown  of  an  individual.  pk+jA 
tree,  about   one  one-hundredths  of   an  aero   in  extent.  +t  a  ju 

he  figures  given  are  meant  to  illustrate,  and  are  not  meant  to       — 
define    (in  this  paragraph  as  well   as  in  the  following  fifteen  para- 
graphs). 

C.  According  to  the  degree  in  which  the  soil  and  the  youngest 
seedlings  are  directly  exposed  to  the   sky: 

I.  Regeneration  without  exposure — by  advance  growth. 

II.  Regeneration  with  short,  slight,  partial  exposure — under 
she  Iter  wood. 

III.  Regeneration  with  entire,  heavy  exposure — from  adjoining 
timber. 

D.  According  to  the  timing  of  lumbering  and   of  reseeding: 

f>7 


S  Y  L  V  I  0  U  L  T  U  R  E. 


natural   seed   regeneration  on 

(cleared    compartment 


-<> 


I.  Lumbering  precedes  reseedin 
clearings,  namely : 

a.  On    uniformly    cleared    compartments 
type) ; 

b.  On  cleared  strips    (cleared   strip  type) ; 

c.  On  cleared  groups    (cleared  group  type); 

d.  On    cleared    selected    patches    (cleared    selection    type). 

II.  Lumbering  coincides  with  reseeding— natural   seed  regenera- 
tion under  shelterwood,  namely : 

a.  <»n  uniformly  sheltered  compartments   (shelterwood  compart- 
ment type)  ; 

b.  On  sheltered  strips   (shelterwood  strip  type); 

V  c.  On  sheltered  groups    (sheltered  group  type) ; 

(1.  On   sheltered    selected   patches    (shelterwood   selection   type). 
•>a'  in.  Lumbering  follows  reseeding — natural  seed  regeneration  by 

*       advance  growth,  namely: 

a.  With  uniform  advance  growth   all   over  a   compartment    (ad- 
vance  growth   compartment   type)  ; 

b.  With  advance  growth  in  strips   (advance  growth  strip  type); 

c.  With  advance  growth  in  groups  (advance  growth  group  type); 

d.  With   advance  growth    in    selected   patches    (advance   growth 
selection    type). 

E.  According   to    the   participation    of    ligneous    weeds    (bushes, 
seedlings,    saplings,    poles    and    trees    of    a    negative   value)    in    the 

V  regeneration: 


;l 


Totally    successful   seed   regeneration; 

Groupwise    successful    seed    regeneration; 

Patchwise   successful  seed  regeneration: 

Individually   successful  seed  regeneration; 

I  nsuccessful   seed   regeneration. 

In  America,  it  will  be  frequently  advisable  for  the  forester  to 
merely  work  toward  a  "groupwise"  or  "patchwise"  successful  seed 
regenerate  hi. 

F.  According  to  the  number  and  according  to  the  distribution 
of  standards  left  in  the  regeneration  "area":  Natural  seed  regen- 
cr.it  inn 

a.  With  standards  systematically  left  all  over  the  compart- 
ments; 

b.  With    standards    left    in    strips: 

c.  With   standards  left  in  groups; 

d.  With    isolated    scattering  standards. 

The  "compartment"  types  had  better  be  called  "uniform" 
types;   the  "selection"  types  had  better  be  termed  "patch"  types. 


SYLVICUL  T  U  R  E. 

(Still  the  terms  "  shelterwood  compartment  system  '*  and  "  shelter- 
wood  selection  system"  having  become  standard  terms  of  forestal 
terminology,   it   seems  unwise   to   throw   them   aside. 

A  number  of  "  pure  types  "  may  be,  and  usually  are,  combined 
int.)  -  bastard  forms."  Of  course,  only  types  more  closely  related 
allow  of  bastardizing. 

Bastard  forms  frequently  found  in  the  old  country  are: 

"Advance  growth  selection"  and  "  shelterwood  group"  type; 

"Advance  growth  group  "  and  "  shelterwood  compartment"  type; 

"Shelterwood  group"   and   "shelterwood  strip"   type; 

"Cleared   strip"   and   "advance  growth    strip"   type; 

"Cleared  group"  and  "shelterwood  group"  type; 

"Cleared  selection  "   and   "  shelterwood  group  '   type. 

Modern  forestry  abroad  begins  to  despise  methodical  rules, 
gradually  returning  to  nature  with  her  irregularities.  Pure,  ab- 
stract  types   of  seed  regeneration  are  more  and  more   discarded. 

The  selection  of  a  method  or  a  combination  of  methods  depends 
entirely  upon  the  composition  of  the  growing  stock  found;  on  local 
clangers;  on  local  means  of  transportation:  on  value  of  stumpage 
and  prospective  value  of  seedlings. 

Where  all  age  classes  are  mixed  irregularly,  individual  selec- 
tion is,  ceteris  paribus,  indicated. 

Where  the  age  classes  or  the  species  appear  in  groups,  the  group 
method  is   or  may   lie   advisable. 

In  woods  simultaneously  maturing,  the  uniform  type  may 
recommend   itself. 

The  following  paragraphs  are  arranged  to  conform  with  the 
view   point  given  under  "  D." 

Paragraph  XLII.     Types  in  which  lumbering  precedes  N.  S.  R. 

Where  lumbering  precedes  regeneration,  the  area  lumbered  must 
be  reseeded  from  the  borders  of  adjoining  woods.  With  increasing 
size  of  the  area  cleared  of  timber,  the  rapidity,  the  certainty  and 
the  quality  of  regeneration  rapidly  decrease.  The  fact  that  such 
regeneration  is  possible  on  a  large  scale,  is  readily  proven  by  object 
lessons  in  the  primeval  woods  (Long  Leaf  Pine;  Bald  Cypress; 
Lodgepole  Pine:  Douglas  Fir)  as  well  as  in  second-growth  forests 
(White  Pine  in  Lake  States;  Yellow  Pine  in  the  south;  Spruce  in 
the   Karpathian   Mountains). 

The  chances  for   success  depend  on: 

A.  The  species,  which  must  have  light  or  winged  seeds  readily 
carried  about  by  the  wind  tmany  Pines,  Spruces,  Larches,  Cotton- 
99 


s  5   i.  \   l  I    i    LTURE. 

woods,  Birches,  Yellow  Poplar),  and  which  musl  no1  require,  (luring 
their  earliesl  stages  "t  development,  tin-  presence  of  a  shelterwood 
overhead. 

11  The  coincidence  of  the  compass  direction  in  which  the  clear- 
ing lies  from  the  adjoining  woods,  with  the  direction  of  the  wind 
preferably   opening  the  cones   and  carrying   the  seed. 

C.  'J  lie  local  danger  from  storm  which  might  tear  down,  gradu- 
ally   at   least,   the   adjoining  seed   tree-. 

D.  The   condition   of    the   cleared    -oil   and   it-   quality    a-   a    ready 

seed-bed,  influenced  by  the  presence  of  weeds;  by  the  decomposi- 
tion id'  the  humus;  by  the  degree  in  which  the  mineral  -oil  ha-  been 
laid  bare  in  the  course  of  logging  operations;  by  the  grade  of  the 
slope. 

E.  lire-  favorable  or  unfavorable;  pasture  favorable  or  un- 
favorable to  regeneration,  a-   the  case   may   he. 

F.  The  frequency  of  seed  years,  and  the  possibility  of  lumbering 
during  a  seed  year. 

G.  The  size,  the  form  and  the  environments  of  the  area  cut  over. 
H.  The  possibility  of  preventing  undesirable  species  (Gums,  Black 

Jack  Oak)  and  undesirable  specimens,  like  low  branched   weed  trees 

and  spreading  ''wolves,"  froi tcupying  the  area  to  be  regenerated, 

and  the  possibility  of  regenerating  all,  a    few,  or  only  one  species. 

According  to  the  size  of  the  clearing,  we  distinguish   between: 

The  cleared  compartment    type    (large   areas   cleared); 

The  cleared  strip    (narrow   belts   cleared); 

The  cleared  group  type   (fair  sized  groups  cleared  away); 

The  cleared  selection  type  (small  bunches  of  trees  or  merely 
single  trees  cut). 

Paragraph  XLIII.     The  cleared  compartment   type. 

A.  The  area  bared  at  one  stroke  by  lumbering  comprises  be- 
tween, say.  ten  ami  one  hundred  acres.  If  the  width  of  the 
clearing  is  less  than  500  feet,  the  •■cleared  strip"  type  i-  reached. 
If  the  acreage  cleared  is  much  in  excess  of  100  aire-,  the  develop- 
ment of  a  second  growth  i-  very  -low.  very  poor,  yerj  doubtful, 
so    that    the    character    id'    a    sylvicultural    type    is    lost.      A    number 

(say  five)   of  s 1  year-  are   required   to  restock   the  ground.     The 

bordering  w Is,  from   which  reseeding  i-  expected,   musl   not   offei 

an    unprotected    front    to    the    prevailing    storm    direction. 

The  regeneration  obtained  i-.  naturally,  very  heterogeneous  and 
contain-  a  greal  deal  ol  misshapen  advance  growth  a-  well  a-  o£ 
w 1  growth. 

100 


S  Y L  V I CU L  T  U  E  E. 

Weeds  trees  left  on  the  ground  might  be  girdled  if  belonging 
to   an   undesirable   species    (Beech   in  Galizia). 

A  few  seed  trees  might  be  left  scatteringly  (if  wind  firm)  in 
groups  or  in  strips,  preferably  close  to  the  roads,  often  consisting 
of  doty  specimens  without  any  value. 

An  usher  growth  of  Cottonwoods.  Birches,  Sumac.  Locust,  Sassa- 
fras, etc.,  frequently  precedes  the  second  growth  desired  on  the 
ground. 

Fires  preceding  the  seeding,  and  immediately  in  the  wake  of 
logging,  greatly  enhance  the  success  of  Yellow  Pines.  Douglas  Fir, 
etc  Yellow  Poplar,  on  the  other  hand,  is  checked  by  the  heavy 
growth  of  weeds  following  fires.  Stock  pasture  is  of  advantage, 
where  it  presses  the  seeds  into  the  soil,  and  where  it  checks  the 
weeds. 

The  clearing  should  comprise,  if  possible,  only  one  side  of  a 
cove  at  a  time  or  the  lower  part  of  a  slope  <>r  the  bottom  of  a 
cove,  so  as  to  allow  of  greater  ease  in  reseeding. 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  lias  been  adopted, — not  con- 
fessedly  but  actually — by  the  Austrian  Government  in  dealing  with 
the  primeval   woods  of  Galizia,   consisting  of  Beech.  Fir  and  Spruce. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  has  tried  to  adopt  it.  in  modified  form, 
for  the  Minnesota  National  Forest  Reserve  and  for  the  majority  of 
it-  business-working  plans   (Sawyer  and  Austin;   Weyerhauser) . 

Thousands  of  acres  of  abandoned  farm  land  all  over  the  Eastern 
states  have  been  reforested  in  tin-  manner,  frequently  against  the 
owner's  will. 

C.  Advantages:  The  cleared  compartment  type  -h»w<  the  fol- 
lowing advantages: 

I.  Greatesl    ease  in   lumbering. 

II.  Concentrated    operations    and    concentrated    supervision. 

III.  Few  permanent   main   links  of   transportation   required. 

IV.  Smallest  deviation  from  the  old-time  manner  of  destruc- 
tive  lumbering. 

V.  Possibility  of  temporary  use  of  the  clearing  for  the  pro- 
duction of  field  crops  benefited  by  the  fertilizing  effect  of  the 
humus. 

VI.  Ease  of  artificial  reinforcing  and  possibility  of  soil  prepara- 
tion by  plowing  and  by  tiring:   of  covering  the  seeds  by  pasturage. 

D.  Disadvantage-: 

T.  Applicability   to   few  species   only. 

II.  Danger  of  partial  or  complete  failure,  especially  in  clearings 
covering  100  or  more  acres,  or  in  case  of  border  trees  unfavorably 
situated. 

101 


^ 


SYLVICULTUB  E. 

UJ.  Danger  from  heavy  fires  where  the  soil  and  the  humus  is 
baked  by  the  action  of  the  sun,  with  heaps  of  debris  left  on  the 
ground   after  wholesale  logging. 

IV.  Second  growth  consists  largely  of  wolves,  and  of  spreading 
advance  growth  and  of  poles  undesirably  ramified.  Expensive  gird- 
ling or  cutting  of  seed-bearing  weed  tree-,  belonging  to  a  worthless 
species. 

V.  The  running  expenses  for  protection  from  fire  and  for  taxes 
are,  to  a  degree,  independent  from  the  quality  of  the  young  growth. 
They  are  relatively  high,  and  hence  absurdly  unbearable,  if  that 
growth  is  poor,  straggling  and  very  slow  to  develop,  all  of  which 
i>  apt   to  be  the  case  in  this  type  of  seed  regeneration. 

Thirty    years    after_  clearing,    the    average    age    of    the    young 
growth   is   not  jipt   to  exceed  ten  years. 
^         VI.  (.roups  ofadvance  growth  are  almost  sure  to  be  destroyed 
or  to  be  crippled  by  logging  and  by  sudden  change  of  environments. 

Paragraph  XLIV.     The  cleared  strip  type. 

A.  The  width  of  the  cleared  strip  is  from  two  to  five  times 
the  length  of  the  mother  tree.  When  one  belt  is  seeded  suc- 
cessfully, another  strip  is  cut  into  the  timber  alongside  the  first 
belt,  and  so  on. 

Soil  work  i-  not  required,  provided  the  strip  is  cleared'  in  a 
seed  year.  Usually  the  soil  is  torn  up  sufficiently  by  the  removal 
of  a  huge  number  of  logs  snaked  or  rolled  or  shot  along  the 
strip   and   over  the   strip    to   the   nearest   road. 

One  seed  year  is  rarely  enough  to  secure  full  regeneration  of  a 
Strip.  In  the  Alps,  i'ine  regeneration  takes  from  twelve  to  thirty 
years.  On  hardwood  soil,  the  weeds  are  to  be  dreaded,  preeminently 
so  on   fertile  ground  after  fires. 

It  is  wise  to  leave  a  few  wind-firm  mother  tree-  scattered 
over  the  strip,  notably  immature  specimens  of  the  most  desirable 
species.  Less  desirable  species  on  the  nearby  border  might  be 
girdled  or  removed  by  extending  the  removal  of  thai  species  into 
the  bordering  forest.  In  addition,  valuable  hypeiniature  trees  might 
be  withdrawn   from    the  nearby    forest. 

The  cleared  strip  type  doc-  not  require  a  permanent  system  of 
transportation  of  great  intricacy,  the  strip-  themselves  forming 
the  main  lines  of  transportation.  The  narrow  edge  of  the  strip 
merely  is  touched,  on  the  valley  side,  by  a  road.  According  to 
the  grade  <d'  the  -trip,  sleighs,  cable-,  chutes,  donkey  engines,  etc., 
might   be  used  to  deliver  the  logs  to  the  road. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

At  the  beginning  of  operations,  the  first  strip  should  be  made 
in  sheltered  localities  so  as  to  allow  the  forest  adjoining  leewards 
to  remain  unharmed  by  storm. 

The  strips  proceed  windwards  gradually,  the  next  being  cleared 
when  regeneration  in  the  preceeding  strip  is  fully  secured. 

The  danger  from  insects  and  fungi  is  small.  The  danger  from 
fire,  to  begin  with,  is  great,  although  not  as  great  as  in  large 
clearings  to  which  the  wind  and  sun  are  freely  admitted.  Later  on. 
the  even-aged  character  of  the  strip  will  help  to  check  fires. 

Nothing  prevents  the  owner  from  reinforcing  the  strip  arti- 
ficially if  he  thinks  fit.  Healthy  groups  of  advance  growth,  formed 
by  desirable  species  in  the  belt  at  the  time  of  logging,  might  be 
carefully  husbanded.  Natural  regeneration  will  set  in  as  well  at 
the  side  of  the  belt  underneath  the  bordering  mother  trees.  "Re- 
generation runs  into  the  old  woods."'  This  is  a  very  desirable  *tate 
of  affairs  allowing,  in  the  next  belt-,  regeneration  to  start  in 
advance  of  cutting.  (Bastardizing  the  cleared  -trip  type  with  the 
advance  growth  strip  type.) 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  of  regeneration  i-  locally  used 
in  the  Tyrolian  and  Austrian  Alps,  for  Spruce,  Larch,  Pine.  The 
form  ot  the  strips  need  not  be  rectangular.  It  depends  on  maturity 
of  growth,  configuration  of  soil,  danger  from  storm.  The  type 
seems  well  adapted  to  present  American  conditions,  requiring,  of 
course,  local  modifications  or  bastardations,  governed  by  species  and 
market.  Its  applicability,  however,  rests  on  the  existence  of  some 
permanent    chief   arteries   of   transportation. 

At  Biltmore,  the  type  is  applied,  in  modified  form,  for  the 
reproduction    of    Yellow   Poplar    and    Yellow    Pine. 

C.  Advantages  of   the   cleared  strip   type: 

I.  Applicability  to  many  species,  to  many  conditions  and  to 
many  localities. 

II.  Concentration  of  logging  operations  and  of  sylvicultural  help 
possible.     Cheap  logging  by  donkey   engines,  chutes,  snaking,  etc. 

III.  Many  points  of  attack,  at  which  the  seasons  cut  might 
be  obtained,  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  forester,  if  he  so  desires. 
Hence  great  freedom  of  action. 

IV.  Comparative  safety  of  the  old  woods  from  storm:  of  the 
young  growth   from  fire,  drought,   frost,  insects,  etc. 

D.  Disadvantages  of  the  cleared  strip  type: 

I.  If  the  seeding  of  the  strip  is  not  effected  soon  after  clear- 
ing,   the    soil    is    baked    by    the    sun.    weeds    are    started    and    the 
ecological  conditions  are  affected  in   a   manner  barring  the   success 
of  seed  regeneration  and  necessitating  artificial  help. 
103 


SYLVII   i    l.  T  ub  E. 

II.  Border   trees   are    exposed    to   sun    scald. 

III.  Deer  frequent    the  strips   and   spoil   the   young   growth. 

IV.  The  soil  of  the  strip— especially  of  the  first  strip  in  a 
series — is  rarely  "  in  heat,"  certainly  not  over  the  entire  strip, 
so  that  the  seeds  falling  upon  it  have  a  poor  chance  of  success. 
This  is  the  case,  preeminently,  in  the  humid  mountains  where  a 
heavy  layer  of  raw  humus  covers  the  ground.  A  large  number  of 
years  will  often  elapse,  before  the  next  adjoining  strip  can  l>e 
taken   in   hand. 

V.  The  strips  should  be  cut  where  the  timber  i-  mosl  mature 
at  the  time. — and  not  in  a  succession  merely  dependent  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  young  growth  and  on  the  necessity  of  proceeding 
against   the    prevailing   storm   direction. 

Paragraph   XLV.     The   cleared   group    type. 

A.  The  groups  cut  comprise  from  0.1  acre  to  three  acres.  The 
form  is  roundish,  oval,  square,  etc.,  as  the  case  may  be,  usually 
coinciding  with  a  geological  feature,  f.  i..  a  dell,  a  spur,  a  spring- 
head. 

'ihe  incentive  for  group-cutting  lies  either  in  the  simultaneous 
maturity  of  the  trees  stocking  on  it,  or  in  the  desire  to  obtain 
conditions  particularly  favorable  to  the  reproduction  of  one  of  the 
species  appearing  in  the  old  timber;  or  the  group,  previously  stocked 
with   an   undesirable   species,  is  to  be   seeded   by   a   better  kind. 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  has  never  played  an  important 
role  in  connection  with  natural  seed  regeneration.  Sylviculturally 
11  seems  well  adapted  to  Yellow  Poplar.  Long  Leal'  "Pine.  Lodge- 
pole   Pine,  White   Pine,   ahsoto   Hickory   andJJak^ 

Where  the  groups  run  in  the  shape- of  long  tongues,  parallel 
at  regular  intervals,  they  are  termed  "coulisses."  The  coulisses 
are  usually  meant  for  the  regeneration  of  more  light-demanding 
species;  the  "benches"  separating  the  coulisses  for  the  regenera- 
tion   of    more    shade-bearing    species. 

In  Germany,  the  space  formerly  occupied  by  a  cleared  group 
is  termed  a  "hole."  Where  the  groups,  after  reseeding,  are  gradu- 
ally enlarged,  the  cleared  group-type  i-  bastardized  with  the  shel- 
terwood   group   type. 

C.  Advantages:  The  soil  of  the  group,  thanks  to  a  sufficient 
amount  of  side  -had",  retains  its  freshness  and  porosity.  It  is 
sheltered  from  severe  winds  and  severe  heat.  Species  too  sensitive 
for    reproduction    in    larger    clearings    or    strips    can    be    raised    in 

104 


S  Y  L  V I C  I  L  T  U  R  E. 

groups.     \\  here  the  age  classes  appear  in  bunches,  each  bunch   can 

be  harvested  at  its  proper  age  of  maturity.    No  harm  or  little  harm 
is  clone  to  young  growth  during  the  logging  season. 
D  .Disadvantages: 

I.  Operations  are   scattering. 

II.  Intricate    system    of    permanent    roads,  required. 

III.  Groups  surrounded  by  tall  timber  frequently  act  as  "frost- 
holes"  where  young  growth  suffers  badly  from  early  frosts  and 
late  frosts  in_clear_njghts. 

IV.  Thin  barked  trees  surrounding  the  group  suffer  from  sun 
scald:  flat-rooted  trees  suffer  from  storm. 

Paragraph  XLVI.     The  cleared  selection  type. 

A.  In  this  type,  individual  trees  considered  mature  are  selected 
for  removal,  either  absolutely  singly,  or  in  very  small  patches 
formed   by  neighboring  trees. 

The  clearings  made  are  so  small  that  only  shade-bearing  species 
will   regenerate   thereon,  unless   the   soil   be   particularly   strong. 

The  cut  is  so  scattering,  that  the  soil  i-  not  sufficiently  "plowed" 
by  the  loggers.     Hence  it  will  not  act  as  a   ready   -cod-bed. 

In  mixed  woods  composed  of  many  species,  only  the  most 
valuable  kind  is  usually  withdrawn,  and  the  small  gaps  made  are 
occupied  by   shade-bearing   and   often   less  valuable    species. 

Beneath  hypermature  trees,  the  soil  has  frequently  hardened 
and  defies  any  attempt  of  seedlings  to  establish  themselves  after 
logging. 

The  cleared  selection  type  is  almost  invariably  bastardized  with 
the  shelterwood  selection  type  and  with  the  advance  growth  selec- 
tion type. 

B.  Actual   application: 

In  the  tropics.  Teak.  Mahogany,  Ebony,  etc.,  are  cut  by  -elec- 
tion, frequently  regardless  of  the  effect  which  logging  will  have 
on  regeneration. 

In  Europe,  the  type  is  found  in  the  Fir  forest-  owned  by  farm- 
ers: in  parks;  in  protective  forests  at  the  headwaters  of  rivers: 
on   very   steep   slopes   dotted  with   Larch,   in    the   Tyrol. 

In  America.  Yellow  Poplar.  Walnut.  Cherry.  White  Oak.  etc., 
are  cut  by  way  of  individual  selection. — but  with  no  regard  to 
reproduction.  Also  White  Pine  in  the  Spruce  and  Fir  woods  of  the 
Adirondacks  where  it  never  succeeds,  withdrawn  alone,  to  reproduce 
its  kind. 


SYLVICULTURE. 

»  .  Advantages: 

I.  The  water- storing  power  of  the  soil  is  generally  well  pre- 
served under  this  type. 

II.  The  second  growth  is  never  endangered  by  snow  or  drought 
or  frost  or  sleet;  the  old  trees  remaining  do  not  suffer  from  storm 
or  sun  scald. 

III.  Small  wood  lots  may  yield  a  stead;  annual  supply  <>\ 
timber  or  wood  under  this  type. 

IV.  The  type  is  well  adapted  to  deer  parks. 
D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  The  operations  are  very  scattering.  Indeed,  they  cover  con- 
tinuously the  entire  forest  or  a  large  percentage  thereof.  Diffi- 
culty  oi   supervision. 

II.  An  intricate  system  of  permanent  roads  is  required,  since 
the  axe  returns  every  few  years  to  the  same  compartment.  It  the 
intervals  of  years  are  long — say  from  ten  to  twenty  years — the 
type  is  bastardized  with  the  cleared  group  type  or  with  the  shelter- 
wood  group  type. 

'111.  The  type  as  a  means  of  regeneration,  in  its  purity,  is  pos- 
sible only  where 

a.  The  compartments  contain  a  mixture  of  all  age  classes, 
with  the  hypermature  classes  not  too  badly  prevailing: 

1 1.  The  species  to  be  regenerated  is  an  intense  shade-bearer; 

e.  The  soil  is  strong  enough  to  allow  light-demanding  seedlings 
a  chance  at  surviving  a  long  period  of  partial  suppression. 

IV.  The  species  removed — presumably  the  most  valuable  species 
— has  reduced  prospects  of  propagating  itself,  struggling  against 
competing  species,  the  number  of  its  seed  trees  being  relatively 
decreased. 

V.  Small  chance  for  reinforcing. 

VI.  Impossibility  of  protection  against    Hies  under  headway. 

Paragraph  XLVII.    Types  in  which  lumbering  coincides  with  N.  S.  R. 

In  these  types  of  natural  seed  regeneration — so-called  shelter- 
vrood  types  lumbering  and  resoeding  go  hand  in  hand,  both  pro- 
gressing seriatim,  slowly,  cautiously.  In  the  pure  types,  no  tree  is 
removed,  unless  the  removal  has  8  distinci  bearing — or  is  expected 
to  have  it — on  the  production  of  a  progeny  or  on  its  further  develop- 
ment. Seedlings  less  than  five  years  old  usually  stand  within  a 
few  yard-  of  their  mothers.  This  distance  is  gradually  increased — 
in   the   course   of    up   to    fifty    year-     until    the    youngsters    do   not 


SYLVICULTURE. 

require  any  more,  or  rather  despise,  the  benefit  of  the  parents' 
presence. 

Lumbering  operations  are  carried  on— in  one  and  the  same 
limited  lot — during  a  number  of  years. 

Where  the  mother  trees  are  very  rapidly  removed,  after  re- 
seeding,  from  the  proximity  of  the  youngsters,  the  pure  shelter- 
wood  types  approach  the  types  of  cleared  compartments,  cleared 
strips,  etc. 

Where  the  mother  trees  are  very  slowly  removed,  after  reced- 
ing, from  the  proximity  of  the  youngstser,  the  pure  shelterwood 
types  approach,  or  bastardize   with,  the  advance  growth  types. 

The  chances  for  success  depend  on: 

A.  Sylviculture!  talents  of  the  forester  in  charge  and  of  his 
staff,  also  on  the  size  of  the   ranges. 

B.  Frequency  of  seed  years  and  time  allowed  for  the  entire 
operations. 

C.  Shade-bearing  character  of  youngsters  and  firmness  of 
parents. 

D.  Existence  of  a  permanent  system  of  transportation. 

E.  Configuration. 

F.  Danger  from  storm,  sleet,  fire,  animals,  etc.  locally  existing. 
<;.  Size   of   timber,   value   of   timber,   percentage   of   debris   and 

waste. 

H.   Marketability    of   all    species   or   of   a    lew.   even   of   .me    -ji.Mi.-~ 

only. 

According  to  the  manner  in  which  the  forester  selects  the  nuclei 
for    reseeding,    we    distinguish    the    following    types: 

I.  Uniform  type,  or  pure  shelterw 1   compartment   type,  where 

the  nuclei  are  geometrically  and  regularly  distributed  over  the 
entirety  of  a  large  area  (say  over  twenty  to  two  hundred  acres), 
the  nuclei  of  the  entire  area  being  kept,  during  the  entire  progress  of 
regeneration,  in  or  about  in  the  same  uniform  stage  of  development. 

il.  Shelterwood  strip  type,  where  the  nuclei  proceed,  like  ad- 
vancing skirmishers,  in  regular  military  order  from  the  leeward 
side  to  the  windward  side  of  a  compartment  (cove,  slope,  etc.).  The 
nuclei  to  the  leeward  are  kept  in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  growth 
than  those  to  the  windward. 

III.  Shelterwood  group  type,  where  the  nuclei  are  carefully 
selected,  irrespective  of  geometrical  arrangements,  merely  on  the 
basis  of  the  fitness  of  the  individual  spot  to  act  as  a  seed-bed.  The 
groups  are  gradually  enlarged,  increasing  in  circumference  like 
waves  caused  by  stones  thrown  in  the  water, 
lit? 


■fJ>. 


S  \  l.Vk'l  LT  l  J;  E. 

IV.  Shelters 1  selection  type,  where  the  mosl  mature  indi- 
viduals are  everywhere  and  continuously  selected  for  removal, 
individually  or  in  small  patches,  with  a  view  to  simultaneous  repro- 
duction of  the  species  removed  by  seeds  left  on  such  patches.  The 
patch  does  no!  form  a  nucleus  to  !>e  enlarged;  it  is  to  be  retained 
for  a  long  time  in  its  original  size. 

Paragraph  XLVIII.     The  shelterwood  compartment  type  of  natural 
.  S     seed    regeneration. 

A.  This  type  is  characterized  by  the  uniform  manner,  in  which 
lumbering  and  regeneration  proceed  over  large  areas. 

This  uniformity  is  possible  only  in  somewhat  even-aged  tracts. 
Great  difficulties  are  experienced  in  mixed  forests,  owing  to  the 
difference   of   light   requirements. 

The  fixed  conditions  inviting  the  forester  to  adept  this  type 
arc  of  a  rather  rare  character,  almost  absent  from  primeval  woods. 
The    education    value    of    this    type,    however,    is    unparalleled. 

B.  -Actual  application:  Shade  bearers  are  better  adapted  to  this 
type  than  light  demanders.  Beech  is  usually  treated  under  this 
type;  Maple  and  Ash  frequently  so;  Oak  largely  in  France,  rarely 
in  Germany:  Fir  and  Spruce  in  parts  of  the  Black  Forest;  Pine  in 
the  old  country   only  rarely    owing  to  its  demands   on    light. 

This  "military"  type  was  created  by  George  L.  Haiti,-,  toward 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  considered  the  ideal 
type  of  regeneration  up  to  about  1S75.  It  is  now  far  from  being 
abandoned,  maintaining  its  role  as  the  most  commonly  used  type 
of  seed  regeneration,  although  usually  bastardized,  in  modern  times, 
with    the   strip  and   the   group   type. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  Thorough  protection  of  the  soil,  of  its  productive  capacity 
ami  its  porosity. 

II.  Small    risk    of    utter    failure. 

III.  Large   tracts  taken  in   hand   at    one   and   the  same   time 
TV.  Methodical,    military    manner    of    proceeding    which    facili- 
tates   instruction    of    the    -tall'   of   rangers   and   proper   execution    of 
order-    by    the   staff. 

V.  Mother  trees,  standing  above  the  young  growth  in  is. dated 
position,  yield  an  extra-increment  of  high  value  f"  light  increment  '  ). 

VI.  Young  growth  is  well  protected  against  climatic  adversities. 
1).  Disadvantages: 

i.  Difficulty  of  obtaining  a  desired  mixture  of  species  in  the 
young  growth. 

108 


S  Y  L  V I OU  L  T I  R  E. 

LL  Necessity  for  the  entire  number  of  old  trees  to  reach 
maturity  at  or  about  at  the  same  time. 

III.  Even-aged  forests  are  formed  by  this  type  which  are 
badly   endangered   by   insects,  fungi,   storm,   snow,   etc. 

IV.  The  young  growth  is  badly  damaged  during  the  latter 
stages  of  logging  operations,  especially  where  heavy  logs  (not 
wood)  are  obtained  and  where  the  road  system  is  deficient;  further 
on  steep  slopes. 

E.  The  uniform  system,  being  particularly  instructive,  deserves 
a  most  detailed  consideration. 

To  the   mother  trees   is  allotted   a   three-fold   task,  viz.: 

lo  seed  the  "regeneration  area." 

To  protect  the  young  growth  from  atmospheric  hardships  and 
weeds. 

To  prevent  deterioration  of  the  soil  during  the  early  stages 
of   the    second   growth. 

Three  distinct  stages  of  regeneration  must  be  distinguished,  viz.: 

I.  The  "preparatory  stage,     initiated  by  a  preparatory  cutting 

II.  The  "seeding  stage,"  initiated   by  a    seeding  cutting. 

III.  The  -  final  stage."  during  which  the  final  fellings  take 
place. 

I.  The    preparatory    stage: 

a.  Purpose:    The   preparatory  cutting  intends: 

1.  To  prepare  the  soil  underneath  the  mother  trees  for  a  seed- 
bed, by  increasing  the  rate  of   disintegration   of    vegetable   matter. 

The    soil    is    best    prepared    at    a    time    when    no    w Is,    but    a    few 

shoots  ol  sweel  grasses  appear  her,,  and  there.  The  humus  decom- 
poses at  the  quickest  rate  on  limestone;  at  the  slowesi  rate  on 
sana  and  sandstone. 

1.  To  prepare  the  mother  trees  for  regeneration  by  allowing 
them  a  larger  crown  space,  thus  inviting  the  development  of  seed 
bud-:  further  by  increasing  their  stability,  so  that  they  may  resist 
the  storms  when  placed  in  a  more  isolated  position; 

3.  To  remove  undesirable  species,  thus  preventing  them  from 
propagating  their  kind. 

4.  To  reduce  the  volume  of  the  growing  stock  so  as  to  facili- 
tate the  maintenance  of  a  normal  growing  stock  and  so  as  to 
have  less  material  to  remove  when  the  young  growth  appears 
on  the  regeneration  area. 

b.  Duration:  The  duration  of  the  preparatory  stage  depends 
upon  the  species  and  the  soil.  Shade-bearing  species  found  in  dense 
stands  need  a  longer  period  of  preparation  than  the  light- demanding 


S  Y  LVICULTURE. 

species.     On  soil  rich  with  lime  and  in  the  lowlands,  the  prepara- 
tory stage  i>  much  shorter  than  on  sandstone  and  in  the  highlands. 

c.  Area:  The  area  (in  per  cent,  of  the  entire  forest  area)  to  be 
prepared  depends  upon  the  necessities  of  the  market  and  of  the 
mill  (equal  annual  yield),  on  the  prospects  of  a  seed  year,  on  the 
frequency  of  seed  years,  and  on  the  urgency  of  other  fellings. 

d.  Trees:  The  preparatory  cutting  should  remove  all  sickly 
trees  and  all  undesirable  species.  Further,  those  which  have  the 
crowns  low  down  to  the  ground,  which  will  shade  the  young  growth 
later  on  and  which  now  lessen  the  rate  of  disintegration  of  vege- 
table matter.  NO  dominant  trees  should  be  taken  out.  Near  the 
edge  of  the  compartment  it  is  wise  to  keep  the  leaf  canopy  as  close 
;i»   possible,   so   a-   to   prevent  the  influence  of  drying  winds. 

e.  Marking:  The  forester  himself  should  mark  every  tree  to  be 
taken  out  during  the  preparatory  stage.  When  the  wood  cutters 
are  not  reliable,  it  is  necessary  to  mark  the  stumps  of  the  trees 
as  well. 

f.  Lumbering:  Where  it  pays  to  dig  out  the  tree  by  the  roots, 
it  is  well  to  do  so,  because  a  better  seed-bed  is  the  result.  Care 
should  he  taken  that  only  trees  marked  are  felled,  and  that  those 
left  are  not  damaged.  There  is  no  need  to  move  the  firewood  and 
timber  out  to  the  roads,  if  the  regeneration  area  otherwise  allows 
of   snaking,  wagoning,  etc. 

g.  Pasture:  Cattle  should  not  be  admitted  any  more  for  pas- 
turage during  the  preparatory  stage.  Pannage  of  hogs  will  be  of 
good  advantage.  Mice  and  insects  are  eaten  by  them.  Hogs  break 
up  the  net  work  of  roots,  leaves  and  moss  forming  the  soil  cover 
and  hindering  germinating  seeds  from  catching  root. 

II.  The    seeding    stage. 

a.  Time:    The  best  time  for  "seeding  cutting"  is  a   seed  year. 
The  forester  should  be  able  to  tell  from  the  looks  of  the  buds 

whether   a    seed    year   is    at    hand.      The    frequency    of    seed    years 
depends  on  the  species  and  on  the  locality. 

If  there  is  no  prospect  for  seeds,  the  seeding  cutting  should 
he  postponed,  and  if  a  sustained  yield  is  desired,  it  should  be 
made   up  by   preparatory   cuttings,  final  cuttings  and  thinnings. 

b.  The  area  over  which  the  seeding  cutting  should  extend  depends 
on  the  area  prepared  for  regeneration,  on  the  length  of  the  period 
oi  regeneration,  on  the  periodical  occurrence  of  seed  years,  on  the 
requirements   For  ;i  sustained  yield  and  on  the  available  market. 

The  scarcer  the  seed  years,  the  larger  i>  the  area  placed  in  the 
seeding    stage    when    a    mast    year   arrives. 
110 


SYLVICUL  T  U  R  E. 

The  longer  the  period  during  which  the  seedlings  require  shelter, 
the  larger  is   the  area   to  be  taken  in  hand  at  a  seeding  cutting. 

e.  Trees:  It  is  -wise  to  take  the  biggest  trees  first.,  as  their 
removal  at  a  later  date  will  result  in  great  damage  to  the  young 
growth. 

If  the  forester  is  sure  to  be  able  to  remove  some  more  trees 
after  the  lapse  of  one  or  two  years,  a  light  seeding  cutting  is  usually 
best. 

During  the  first  two  years  of  their  lives  the  young  seedlings 
stand  a  great  deal  of  shade,  even  those  of  light -demanding  species, 
on  fair  soil. 

The  degree  of  light  which  should  fall  on  the  ground  after  a 
seeding  cutting,  depends  on  species,  height  of  trees,  form  of  trees 
and  locality. 

In  the  case  of  tender  and  slow-growing  species,  the  cover  should 
be  close.  In  the  case  of  tall  trees,  slight  interruptions  of  the  leaf 
canopy   is   sufficient. 

On  good  soil,  where  weeds  arc  to  be  dreaded,  the  cover  should 
be  denser  than  under  the  reversed  conditions.  On  a  southern  ex- 
posure, the  cover  should  be  dense.  Fir,  Beech  and  Spruce  require  a 
close  stand  of  the  mother  trees  on  strong  soil  and  at  high  elevations. 

Oak  and  Pine  on  alluvial  sand  of  average  quality  should  he 
tapped  heavily. 

d.  The  proportion  of  trees  left  and  trees  cut  might  be  gauged  by: 

1.  The  distance  or  space  between  the  crowns.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  give  any  data  as  to  the  best  distance  of  the  crowns.  The 
form  of  the  crowns  is  so  irregular  that  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
the  best  average  distance. 

2.  The  number  of  stems  which  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  cover 
overhead  where  yield  tables  are  at  hand,  if  the  age  and  the  locality 
are  known. 

3.  The  sectional  area  of  the  steins  cut  and  of  the  stems 
remaining. 

4.  The  volume  cut  and  the  volume  remaining. 

e.  Preparation  of  soil:  Shade-bearing  species  maintaining  the 
porosity  of  the  soil  better  than  light-demanding  species  often  allow 
the  forester  to  get  along  without  any  preparation  of  the  soil.  Under 
light-demanding  species,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hardening  of  the 
soil  at  the  time  of  seed  cutting  often  necessitates  the  preparation 
of  the  ground  so  that  it  may  serve  as  a  seed-bed.  This  preparation 
may  consist  of: 

1.  Removal   of  leaves,   weeds  or   moss. 

Ill 


SYLVICULTL   K  E. 

■1.  Working  the  ground  by  pasturing  hogs. 

.*{.  Wounding   the   soil  in  open   spaces,   with   a    hoe. 

4.  Breaking  the  soil  with  a  strong  plow. 

i.  Lumbering.  All  cutting  should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  seeds  have  dropped  so  as  to  bring  them  into  contact  with 
the  ground  at  once.  The  wood  or  timber  cut  should  be  dragged  to 
the  roads  previous  to  the  germination  01  the  seeds.  The  heavier 
the  seed  cutting  is.  the  larger  will  be  the  percentage  of  seeds 
finding  germination.  Most  of  the  seeds  are  imbedded  by  the  steps 
of  the  woodsmen. 

Advance  growth  should  be  removed  wherever  it  appears  singly. 
('are  must  be  taken  that  remaining  mother  trees  are  do1  damaged 
by  lumbering. 

g.  Covering  the  seeds:  The  covering  of  the  seeds  is  invariably 
left  to  nature  or  to  hazard.  It  might  l>e  advisable,  however,  to 
secure  a  covering  artificially  with  the  help  of  a  rake,  or  by  plowing, 
after  the  seeds  have  dropped,  or  by  pressing  heavy  seeds  (nuts. 
acorns)   into  the  ground  with  a  blunt  stick. 

h.  Fire:  After  the  seeds  have  dropped,  the  utmost  care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  fire  from  running  through  the  forest.  A  fire 
previous  to  the  dropping  of  the  seed  may  he_ advantageous,  espe- 
cially in  the  ease  id'  Yellow  Pines!  After  the  -ceding,  however, 
it   should  he  prevented. 

III.  The    Final    stage. 

The  removal  of  the  seed  trees  left  takes  place  during  the  final 
stage. 

a.  Purpose:  By  the  gradual  removal  of  the  mother  trees,  the 
young  forest  is  gradually  lead  into  a  life  under  changed  conditions, 
until  it  is  ready  to  enjoy  the  full  influence  of  sunshine,  air  and  rain. 

b.  Number  of  cuttings:  The  more  gradual  the  removal,  the 
le>>  damage  results  for  the  young  growth  from  the  logging  opera- 
tions and  from  changed  environments.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
cheapest  and  best,  from  the  logger's  standpoint,  to  remove  the 
seed  I  rees  at  one  stroke. 

c.  Beginning:  The  beginning  of  the  final  fellings  depends  on  the 
development  of  the  young  growth.  In  the  ease  of  poor  Soil,  or  light- 
demanding  species  and  of  northern  climate,  fellings  should  start  in 
the    fall   following  the   seeding. 

In  the  ease  of  shade-bearing  species,  strong  soil  and  southern 
climate  the  second  or  third  fall  should  be  waited  for.  The  drier 
the   locality,   the  quicker  must    he   the   removal   of   the   mother   trees. 

d.  Duration:  The  duration  id'  the  final  stage  "depends  on  species. 

112 


SYLVICULTURE. 

on  quality  of  soil,  on  success  of  seeding  cutting,  on  occurrence  of 
subsequent  seed  years  and  on  climate.  A  tender,  slow-growing  and 
shade-bearing  species  allows  of  a  protracted  period  of  removal. 

A  few  trees  left  in  isolated  positions  are  apt  to  damage  the 
young  growth  by  the  reflection  of  the  sun's  rays  from  the  hark; 
this  is  the  case  especially  in  species  having  a  whitish  bark  (Beech, 
Maple,   Birch,   Silver   Fir). 

e.  Marking  for  final  removal:  Broad-leaved  trees  should  be 
marked  in  summer  Avhilst  the  trees  ana  the  young  growth  are 
in  leaf. 

By  the  first  final  felling  only  small  tire-  -hall  be  removed,  after 
Hess.  From  the  second  fall  (after  the  seed  cutting)  on,  the  seedlings 
being  stronger  at  that  time,  it  is   wise   to  take  the  largest  tree-. 

f.  Season:  The  cutting  of  the  mother  trees  should  take  place 
when  snow  covers  the  ground,  so  as  to  do  the  least  possible  damage 
to  the  young  growth.  Fellings  must  be  discontinued  during  hard 
frost.  Broad-leafed  species  should  not  he  cut  before  leaves  are 
dropped  as  they  will  do  more  damage  to  their  progeny  when  felled 
in  leaf. 

Hess  is  in  favor  of  cutting  in  fall,  claiming  that  the  young 
growth  at  that  time  is  particularly  tough  and  elastic.  He  does 
not  attribute  much  weight  to  the  presence  of  snow  unless  it  covers 
the   young  growth   entirely. 

g.  Stumps  and  roots:  If  the  trees  are  dug  out  by  the  roots, 
the  force  with  which   they  hit   the  ground  is  considerably  lessened. 

In  coniferous  forests,  many  parasitic  insects  breed  in  stumps, 
and  in  that  case  it  may  he  necessary  to  dig  them  out  id'  the 
ground,  or  to  poison  them. 

Where  the  tree  is  entirely  surrounded  by  young  growth,  digging 
should  be  prohibited. 

h.  How  to  fell  a  tree:  The  tree  to  be  cut  should  be  thrown  onto 
that  place  where  it  is  likely  to  do  the  least  damage — especially  onto 
"  blanks."  It  is  wise  to  throw  the  crowns  of  several  trees  onto  the 
same  spot  so  as  to  centralize  the  damage.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
sylviculturists  prefer  to  throw  the  crowns  of  the  trees  into  the  very 
thickest  young  growth,  claiming  that  the  damage  thereby  done  is 
considerably  less,  and  that  many  youngsters  will  be  left  undamaged. 

i.  Standards:  In  many  cases,  a  few  trees  are  left  standing  for 
a  second  rotation.  Such  trees  are  sailed  "  standards."  Standards 
of  Oak,  Pine  and  Ash  are  frequently  found.  They  should  not  be 
left  unless  they  stand  close  to  a  road,  or  unless  they  are  certain 
to  outlast   a   second  rotation. 

113 


SYLYIl  I    I-T  I    i:  E. 

j.  Pruning  of  mother  trees:  Low  brandies  which  overshadow 
the    young   growth    heavily    should   be    cut. 

k.  Transportation  of  wood:  All  wood  and  timber  should  be 
moved  to  the  nearest  roads  as  soon  as  possible  alter  the  trees  are 
cut.  Speck  removal  is  especially  necessary  in  coniferous  forests, 
the  young  growth  having  little  reproductive  power.  A  snow  cover 
might  be  used  to  remove  the  wood  on  sleds;  high-wheeled  trucks 
will  answer  splendidly  on  level  ground.  The  method  of  "  roping " 
used  in  the  Black  Forest  also  saves  the  young  growth.  All  wood 
and  timber  must  be  removed  from  the  regeneration  area  previous 
to   the  opening  of  the  buds. 

1.  Pasturage:  There  is  no  need  to  say  that  the  young  growth 
should   be   protected   against  pasture. 

m.  Reinforcing:  Blanks  should  be  filled  only  when  the  mother 
trees  have  been  entirely  removed.  The  plants  may  be  taken  from 
dense  places  where  the  natural  regeneration  is  complete  or.  better, 
from  nurseries. 

Paragraph  XLIX.  The  shelterwood  strip  type  of  natural  seed 
regeneration. 

A.  This  type  bears  the  same  ratio  to  the  shelterwood  com- 
partment type  of  regeneration  which  the  cleared  strip  type  bears 
to   the   cleared  compartment  type. 

In  the  shelterwood  strip  type,  as  in  the  cleared  strip  type, 
fellings  and  regeneration  begin  at  the  leeward  side  of  a  compart- 
ment i cove,  slope)  and  proceed  gradually  against  the  direction  of 
the   prevailing  storms. 

Beavy-seeded  species  as  well  as  light-seeded  species  allow-  of 
the  -nip  type.  Distinct  light  demanders.  however,  defy  it  on  the 
poorer  grades  of  soil. 

The  nuclei  are  laid  out  geometrically  in  the  shape  of  strips 
crossing  the  prevailing  wind-direction  at  right  angles.  The  most 
leeward  strip  is  in  the  final  stage;  the  most  windward  strip  is  in 
the  preparatorj  stage;  the  middle  strip  is  in  the  seeding  stage, 
provided   thai    the  conditions   are  normal. 

The  breadth  of  a  strip  depends  on  species,  frequency  of  seed 
years,  configuration  of  ground  and  so  on.  At  a  breadth  of  over 
500  feet,  the  -nip  type  bastardizes  with  the  compartment  type. 

M«,re  frequently,  tne  shelterwood  -trip  type  i-  bastardized  with 
the   shelterwood  group  type. 

Regeneration  of  a  cove,  slope,  tract,  etc.  under  tin'  pure  strip 
type,  is  exceedingly  -low.  mile--  there  are  at  hand  a  number  of 
-     114 


S  YLVlc  ILT  ike. 

"  series  of  strips,"  all  triplets,  consisting  of  a  preparatory,  a  seed- 
ing and  a  final  strip. 

The  first  strips  are  usually  made,  as  in  the  cleared  strip  type, 
in  well-sheltered  ravines  or  gullies:  or  at  the  windward  edge  of 
lake-,  fields.,  young  growth;  or  at  the  windward  edge  of  storm-firm 
trees  (Oaks),  where  there  is  a  mixture  of  storm-firm  species  with 
species  endangered  by  storm. 

The  form  of  the  strips  need  not  be  exactly  rectangular.  In 
the  mountains,  the  strips  usually  run  up  and  down  the  slopes— not 
horizontal— so  as  to  facilitate  the  transportation  of  timber  and 
wood  removed  from  the   strip. 

B.  Actual  application:  This  type  is  frequently  seen  in  the 
coniferous  woods  of  the  European  moderately  cold  zone;  also  in 
Beech  woods  and  Oak  woods. 

Like  the  uniform  type,  the  strip  type  is  not  exactly  natural. 
For  that  reason,  the  primeval  woods  do  not  exhibit  any  illustra- 
tions   of  the  strip  type. 

C.  Advantages:  The  advantages  of  the  shelterwood  strip  type 
are  identical  with  those  of  the  shelterwood  compartment  type— 
excepting  advantage  III.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  small  pieces 
of  property,  which  could  not  yield  steady  returns  under  the  uniform 
type.  Greater  security  from  storm  is  characteristic  for  the  strip 
type. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Difficulty  of  obtaining  a  desired  mixture  of  species  in  the 
young   growth. 

II.  rrees  at  the  extreme  windward  edge  of  a  cutting  series 
obtain  an  extravagantly  high  age,  whilsl  regeneration  proceeds 
slowly  and  gradually  against  them. 

III.  Tardiness  of  a  complete  regeneration  of  a  whole  compart- 
ment, slope  or  cove,  where  there  are  only  a  few  points  of  first  attack. 

IV.  Operations  are  more  scattering  than  in  the  shelterwood 
compartment  type. 

Paragraph  L.    The  shelterwood  group  type  of  natural  seed  regenera- 
tion. 

A.    Characteristic    features. 

I.  species:  All  species  can  be  dealt  with  in  a  group  system; 
those  endangered  by  windfall,  however,  require  a  modification  of 
the  system,  or  -mall  rotation,  or  a  regular  progress  of  the  groups 
toward   the   storm   danger. 

115 


SYLVICULTURE. 

II.  Beginning:   In  the  shelterwood  system,  the  nuclei  for  groups 

are  formed  at  a  time,  at  which  the  soil  begins  to  be,  here  and  there, 
a  ready  recipient  for  seed.  In  the  nucleus,  two  or  three  trees  are 
cut,  to  begin  with,  and  a   few  seedlings  soon  enter  an   appearance. 

III.  Continuation:  The  young  growth  gradually  spreads  out, 
more  or  less  peripherically,  from  the  nucleus,  appearing  at  the  feel 
of  the  nearest  trees.  'Ihese  trees,  in  turn,  are  gradually  removed, 
whilst  the  groups  of  seedlings  continue  to  enlarge.  Finallj  one 
group  will  flow  into  the  other,  and  the  regeneration  will  present 
a  waving  leaf  canopy.  The  irregularity  of  the  canopy  depends  "ii 
the   rapidity  with   winch   the  groups  could  be  enlarged. 

IV.  Means  of  transportation:  The  type  obviously  requires  a 
finely  meshed,  permanent  network  of  transportation.  The  axe 
returns  to  the  group  under  formation  periodically,  say  every  three 
to  ten  years,  during  a  period  of  regeneration  comprising  from  fifteen 
to  fifty  years. 

\.  Soil  protection:  The  soil  is  continuously  protected  from 
intensive  insolation,  and  is  hence  kept  in  continuous  productiveness. 

VI.  Dangers:  Protection  from  fire  is  very  difficult;  protection 
from  storm  difficult,  although  easier  than  in  the  shelterwood  com 
partment  type.  Insects,  fungi,  and  snowbreak  are  not  to  be  dreaded 
much   more   than   under  the   selection  system. 

VII.  Lumbering:  .Mother  trees  are  always  felled  in  a  manner 
forcing  them  away  from  the  group.  Hypermature  trees  close  to 
the  -roup  are  extracted  at  the  same  time.  Lumbering  operations 
are  necessarily  scattered.  Hence  the  logging  expenses  and  the  cosi 
of  supervision  range  very  high.  The  removal  (snaking)  of  the  trees 
cut  takes  place  through  the  benches  of  trees  left  between  the  groups 
so  that  the  soil  is   stirred  up  continuously   within  the  benches. 

The  groups  should  be  started,  if  possible,  :lt  the  upper  end  of  a 
'slope  so  that   the   logs  need  not  be   snaked   through    young  growth. 

VIII.  Artificial  help:  To  start  regeneration  of  a  nucleus,  and 
to  accelerate  the  enlargement  of  a  group,  mosses,  weeds  and  litter 
on  the  ground  may  be  removed  previous  to  a  seed  year  (bastardiz- 
ing with  advance  growth  group  type). 

The  so-called  "hair-dressing"  of  groups,  by  which  misshapen 
and  branchy  growth  is  cut  back,  and  the  wave  form  of  groups  is 
maintained,  maj    he  seen  in  the  Black  Forest. 

B.  Actual  application:  The  shelterwood  group  type  appears  to 
he  a  type  of  regeneration  sometimes  adopted  by  primeval  nature 
in  Beech.   Maple.   Fir  and   Pine   w Is. 

1 10 


SYLVICULTURE. 

As  a  sylvicultural  type,  the  shelterwood  group  system  has  been 
fathered  by  Charles  Gayer. 

It  is  the  most  modern  type  of  German  n.  s.  r.,  applied  especially 
in  the  natural  seed  regeneration  of  Spruce  and  Beech. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  The  type  grants  the  forester  the  utmost  liberty  of  action, 
by  offering  him  a  large  number  of  points  at  which  to  start  and  at 
which  to  continue   his   logging  operations. 

II.  In  mixed  forests,  the  system  allows  of  fostering  the  most 
valuable  species  and  of  checking  the  less  desirable  species  or  the 
weed  species. 

III.  The  type  does  not  take  any  sylvicultural  chances. 

IV.  The  young  growth  is  well  protected  against  the  usual 
atmospheric  dangers. 

V.  The  good  qualities  of  the  soil  are  carefully  husbanded. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  The  type  makes  unusual  demands  on  the  personal  and  local 
attention  of  the  manager  as  well  as  of  the  stall,  necessitating  small 
ranges   and   high   administrative   expenses. 

II.  Mother  trees  at  the  leeward  side  (if  an  enlarged  group  are 
subject  to  dangers  from  storm;  on  the  northeast  side  of  a  group 
subject  to  dangers  from  sun  scald. 

III.  A  large  outlay  is  incurred  for  logging  the  tires  owing  to 
the  scattering  character  of  the  operations  and  owing  to  the  care 
required  in  felling  and  transportation,  for  the  benefit  of  both  young 
and  old  growth. 

IV.  In  the  case  of  very  large  trees,  covering  by  their  crowns 
a-  much  as  500  to  1,000  square  feet,  the  removal  of  an  individual 
tears  too  big  a  hole  into  the  forest  and  enlarges  the  group  too 
rapidly  at  a  stroke. 

V.  The  type  does  not  allow  of  the  removal  of  hypermature  trees 
with  proper  expedition.  They  are  removed  only  when  the  waves 
of  the  group  begin  to  touch   their  feet. 

VI.  The  soil  in  the  proximity  of  white  barked  trees  bordering 
a  group  is   scorched   by   reflected   sun  rays. 

Paragraph    LI.      The    shelterwood    selection    type    of    natural    seed 
regeneration. 
This  type  scarcely  exists  in  a  pure  form.     Where  it  exists,  it 
is  invariably  bastardized  with  the  cleared  selection  or  the   advance 
growth    selection    type   of   natural    seed    regeneration. 

The    pure    type    would    imply    the    immediate    development    (or 
rather   the    simultaneous   development!    of   a    seeding  growth  in   the 
117 


S  YLYICULT  r  I!  E. 

very  year  (a  seed  year)  in  which  the  individual  trees  eery  irregu- 
larly, very  scatteringly,  on  the  basis  of  their  relative  maturity- 
are   selected    tor   removal. 

Where  the  removal  leaves  a  blank,  we  meet  the  cleared  selec- 
tion  type. 

Where  the  removal  allows  an  advance  growth  already  at  hand 
to  fill   the  gap,  there   we  meet  the  advance  growth  selection  type. 

The  premises  for  the  shelterwood  selection  type  are  identical 
with  those  for  the  cleared  selection  type  and  for  the  advance 
growth    selection    type. 

Paragraph  LII.     Types  in  which  lumbering  follows  after  n.  s.  r. 

In  these  types  of  natural  seed  regeneration — so-called  advance 
growth  typo— no  tree  is  removed  unless  its  foot  be  already  sur- 
rounded by  a  young  progeny  of  desirable  character  which  has  pre- 
viously developed  beneath  the  parent's  or  step-parent's  leaf  canopy. 

The  case  of  exceedingly  fertile  soil  and  the  case  of  step-parents 
naving  a  light  leaf  canopy  excepted,  absolute  shade  bearers  only  can 
be  propagated  by  this  type.  So  f.  i.,  Hemlock.  Fir,  Beech,  Maple, 
Lawson's  Cypress,  Western  Red  Cedar. 

In  the  hake  States,  White  Pine  is  found  as  a  regeneration 
formed  in  advance  beneath  mature  Norway  Tine-  acting  as  step- 
parents   (advance   growth    group   type). 

Tn  the  Adirondacks,  Spruce  regenerates  similarly  underneath 
mature  Cottonwoods  acting  as  step-parents  or,  on  very  fertile  soil, 
selectionwise   beneath    Beech,  Maple   and  Birch. 

Striking  it  is  thai  species  not  absolutely  shade  enduring  are. 
in  many  a  case,  loth  to  l>c  regenerated,  as  an  advance  growth,  at 
tli"  Feel  of  their  actual  parents,  whilst  willing  to  lie  suppressed 
beneatb  step-parents  of  apparently  similar  density  of  foliage 
(Yellow  Poplar  at  Biltmore  underneath  Oak  or  Short  leaf  Pine; 
Spruce    underneath    Cottonwoods).  , 

Specie-  regenerating  under  their  own  kin  resemble  altricial  (nidi- 
cole)  birds;  species  avoiding  parental  superstructure  might  he 
likened  to  precocial   (nidifugal)   birds. 

The  chances  for  successful  regeneration  in  these  types  3eem  ex- 
cellent.    Still,  the  following  points  musl    not    he   losi    sighi   of: 

I.  Advance  growth  badly  suppressed  for  a  long  time  is  fre- 
quently -,,  badly  crippled  that  it  fail-  to  recover  within  a  reasonable 
number  of  years. 

II.  The  advance  growth  is  badly  -mashed  by  and  during  the  fell- 
ing operation-,  unless  the  mother  trees  are  pinned  and  lopped  before 

us; 


BYLVICUL  T  U  R  E. 

felling,  and  unless  the  timber  obtained  is  carried  out  either  by 
hand,  or  on  high  wheel  trucks,  or  on  a  heavy  cover  of  snow  pro- 
tecting the  advance  growth.  Under  any  circumstances,  fellings 
during  the  period  of  vegetation  must  be  avoided. 

ill.  Advance  growth  suddenly  exposed  to  the  full  influence  of 
sun,  rain,  snow,  sleet,  etc.,  is  apt  to  suffer  in  case  of  sensitive  species. 

IV.  A  minute  system  of  permanent  roads  is  required,  the 
advance    growth    usually   appearing   in   groups   or   patches. 

V.  if  the  pure  types  of  advance  growth  n.  s.  r.  were  strictly 
adhered  to,  a  regulation  of  the  annual  cut  according  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  market  would  be  difficult  to  obtain.  Hypermature  trees 
would  have  to  be  left  everywhere — merely  because  young  growth 
if   often   slow   to   form   on   their   feet. 

In  such  cases,  artificial  preparation  of  a  seed-bed  (f.  i.,  by 
uncovering  the  mineral  soil)  seem-  absolutely  required,  so  a-  to 
expedite    the   formation    of   advance    growth. 

If  the  leaf  canopy  overhead  is  opened  al  the  -a me  time  by 
felling  operations,  the  types  bastardize  with  the  shelterwood  t.\  pr- 
of n.  s.  r. 

According  to  the  extent  of  the  area  covered  by  an  advance 
growth    of   suitable   character    we   distinguish    Let  ween: 

a.  Advance  growth  compartment  type  of  n.  s.  v.,  the  areas 
uniformly  covered  by  advance  growth  measuring  from  twenty  to 
one  hundred  acres    (rare). 

b.  Advance  growth  strip  type  of  n.  s.  r..  the  area  uniformly 
covered  by  advance  growth  appearing  a-  -tup-  measuring  up  to 
500  feet  in  breadth    (very   rare). 

c.  Advance  growth  group  type  of  n.  -.  r..  the  groups  covered 
by  advance  growth  having  an  extent  of  from  one-tenth  to  three 
acres   (frequent). 

d.  Advance  growth  selection  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  the  young  seed- 
lings and  saplings  appearing  in  scattered  ami  small  patches  (very 
common ) . 

Under  "advance  growth"  is  understood  an  aggregate  (small  or 
large)  of  seedlings  or  saplings  belonging  to  a  desirable  species  and 
formed  without  any  human  intention  or  attention,  solely  by  nature, 
beneath   a    totally    or   partially   untouched    leaf    canopy    overhead. 

Spreading  advance  growth  appearing  in  bunches  or  groups  can 
be  doctored  up  with  axe  and  brushhook  and  machetes,  by  an  appli- 
cation of  "  hairdressing." 

Where  the  advance  growth  is  not  freed,  by  one  single  operation, 
from  the  superstructure  of  parents  and  step-parents  overhead,  the 
119 


SYLVICU  LTURE. 

advance    growth    types    are    further    bastardized    with    shelterwood 

types. 

Paragraph  LIII.    The  advance  growth  compartment  type  of  natural 
seed  regeneration. 

A.  The  type  i-  applicable  only  where  large  areas  exhibit  on 
strong  soil  a  uniform  advance  growth,  consisting  of  seedlings,  of 
saplings  and  possibly  of  small   poles. 

Previous  to  lumbering,  the  leaf  canopy  consists  of  two  tiers: 
an  upper  tier  formed  by  the  parents  (or  step-parents)  and  a  lower 
tier  formed  by  the  advance  growth.  Lumbering  removes  the  upper 
tier  entirely  and  leaves   the   lower  tier  intact— if  possible. 

In  the  safety  of  the  lower  tier  lies  the  great  difficulty  of  the 
system,  especially  on  rough  ground,  in  handling  heavy  logs  of  the 
superstructure,  in  dealing  with  cheap  stumpage,  in  cutting  soft 
woods  characterized  by  small  healing  power  and  in  the  absence  of 
an   intricate   system   of   transportation. 

Where  the  upper  story  of  trees  consists  of  say  10,000  feet  b.  in. 
per  acre,  or  of  more,  the  ground  is  literally  littered  witli  logs  or 
boles  during  the  logging  operations,  and  the  advance  growth  has  hut 
a   slight  chance  to  survive  the  death  of  its  progenitors. 

B.  Actual  application:  The  type  is  found,  in  rare  cases,  abroad 
under  the  misnomer  of  a  modified  "  selection  system,"  where  and 
when  the  logger  returns  for  a  wholesale  removal  of  mature  trees, 
at    intervals  of  about  twenty  years,  to  the  same  compartments. 

The  type  is  also  practical  where  prolific  seed  years  produce, 
in  mild  sites  and  on  strong  soil,  a.  uniform  advance  growth  in  even- 
aged  Beech  or  Firwoods,  without  any  previous  human  interference 
with  the  leaf  canopy  Overhead  (so-called  regeneration  from  a  com- 
plete-growing stock ) . 

In  the  United  States,  compact  advance  growth  is  rarely  found — 
possibly  so  in  the  case  of  Tsuga  heterophylla.  The  destruction  of 
the  superstructure,  however,  usually  followed  by  fires,  tends  to 
annihilate   every   vestige   of   advance   growth. 

C.  Advantages: 

Where  the  system  can  be  carried  through,  it  offers  the  follow- 
ing   advantages : 

I.  Concentrated    logging. 

II.  Well-preserved   productiveness   of   the   -oil. 

HI.  Soil  never  idling,  hut   producing  without   any  delay. 

120 


SYLVICULTU  R  E. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  The  type  is  applicable  only  to  intense  shade  bearers;  and 
these  shade  bearers  are  very  apt  to  suffer  from  sudden  changes  of 
environments. 

II.  The  logging  expenses  are  very  badly  increased  in  the  attempt 
to   save   the   advance   growth   from   destruction. 

III.  Under  any  circumstances,  the  rapid  removal  of  mother  trees 
inflicts  scars  upon  the  young  growth  apt  to  serve  as  entrance  gates 
for  fungi  and  insects. 

Paragraph  LIV.     The   advance  growth  strip   type   of  natural   seed 
regeneration. 

A.  Advance  growth,  being  a  chance  product,  is  rarely  found  in 
symmetrical,  long-drawn  strips.  Where  the  clear  strip-type  is  in- 
troduced, however,  a  strip  of  advance  growth  is  often  and  easily 
Btarted  underneath  the  border  trees  joining  the  cleared  strip  to  the 
windward.  In  that  case,  the  advance  growth  strip-type  is  bastard- 
ized witli  the  clear  strip  type. 
•    B.  Actual   application: 

The  type  is  found  only  in  the  bastard  form  just  mentioned. 

C.  Advantages: 

I.  Xo  expense  required  for  regeneration  (unless  weeds,  leaves 
or   moss   are  removed). 

II.  Advance  growth  is  readily  saved,  where  the  logs  are  removed 
through  the  adjoining  woods. 

III.  A  road  system  touching  the  lower  edge  of  the  strip-  is 
sufficient. 

IV.  Soil    is    never    laid    bar.'. 

V.  Little   damage   from   rainfall. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Scattering   operations. 

II.  Type  is  not  applicable  to  light  demanders. 

III.  Hypermature  trees  must  be  left  in  the  woods  until  tiie 
strips,    after   many    years,   may   approach   them. 

IV.  Points  of  attack  from  which  cutting  may  proceed  are  apt 
to  be  lacking,  unless  the  forester  is  able  to  maintain  a  very  large 
number  of  narrow .  cutting  series,  helped  by  the  configuration  of 
the  ground. 

Paragraph   LV.     The   advance   growth  group  type  of  natural  seed 
regeneration. 
A.  In  nature,  advance  growth  usually  appears  in  small  bunches 
or  in  groups,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  always  a  chance  for  many 
121 


SYLVICULTURE. 

seedlings  to  sproul  and  develop  on  a  Bpot  where  light,  humidity  and 
soil  allow  a  single  individual  to  make  a  start  alone.  In  the  primeval 
woods,  groups  of  advance  growth  formed  by  shade  bearing  species 
are  almost  invariably  at  hand.  Even  light  demanders  may  form 
small  groups  of  advance  growth  in  spite  of  a  superstructure  over- 
bead,  provided  that  the  soil  is  strong  enough  to  support  them. 

Such  groups,  freed  from  the  trees  superstrueting  them,  will 
develop  one  or  a  number  of  saplings  which  in  turn  and  in  course 
of  time  may  yield  one  or  a  few  poles  promising  to  grow  into 
trees  of  a  loggable  size. 

Very  frequently  the  groups  arc  formed  not  under  the  leai 
canopy  of  the  parent  species,  but  undereneath  another  species  act- 
ing  as   a   step-parent. 

Indeed,  step-parents  of  a  rather  selfish  kind,  inimical  to  the 
children,  are  frequently  encountered  in  tree  life,  handicapping  and 
killing  the  young  progeny  thirsting  at  their  feet  for  light  and  ram. 

The  endurance  of  advance  growth  living  under  adverse  condi- 
tions is  at  times  remarkably  great.  Fir,  Spruce,  Beech  and  Maple 
may  be  met  grown  only  six  feet  high  when  GO  years  old.  ret  aided 
by   parental   superstructure. 

The  pure  advance  growth  group  type  is  frequently  bastardized, 
in  Europe,  with  the  shelterwood  group  type  when  the  forester 
u>e~  existing  groups  of  advance  growth  as  nuclei  to  be  gradually 
enlarged,  instead  of  using  spots  as  nuclei  for  group  regeneration  on 
which  the  soil  chances  to  be  in  a  conceptions  condition.  Further, 
when  a  shelterwood  group  is  forming,  advance  growth  groups  are 
frequently  started,  under  the  influence  of  side  light  on  seedlings 
and  humus,  at  a  goodly  distance  from  the  shelterwood  group,  under- 
neath an  apparently  heavy  superstructure  of  mother  tree-. 

The  advance  growth  group  type  pure  and  simple,  however, 
merely  implies  the  freeing  of  chance  growth  from  a  superstructure. 
It  ha-  nothing  to  do  with  the  gradual  enlargement  of  a  group 
by  ringwise  cutting  around  the  group. 

The  "•  hairdressing  '  or  groups  of  advance  growth  i-  some- 
times   commendable. 

B.  Actual  Application:  Systematically,  this  type  i-  nowhere 
applied  in  its  purity.  Accidentally,  however,  the  lumbermen  of 
America  happen  to  employ  it  in  woods  composed  of  Fir,  Hemlock. 
Ma] ile.  Beech,  etc. 

Primeval  nature  employs  this  type  quite  largely  I  f.  i..  in 
Chestnut-oak    woods   at   Biltmore). 


SYLVIGUL  T  U  R  E. 

C.  Advantages:  The  advantage-  of  the  type  are  identical  with 
those  given  under  C,  I,  II  and  IV.  in  paragraph  LIV.  In  addition, 
this  type  may  often  allow  the  forester  to  favor  a  desirable  species 
of  shade-bearing  character. 

Under  sylvieultural  care,  it  renders  regeneration  an  absolute 
certainty.  The  trees  forming  the  superstructure  frequently  happen 
to  be  of  a  marketable  size.  The  type  does  not  require  much  sylvi- 
cultural   understanding. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Border  trees  to  the  leeward  of  advance  growth  are  subject 
to   windfall    and    sun    -raid. 

II.  Advance  growth  groups  continue  to  be  badly  suppressed, 
along   the   edge   of   the   group,   by    border   tree-. 

III.  The  logging  operations  arc  -tattering,  and  an  intricate 
system    of    permanent    roads    i-    required. 

IV.  Only  intense  shade  hearers  can  be  properly  managed  under 
this  type:  light  demanders  found  in  mixture  with  shade  bearers 
must  gradually  disappear  from  the  mixture.  The  shade  bearers  will 
readily  form  groups  of  advance  growth  underneath  light  demanders; 
but  not  vice  versa. 

Paragraph  LVI.     The  advance  growth  selection  type  of  natural  seed 
regeneration. 

A.  This  type  is  usually  bastardized  with  the  cleared  and  with 
the  shelterwood  selection  type. 

The  selection  by  the  forester  of  trees  to  be  cut  might  be  either 
oy  single  trees  or  by  very  small  bunches  of  trees  underlaid  with 
a  carpet  of  advance  growth  covering  about  one  one-hundredth  acre 
of  ground. 

The  logging  operations,  as  in  all  selection  types,  are  exceed- 
ingly scattering:  indeed,  they  ought  to  continuously  extend,  as  a 
matter  of  theoretical  principle,  over  the  entire  forest. 

Only  shade  hearers,  notably  Fir.  Hemlock  and  Spruce,  are  well 
adapted  to  the  type  of  advance  growth  selection. 

The  type,  like  the  cleared  and  the  shelterwood  selection  type, 
renders  the  construction  of  an  intricate  network  of  road-  neces- 
sary. Every  tree,  so  to  speak — not  every  strip  or  every  compart- 
ment— must   be  continuously  accessible. 

It  might  be  necessary  to  prepare  the  soil,  in  scattered  patches, 
where  the  layer  of  humus  is  too  deep,  and  where  the  soil  is  so 
hardened  or  so  covered  with  weed-  a-  to  prevent  any  chance  of 
n.  s.  r. 

123 


SYLVICULTU  RE. 

Since  the  cuttings  are  comparatively  light,  the  removal  of  the 

logs   prepares  the  ground   insufliciently   for   the   conception   of   seed. 

Seedlings  and  saplings  in  advance  growth  stand  under  very 
heavy  shade  for  many  a  year,  usually  in  small  bunches  of  a  few 
dozen  specimens.  Misshapen  seedlings  and  saplings,  also  those 
badly  damaged  during  logging  operations,  should  be  cut,  or  cop- 
piced  in   the  case  of  hardwoods. 

B.  Actual  application: 

Wherever  the  selection  type  is  applied  in  Europe,  it  is  pre- 
eminently applied  in  the  shape  of  advance  growth  selection  type; 
especially  so  in  parks,  in  small  farm  wood  lots  and  in  protective 
forests. 

Usually,  every  compartment  (cove,  slope)  contains  a  wild  mix- 
ture of  age  classes  of  trees.  The  axe  returns  to  a  compartment 
in  intervals  of  from  one  to  ten  years. 

The  Beech,  although  an  intense  shade  bearer,  develops  very 
branchy  stems  under  such  conditions  (Beech  forests  in  Bucking- 
ham-hire. England). 

In  primeval  nature,  all  or  practically  all  scattering  and  sparse 
species  are   subjected   to   seed   regeneration   of   the   advance    s 
selection  type.     The  accidental  death  of  trees  in  the  superstructure 
allows  a  patch  of  advance  growth  found  underneath  to  develop. 

Instances:  White  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  at  Biltmore;  also  Spruce 
on  hardwood  slopes  in  the  Adirondacks. 

It  is  surprising  to  find  that  scattering  species  are  regenerated 
by  primeval  nature  in  a  type  which  is  considered  by  the  sylvicul- 
ture only  applicable  to  intense  shade  bearers.  The  explanation 
lies  in  nature's  long-lasting  patience  and  in  her  failure  to  be  dis- 
heartened  when    failing   in   innumerable   attempts. 

( '.  Advantages: 

I.  The  type  protects  the  soil,  and  hence  the  waters,  best  of  all. 

II.  It  protects  the  young  growth  from  frost,  drought,  high 
winds,   insects,   sleet   and   snow. 

III.  It  is  particularly  pleasing,  from  the  aesthetic  standpoint 
by  the  unusually  large  variety  of  the  pictures  proffered. 

IV.  Since  every  acre  of  ground  continuously  retains  its  leaf 
canopy,  no  sunshine,  air  and  rain  go  to  waste  in  young  growth 
insufficiently  covering  areas  laid  bare.  At  the  same  time,  continu- 
ous retention  of  moisture  in  the  soil  allows  of  greater  fertility: 
hence  the  quantity  of  wood  fibre  annually  produced  is  greater  in 
the    selection    system    than    in    any    other. 

y.  Small  danger   from   windfall   amongst    parent    tree-. 
124 


SYLVICULTURE. 

VI.  Small  danger  from  fire,  since  the  humus  is  kept  moist 
continuously.  On  the  other  hand,  a  fire  once  broken  out  is 
extremely  hard  to  stop. 

D.  Disadvantages: 

I.  Logging  operations  are  very  scattering,  and  hence  expensive. 
The   fall    of   individual,   large    trees   amongst   the    multitude   of 

their  companions  is  very  apt  to  inflict  wounds  upon  them,  through 
which  fungi  and  insects  enter  readily.  (Cancerous  Firs  of  the 
Black  Forest.) 

II.  A  minute  network  of  permanent  roads  is  required. 

III.  The  primeval  woods,  wherever  they  represent  the  selection 
type,  show  a  preponderance  of  mature  and  hypermature  age  classes. 
Since  the  type  does  not  allow  of  the  removal  of  groups  of  trees  at 
all.  and  of  the  removal  of  individuals  only  where  they  are  under- 
laid by  an  advance  growth,  the  owner  of  primeval  woods  adopting 
this  type  is  forced  to  bring  heavy  sacrifici  - 

IV.  It  is  very  difficult  to  regenerate  light  demanders  by  this 
type,  where  they  stand  mixed   with   shade  bearers. 

Paragraph  LVII.  Regeneration  of  valuable  species  from  self-sown 
seed  (n.  s.  r.)  with,  amongst  and  into  companions  of  a 
weedy  character. 

It  is  a  veil-known  fact  that  only  a  few  of  the  hundreds  of 
seedlings  raised  (artificially  or  naturally)  l>y  the  forester  have  a 
chance   to   develop   into   poles,   standards   and   veterans. 

Dense  thickets,  consisting  of  many  saplings,  are  merely  re- 
quired to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  to  prevent,  by 
natural  pruning,  the  young  boles  from  growing  into  brushy  and 
branchy    specimens    ("orchard   trees"). 

For  the  purpose  al  -take  it  i-  immaterial,  in  a  sense,  whether 
the  thickets  consist  of  a  "mob"  of  shrubby  weeds  mixed  with  a 
few  "aristocrats"  hailing  from  valuable  species,  or  whether  the 
entire  thicket  consists  of  ••aristocrats."  More  than  that:  unless 
the  aristocrat  has  a  value  already  as  a  sapling  or  as  a  small  pole, 
the  "  mob  "  frequently  is  more  conducive  to  proper  soil  protection 
and  to  proper  development  of  the  "  aristocracy "  into  large  poles 
and  standards  than  a   purely  artistocratic  crowd. 

The  danger,  of  course,  prevails  continuously  lest  the  aristo- 
crats  might   he   overtopped  and  killed   by   the   mob. 

A.  Wherever  the  mob  consists  of  even-aged  seedlings  (not  of 
stoolshoots'i   of  shrubs,  that  danger  i<  -mall,  shrubs  usually  exhibit- 

1 2.-. 


S  J   I-  V  1(1    I.  T  URE. 

ing  a  slow  rate  of  height  growth  (Alder;  Dogw 1:  Hazel;  Witch- 
hazel:    Rhododendron,  etc.). 

Stoolshoots  of  Bhrubs,  on  the  other  hand,  frequently  grow   bo 

fast,  so  dense  and  bo  rank  that  they  are  sure  to  overpower  an 
artistocracj    of  seedlings  of  even  age. 

If  the  mob  promises  to  easily  obtain  the  upper  hand,  then  it 
i-  usually  wise  to  delay  regeneration  until  the  shrubbage  slmw>.  at 
a  much  later  year,  signs  of  a  declining  growth  (Calmia);  or  else 
tn  wait  until  the  shrubs  allow  a  deadening  (Dogwood)  -T  or  to  fire 
the  shrubbage  in  heavy  seed  years  of  the  aristocratic  parentage 
(Blackjack):  or  to  lumber  heavily  if  the  shrubs  are  sensitive  and 
if   the   artistocrats   are   hardy    (Striped  Maple). 

Certain  weedy  shrubs,  f.  i.,  Bamboo  species,  oiler  periodically  a 
chance  for  subdual,  viz..  when  death  overtakes  them  gregariously 
during  their  own   seed  years. 

Other  shrubs  are  eagerly  eaten  (or  peeled)  by  sheep,  goats 
or  cattle,  and  might  be  brought  to  submission,  in  the  winter  fol- 
lowing the  fruiting  of  the  aristocrats,  by  heavy  pasturage  (Mohro- 
dendron  for  the  benefit  of  Yellow  Poplar). 

The  purpose  at  stake,  in  .American  Sylviculture,  for  years  to 
come  cannot  consist  in  homogeneous  regeneration  of  aristocrats 
evenly  covering  the  regeneration  area:  it  can  only  consist  in  that 
form,  quality  and  density  of  regeneration-  usually  a  partially  suc- 
cessful regeneration— which  the  forester  considers  financially  most 
desirable    (compare   paragraph  XLI   E). 

The  extirpation  of  shrubs  by  pickaxe  and  pli>\v  is  usually 
impossible,  unless  it  can  be  combined  with  "  taungya." 

It  is  often  sufficient  for  increased  aristocratic  regeneration  to 
break    or    reduce    the   humus   formed    underneath    the    shrubbage. 

B.  The  battle  against  weed  trees  trying  to  propagate  their  kind 
in  the  forest  is  usually  more  difficult  to  win  than  that  against 
Bhrubs  since  the  progeny  of  weed  trees  does  not  stop  to  compete 
with  aristocrats  after  the  thicket  stage.  The  forester  must  care- 
fully gauge  the  chances  for  a  final  victory— usually  a  partial  vic- 
tory— of  the  aristocrats,  footing  on  a  knowledge  of  their  relative 
height  growth  and  their   relative  -hade  endurance. 

Weed  trees  mighl   be  prevented   from  successful  seeding  by: 

I.  Deadening    or    -tump   peeling. 

II.  Actual  removal   (unless  resulting   in   rank   stoolshoots). 

III.  Sudden  exposure  of  young  progeny   to  draught   or  frost. 

IV.  Maintenance  of  a  dense  humus,  or  of  a  dense  leaf  canopy. 
\ .   I'a-t  urage. 

126 


X 


S  YLVICL'LTUR  E. 

VI.  Stopping  all  logging  operations  during  seed  years  of  the 
weed- tree  species. 

VII.  Fire. 

Any  of  these  remedies  will  answer  on  a  regeneration  area  pro- 
vided that  it  inflicts  greater  damage  on  the  weed  trees  than  on 
the  aristocrats,  and  that  the  success  is  fully  commensurate  to  the 
expense. 

A  careful  choice  of  the  type  of  regeneration  (cleared,  shelter- 
wood,  and  advance  growth  types  in  compartments,  strips,  groups 
or  patches)  is.  however,  the  best  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  forester 
against   mobbish  usurpation. 

The  time  may  come  when  the  forester  will  avail  himself  of 
plagues  of  fungi  vertebrates  and  insects  in  the  struggle  against 
weed  trees. 

Obviously,  where  the  logger,  followed  by  tires,  removes  every 
vestige  of  the  aristocracy  and  every  chance  for  its  reproduction  on 
deteriorated  soil,  there  the  sylvan  battle  is  lost  for  the  forester 
before  it  is  begun. 

Frequently  in  nature's  economy  and  ecology  a  crop  of  weed 
trees  (Birches,  Cottonwoods)  intervenes  between  two  generations  of 
aristocrats.  This  "  rotation  of  crops "  resembles  that  of  agricul- 
ture, and  is  hard  to  explain.  Attempted  explanations  are:  Exhaus- 
tion of  soil  in  mineral  matter  required  by  the  previous  species. 
Presence  of  baccilli,  bacteria,  fungi,  insects,  etc.,  inimical  to  the 
previous  species. 

Paragrapn  LVIII.    Pedagogy  of  the  high  forest. 

Forest  pedagogy  or  forest  tendance,  the  second  part  of  the 
sylviculturists'  activity,  is  of  little  importance  in  America  at  the 
present  time  since  there  are  no  wood  crops  at  hand  which  might 
be  profitably  tended.  Forest  protection,  usually  considered  a  branch 
of  forestry,  is  merely  a  branch  of  forest  tendance. 

The  following  operations  are  here  treated  under  the  heading 
forest   tendance : 

A.  Cleaning     )   T    ,. 

^    „,     ,.  v  Indirect lv  remunerative  acts  or  investments. 

B.  \\  ceding     i 

C.  Improvement  cuttings    )   Directly   remunerative  acts  yielding 

D.  Thinning  f      a  surplus  revenue. 

E.  Pruning  )  T   ,. 

_    T,    ,       ,      ,.       L  Indirectlv  remunerative  acts  or  investments. 

F.  I  nderpJantmg 

The  definitions  of  the  terms   "  cleaning.*"  "  weeding."  "  improve- 
ment   cutting"   and    "thinning"   are    so    indistinct    that   it   is   often 
127 


SYLVICULTURE. 

difficult  t<>  differentiate  them.  Definition-  might  be  based  either 
on  the  age  of  the  wood  crop  tended,  or  on  the  purpose  aimed  at, 
or   on  the  financial  side  of   the  tending. 

Cleaning  and  weeding  are  applied  for  the  benefit  of  very  young 
growth   and   usually   require   an   investment. 

Pruning,  thinning  and  improvement  cutting  arc  applied  for  the 
benefit  of  polewoods  or  thickets. 

Improvement  cuttings  and  thinnings  usually  furnish  a  surplus 
revenue  whilst  pruning  succeeds  only  in  rare  cases  to  be  directly 
remunerative. 

Paragraph  LIX.     Cleaning  in  high  forest. 

Cleaning  may  occur  during  the  seedling  stage  and  the  small 
sapling  stage.  It  implies  the  removal  of  saplings  forming  a 
shrubby  advance  growth  (wolves)  ;  or  the  removal  of  undesirable 
stoolshoots;  or  the  removal  of  seedlings  and  saplings  belonging  to 
a  less-desirable  species  competing  for  space  in  a  young  forest.  In 
natural  seed  regenerations,  cleaning  is  particularly  desirable.  In- 
stances: Removing  poor  coppice  shoots  which  oppress  by  faster 
growth  the  valuable  seedlings  of  Yellow  Poplar.  Removing  Birch, 
Fire  Cherry,  Thorns  and  Briars  in  young  plantations  of  White  Pine, 
Yellow  Pine  and  Spruce.  Where  a  regeneration  area  of  strong  soil 
has  been  burned  previous  to  planting,  the  competition  of  volunteer 
growth  is  frequently  such  as  to  make  cleaning  necessary.  The  for- 
ester should  take  care,  however,  not  to  extirpate  species  now  of 
little  value,  but   possibly  of  a  fair  future  value. 

In  mixed  regeneration,  cleaning  offers  a  good  means  to  regulate 
the  proportion  of  species  admixed.  The  expense  incurred  for  clean- 
ing must  be  commensurate  to  the  financial  effect  of  the  operation. 
Instruments  used  are  axe  and  brush  hook;  also  long-handled  clean- 
ing shears. 

Paragraph  LX.     Weeding  in  high  forest. 

A  plant,  either  herbaceous  or  ligneous,  which  has  a  negative 
value  is  a  -weed."  It  might  lie  a  cripple  of  an  otherwise  very 
valuable  specie-  (fire  crippled  Chestnul  in  Pisgah  Forest),  or  it 
migW  belong  to  a  -pecies  having  no  commercial  value  (Rhododen- 
dron,  Witch-hazel.    Black  Cum.  JIalesia.  Chinquapin). 

Weeding  implies  the  removal   of  large  saplings,   poles  and    trees 

having   the   character   of    weeds.     Weeding    niin    take    place    before 

regeneration,  or  after   regeneration  has   been   started.      It    maj    act 

incidentally  a-  a   preparatory  cutting,  a   seeding  cutting  or  a    final 

128 


S  V  L  V  I  C  ULTU  R  E. 

removal.  It  pays  only  ;i-  an  investment  since  the  stuff  removed 
has   a   negative  value. 

The  purpose  of  weeding  might  be  the  extirpation  of  sup- 
pressors of  young  growth:  or  an  exchange  of  unhealthy  crooked, 
fire-scalded,  flat-headed  pules  for  new.  vigorous  stump  sprouts 
(Spanish    and  White   Oak    at    Biltmorei. 

Tho  term  "weeding"  is  not  found  in  book-  on  Sylviculture:  it 
forms,  however,  under  present  conditions  often  one  of  the  most 
important   and   most   remunerative   sylvicultural   acts. 

Weeds  are  either  girdled    (deadened)    or  cut. 

In  the  ease  of  weeds  having  a  diameter  of  over  6  inches, 
girdling  is  often  preferable,  because  cheaper  than  cutting.  More- 
over, the  cutting  of  broad  leaf  weeds  often  tend-  to  merely  replace 
the  weed  by  weed  sprouts. 

To  prevent  this.  jn  the  case  of  sapling  weed-,  crushing  -hears 
might   be  used. 

Some  cottonwoods  cannot  be  extirpated  by  deadening.  In  that 
case,  the  peeling  of  a  strip  of  bark  three  feet  long  at  a  point  two 
feet  above  ground  i-  advisable.  Cutting  of  weeds  in  August  reduces 
the  chances  of  their  recovery.  In  the  Adirondacks,  the  weeding  of 
Beech  overshadowing  Spruce  might  be  advisable,  because  remunera- 
tive. 

Paragraph  LXI.    Improvement  cutting  in  high  forest. 

The  term  improvement  cutting  was  introduced  into  Indian  prac- 
tice by  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis.  Improvement  cuttings  are  cuttings 
for  revenue   and   for  partial   regeneration,    combined   with   weeding. 

An  improvement  of  cutting  extracts   from   irregular  woods: 

A.  Hypermature  or  dead  trees   -till  of  value. 

B.  Misshapen   immature   trees. 
( '.  Specie-    of    minor   value. 

D.    Weeds    of    pole    -i/e    and    tree    -ize. 

Essentia]  it  is  for  the  character  of  an  improvement  cuttingj 
that  it  is  intended  to  result,  on  the  ai:i:re;:ate.  in  a  surplus  revenue. 
Cuttings^  on  the  other  hand,  which  leave  the  premises  in  a  materially 
decreased  financial  value  can.  oi  course,  not  lie  considered  as  im- 
provement cuttings.  Again,  cuttings  made  at  a  sacrifice,  with  a 
view  to  an  increased  prospective  value  of  the  forest,  are  "weedings  '* 
or  "cleanings"  which  must  he  considered  a-  investments,  like  the 
expenses    spent   for  regeneration. 

I.  The  purpose  of  improvement  cuttings  is  or  may  be: 

a.  A  surplus  revenue. 

120 


SYLVICUL  T  U  R  E. 

b.  Improved  financial  prospects  of  the  remaining  crop  carried 
about   by : 

1.  Removal  of  trees  and  poles  acting  as  suppressors; 

2.  Removal  of  inferior  trees   and  poles   acting  as  competitors; 

3.  Partial  removal  of  a  superstructure  on  a  regeneration  area; 

4.  Removal  of  less  desirable  individuals  acting  as  seed-trees. 

c.  The  effect  of  a  preparatory  cutting,  a  seed  cutting  or  a  final 
cutting  in  thin,  irregular  woods,  without  removing  well-grown 
mother   trees   of   desirable   species. 

d.  Reduced  danger  from  fire,  fungi  and  insects. 

II.  Kinds    of    improvement    cuttings    are: 

a.  Improvement    cuttings    in    primeval   woods. 

b.  Improvement  cuttings  in  culled  woods. 

c.  Improvement  cuttings  in  woods  maltreated  by  fire  and  pas- 
turage. 

III.  Marking:  Trees  and  poles  to  be  removed  in  an  improve- 
ment cutting  must  be  individually  marked  by  the  sylviculturist. 

Generalizing  rules  for  marking  cannot  be  given;  each  tree  or 
pole  must  be  dealt  with  according  to  its  individual  merits  and 
demerits. 

The  marking  by  the  forester  if  improvement  cuttings  is,  con- 
sequently, a  timetaking  affair. 

IV.  Localities:  Irregular,  thin  woods  composed  of  a  multitude 
of  species  deserve  improvement  cuttings. 

The  local  market  must  allow  of  the— at  least  partial — utiliza- 
tion of  suppressing,  competing,  superstructing  and  less  desirable 
individuals. 

Paragraph  LXII.     Thinnings  in  high  forest. 

Thinnings  proper  are  practicable  only  in  dense  and  fairly  even- 
aged  -roups  or  woods  always  under  the  proviso  thai  a  permanent 
load  system  and  a  nearby  market  allow  of  a  remunerative  outcome 
of  the  act.  In  Pisgah  Forest  thinnings  are  out  of  the  question  as 
the  woods  are  thin  enough.  At  Biltmore.  thinnings  are  made  where 
polewoods  of  Yellow  Pine  occupy  abandoned  fields.  Up  north, 
from  the  merely  sylvicultural  standpoint,  thinnings  are  possible  in 
the  Jack  Pine  wood-,  in  Balsam  thickets,  on  Black  Spruce  slopes. 
in  Lodgepole   Pine  thickets,  etc. 

For  many  a  year  to  come  the  American  forester  will  have 
little   opportunity   to  make    any   thinnings. 

A.  Purposes  of  thinnings: 

I.  To  develop  the  log  diameter  of  large  saplings  and  poles   at 
a  time  at  which  the  log  axis  has  been  obtained. 
130 


SYLVICULTURE. 

II.  To  increase  the  volume  increment  per  acre. 

III.  To  increase  the  quality  increment  of  favorably  predestined 
mess-mates. 

IV.  To  reduce  the  danger  from  forest  fires  (dead  and  dying 
trees),  insect  pests  and  fungi  plagues. 

V.  To  remove  cripples  and   wolves. 

VI.  Early    financial    returns. 

VII.  Reduction   of   investment. 

VIII.  Shortening  of  the  rotation  by  feeding  a  lesser  number  of 
mess-mates  on  a  relatively  larger  amount  of.  food  (viz.  moisture, 
heat,    light,   mineral   matter,   etc.). 

IX.  Regulation  of  the  relative  proportion  of  species  in  mixed 
pole  woods. 

B.  The  season  for  thinning  depends  upon  local  climate,  season- 
able prices  of  labor,  advisability  of  peeling  and  intensity  of  thin- 
ning. The  season  usually  selected  for  thinning  in  Europe  is  the 
late  winter  when  the  main  cuttings  are  completed. 

C.  The  time  for  thinning.  Thinnings  should  begin  -in  the  late 
thicket  stage  and  should  be  repeated,  to  begin  with,  in  five-year 
intervals,  say  from  the  year  thirty  to  sixty.  Thereafter  the  inter- 
vals are  increased  up  to  the  year  eighty  or  ninety.  A  preparatory 
cutting,  although  conducted  like  thinning,  is  no  thinning,  since 
its  purpose  is  regeneration.  Thinnings  stop  at  the  end  of  the  pole 
stage.  Where  poles  are  non-salable,  for  instance,  in  European 
mountain  districts  and  almost  everywhere  in  America  (excepting 
Biltmore  Estate),  thinnings  cannot  be  made. 

D.  The  material  supplied  by  thinning  may  consist  of  firewood, 
pulp  wood,  mine  props,  fence  posts,  telephone  poles,  hop  poles,  hoop 
poles,  tool  handles,  bolts  for  spokes,  locust  pins,  tannin  wood.  etc. 

In  European  practice  the  number  of  cubic  feet  obtained  by  thin- 
nings during  the  course  of  a  rotation  per  acre  equals  one-quarter  or 
one-half  of  the  number  of  cubic  feet  obtained  by  the  final  cut. 
Heavy  thinnings,  as  practiced  in  Denmark,  are  said  to  yield  as 
many  cubic  feet  in  the  aggregate  of  a  rotation  as  the  final  cut. 

The   tool  used  for  thinning   is   invariably   the   axe. 

E.  Kinds  of  thinnings:  The  old  doctrine  was:  "Thin  early, 
frequently,  moderately!  " 

This  rule  has  been  gradually  abandoned  during  the  past  twenty 
years.  The  method  of  thinning  naturally  differs  according  to  the 
purpose  of  it.  William  Schlich  distinguished  between  quality  thin- 
nings, made  to  improve  the  timber  quality  of  the  trees  left;  and 
quantity  thinnings  meant  to  result  in  the  maximum  production  of 
wood  fibre  per  acre  per  annum. 

131 


SI   I.  \   ECU  LTD  15  E. 

If  left  alone,  a  dense  thickel  grows  slowly  only,  the  Eood  being 
subdivided  among  a  large  number  of  messmates.  Toward  the 
beginning  of  forestry,  sylviculturists  were  satisfied  with  thinnings 
burying  the  dead  and  moribund  trees.  Later  on,  thinnings  were 
extended  into  the  suppressed  classes.  The  European  experiment 
stations  are  now  deeply  engaged  in  working  out  the  "besl  "  method 
of   thinning.     Obviously,   no   method   can    be   best   for  all   sorts   of 

species    and    for   all    sorts    of    local    condition-. 

1.  The   experimenl    stations   distinguish    between: 

Grade  1.  Light  thinnings,  removing  the  dead  or  dying. 

Grade  2.  .Moderate  thinnings,  removing  the  dean,  dying  and 
suppressed. 

Qxade  :'>.  Heavy  thinnings,  removing  also  the  condominating 
tf'des,  or  such  of  them  which  are  not  absolutely  essential  tor  the 
maintenance  of  the  main  leaf  canopy  overhead. 

(hade  4.  Very  strong  thinnings,  placing  a  limited  number  of 
dominating  and  predominating  trees  in  a   free  position. 

Results  so  far  published  allot  the  maximum  volume  production 
(exclusive  of  branches)  per  acre  to  Grade  3.  All  these  four  grades 
might  be  characterized  as  "thinnings  from  below"  (Eclaircies  par 
le   has). 

French  silviculturists  are  advocating,  on  the  other  hand,  "thin- 
nings from  above"   (Eclaircies  par  le  haut). 

The  Frenchmen,  as  a  matter  of  principle,  leave  alone  the  sup- 
pressed lower  stems,  protecting  by  them  the  quality  of  the  -oil 
as  well  as  the  clearness  of  boles  within  the  predestined  class,  hi 
addition,  they  relieve  tic  ten-ion.  friction  and  struggle  for  food 
amongst  the  dominators  by  culling  out  the  worst  developed  domina- 
tors,  or  a  percentage  of  those  dominators  which  stand  too  close 
together,    and    which     have,    consequently,    one-sided    crown-. 

The  objection  to  the  French  method  lies  in  the  following  points- 

a.  Material    without    increment    is    left    on    the   ground. 

b.  Weaklings  and  dying  tree-  left  increase  the  dangers  threat- 
ening  i  he  forest. 

c.  Greater  difficulty  in  marking  tree-  to  be  removed. 
However,    where    quality     increment     is    at     stake.    1  he     French 

method   seems  highly   advisable. 

III.  Radically  differenl  from  the  system-  of  thinnings  hereto- 
fore prevailing  are  the  revolutionary  views  proffered  by  Borggreve, 
th,.  "Bryan      amongst    European   sylviculturists. 

Borggreve  thinnings  interfere  or  remove  only  the  predominators 
and  dominators  the  biggesi  poles— closest  to  the  besl  log  size. 
132 


S  YLYR   I   LTURE. 

Such  thinnings  begin  only  at  the  year  sixty  of  a  woodlot;  they 
withdraw  every  ten  years  the  largest  one-seventh  of  the  stems 
containing  about  one-quarter  of  the  total  volume. 

Of  course,  high  and  early  revenue  is  secured  by  such  practice. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  trees  removed  are  those  growing  at  the 
besl  rate  of  interest.  (From  the  sixtieth  year  on  00' c  of  annual 
accretion  in  a  woodlot  TsTupplied  by  the  40  fj  [in  number]  of  the 
largest  trees y. 

The  advisability  of  a  Borggreye  thinning  largely  depends  on 
the  reproductive  power  of  a  wood  thus  "  maltreated."  In  the  case 
of  Yellow  Pine  and  on  poor  soil,  the  reproductive  power  of  a  wood 
seems  too  small  to  allow  of  speedy  repletion  of  the  growing  stock 
and  of  its  leaf  canopy.  Much  "food"  goes  to  waste  after  Borg- 
greve  thinnings.  In  the  case  of  White  Pine  and  Spruce,  the  danger 
from  storm  and  sleet  after  Borggreve  thinnings  must  be  badly 
dreaded. 

IV.  Wagener,  at  the  year  twenty-five  of  a  forest,  makes  a 
thinning  called  "  crown-free-cutting."  surrounding  the  crown  of 
each  predestined  tree  with  an  air  space  two  and  one-half  feet  wide. 
Dominating  trees  left  should  stand  seven  yards  apart  after  the 
Wagener  thinning.  Suppressed  trees  are  not  interfered  with.  Such 
cuttings  are  much  heavier  than  Borggreve's.  At  the  year  twenty- 
five  the  bole  of  the  dominators  1-  not  fully  developed.  Underplant- 
ing  takes  place  at  the  same  time.  The  dominators  left  stand  in  an 
orchard-like  position  and  show  a   very  rapid  diameter  growth.     Only 

one  log  or  so  is  expected  to  1 btained  from  the  bole;  it  is  obtained. 

however,  within  an  extremely   short    rotation. 

Obviously,  for  coniferous  wood-  exposed  to  storm  and  of  poor 
quality  if  wide  ringed,  the  Wagener  system  is  out  of  the  question, 
lhe  Wagener  thinnings,  unless  they  result  in  a  heavy  growth  of 
adventitious  branches,  might  be  used  to  advantage  for  Black  Wal- 
nut, Black  Cherry  and  Oaks. 

V.  In  mixed  forests  such  species  as  reach  maturity  during  the 
pole  stage  might  be  removed  by  way  of  thinnings;  f.  i..  Locust  and 
Sassafras  from  a  pole  wood  of  Yellow  Poplar;  Hickory  when  reach- 
ing spoke  bolt  size  from  a  mixture  with  Oaks;  Chestnut  when  reach- 
ing telephone  pole  size  from  a  mixture  with  Oaks,  Black  Gum  and 
Yellow  Poplar. 

Paragraph  LXIII.     Pruning  in  high  forest. 
,s\      A.  The   object   at   stake  might  be: 

I.  Production    of    logs    free    from    knots,— especially    free    from 
dead  knots.     Live   or  sound  knots   measuring  one   and   one-quarter 
133 


SYLVICUL  T  U  R  E. 

inches  in  diameter  affect  the  lumber  price  only  slightly.  The  pre- 
vention of  dead  knots  is,  therefore,  most  important.  No  topshoot 
is  formed  without  side  shoots,  and  no  section  of  a  tree  bole  is 
free  from  branches  and  free  from  branch  knots.  Hence  the  advisa- 
bility of  pruning  the  boles  of  such  species  which  develop  branches 
of  large  diameter  and  of  great  persistence  when  dead.  Branches 
(excepting  adventitious  branches)  invariably  start  from  the  central 
core. 

II.  Increased  height  growth. 

ill.  The  production  of  cylindrical  boles  of  high  form  figure 
(Pressler's  law  of  bole  formation).  Obviously,  "  li "  and  "ill" 
are   obtained  only  by  removing  live  branches. 

IV.  The  reduction  of  the  shade  falling  on  a  young,  promising 
undergrowth. 

V.  The  reduction  of  danger  from  fire  in  coniferous  woods  close 
to  public  roads. 

B.  Species:  Hardwoods  suffer  less  from  the  removal  of  green 
branches  than  softwoods.  Green  branches  of  over  five  inches  in 
diameter  should  not  be  removed  at  all,  except  in  case  "  IV,"'  owing 
to  the  certainty  of  subsequent  disease. 

Oak  heals  the  wound  inflicted  by  pruning  best;  Ash  is  likely 
to  split;  Maple  is  slow  in  closing  a  wound;  Birch  soon  shows  dis- 
ease;  Yellow  Pine  covers  the  wound  quickly  with  rosin. 

C.  Actual  European  practice: 

The  practice  restricts  pruning  to  the  case  "  I  "  and  within  case 
"I"  to: 

I.  Dead  branches. 

II.  Polewoods    forty    years    to    sixty    years    old. 

III.  Limited  numbers  of  poles  (say  100)  per  acre,  namely,  to  the 
specimens  presumably  predestined  to  reach  the  end  of  the  rotation. 

Pruning  extends  to  a  height  reaching  up  to  forty  feet,  is  done 
by  help  of  ladders,  of  a  climbing  apparatus  (not  climbing  irons) 
or  of  saws  attached  to  very  long  poles.  The  best  saw  is  the 
"Alers  "  construction. 

In  France,  sharp,  curved  blades  are  preferred  to  saws,  since 
they  produce  a  smoother  cut. 

The  branch  is  cut  off  as  close  to  the  bole  as  possible.  Large 
branches  are  cut  off  in  sections  to  prevent  the  bole  from  being 
scarred.  In  the  case  of  broad-leafed  species  and  in  the  case  of 
live  branches,  large  wounds  are  always  tarred.  Tarring  in  spring 
is   impossible. 


134 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Expense  at  Biltmore  for  pruning  Yellow  Pine  to  a  height  of 
16  feet  is  two  cents  per  tree. 

The  best  months  for  pruning  are  the  months  at  which  the 
sap  is  down. 

The  advisability  of  pruning  depends  largely  on  the  prospective 
price — difference  between  clear   lumber   and  knotty   lumber. 

Pruning  at  a  late  date,  say  20  years  before  cutting,  is  of 
no  use.  Theoretically  it  is  best  to  remove  dead  branches  in  the 
year   of   their   death. 

Where  pruning  is  practiced,  natural  pruning  produced  by  dense 
planting  and  hence  dense  planting  itself  might  be  spared,  a  proposi- 
tion  which   cannot  be   generally   indorsed. 

Literature:    Translation    of   DeCourval    by    Massachusetts    For- 
estry Association. 
Paragraph  LXIV.     Underplanting  in  high  forest. 

An  upper  story  of  high  forest  might  be  underplanted  during  the 
pole  stage  either  artificially  or  by  natural  seed  regeneration.  In 
the  latter  case,  weed  species  may  answer  the  purpose.  Underplant- 
ing may  improve  the  timber  quality  of  the  upper  growth.  It  usually 
does   improve  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

Frequently  the  purpose  at  stake  in  underplanting  is  that  of 
fully  utilizing  the  productive  capacity  of  the  soil  and  of  the  atmos- 
phere which  is  not  entirely  used  by  the  upper  story  of  growth. 
In  that  case,  underplanting  cannot  be  considered  as  a  method  of 
forest  pedagogy. 

A.  The  species  to  be  underplanted  are,  notably,  light  demanders; 
for  instance,  Yellow  Pines;  Oaks;  Hickories;  Larches;  Yellow 
Poplar,  etc.  In  the  primeval  woods,  Long  leaf  Pine,  Yellow  Pine, 
Yellow  Poplar,  etc.,  show  a  natural   undergrowth. 

In  practice,  the  wood  to  be  underplanted  is  40  to  60  years  old. 
Heavy   "  thinnings    from   below "   precede   underplanting. 

B.  The  species  used  for  artificial  underplanting  are  shade 
bearers  and,  if  possible,  soil  improvers,  notably  Beech,  Hard  Maple, 
Fir,  Lawson's   Cypress,  White  Pine,  Chestnut,  Hemlock,   etc. 

Spruce  is  now  disliked  for  underplanting,  since  it  unfavorably 
affects  the  growth  of  the  upper  story.  Seedlings  one  or  two  years 
old  are  commonly  used  for  underplanting.  Dogwood,  Black  Gum, 
Witch  Hazel,  Chinquapin,  Witch  Hopple,  possibly  Kalmia  and 
Rhododendron  might  be  used  for  underplanting  where  mere  soil 
protection   is    desired. 

The  primeval  hardwoods  of  the  Alleghanies  are  frequently  and 
densely  underplanted  with  a  low  jungle  formed  by  Ericaceae. 
135 


S  VLVICULTUR  E. 

Paragraph  LXV.     Key  to  the  Forms  of  High  Forest. 

That  general  condition  of  a  foresl  is  termed  its  "  sylviculture,! 
I'd]  in  ""  which  is  brought  about  l>y  its  type  or  types  of  pasl  regenera- 
tion, hence  by  its  display  of  age  classes  and  by  the  arrangement  of 
the  species  exhibited. 

The  treatmenl  allotted  to  the  "form"  by  the  forester,  provided 
that  it  is  a  systematic  treatment,  is  termed  its  " sylviculural 
system." 

The  multitude  <>f  forms  found  in  primeval  nature  is  innumer- 
able, since  the  *'  molds  "  from  which  the  forms  are  cast,  vary 
indefinitely  with  every  wrinkle  of  the  topography  and  every  varia- 
tion  of   the   climate. 

Man's  interference  has  tended— at  least  temporarily — to  further 
increase  the    multitude  of   forms. 

It  is  a  hard  task  to  differentiate  amongst  this  huge  collection 
of  forms  and  to  arrange  the  collection  into  "  orders,"  "  families," 
"'  genera  "   and    "  species  "   composing  it. 

A  priori,  two  great  groups  of  forms  might  he  singled  out. 
namely  "primeval  forms"  the  product  of  unbiased  nature  and 
"second  growth  forms,'  the  product  of  nature  influenced  by  man's 
interference.  This  human  interference  might  have  been  of  a  char- 
acter utterly  disregarding  sylviculture,]  ends  (••culled  forms");  or 
human  ait  might  have  tried,  successfully  or  unsuccessfully,  to  lend 
a  helping  hand   ("cultured  forms"). 

The  manner  in  which  the  various  age  classes  of  the  foresi  are 
mixed  within  the  "orders  of  forms"  is  of  paramount  interest.  From 
this    manner   of   mixing  depend: 

I.  The  manner   and  the   possibility   of   remunerative   lumbering. 

IL  The  type  method  and  the  expense  of  regeneration  and 
pedagogy. 

III.  The  dangers  from  insects,  fungi,  lire,  storm,  etc..  threaten- 
ing   the    forest. 

The  functions  of  the  mixture  are  BO  all-important  in  forestry, 
that  the  synthesis  of  the  age-classes  must  serve  as  a  main  criterion 
in   the  construction   of  a    key   to    the  sylviculture,]    form-. 

It  must  not  he  forgotten,  however,  that  age  differences  of.  say. 
20  years  are  verj  conspicuous  during  the  seedling,  sapling  and  pole 
stage  of  the  forest  ;  whilsi  the  keenest  eye  cannot  detect  these  same 
diffrences  in   an  old  tree  forest. 

In  mixed  forests  exhibiting  a  large  variety  of  species  the 
analysis  of   the   form   presents   particular  difficulties.     Such   is   the 

13G 


1.  percivendible 

2.  multivendible 


3.  omniveriililile 


S  YLVICULTUB  E. 

case  by  far  more  frequently  in  primeval  than  in  culled  or  cultured 
high  forest.  Sometimes  a  distinct  form  of  a  minor,  scattering 
species  appears  to  be  "grafted"  upon  a  distinct  form  of  one  or 
several  major,  gregarious  species  ("grafted  forms").  Where  two 
distinct  forms  in  mixture  occupy  more  equal  shares  (not  minor 
and  major  shares)  in  the  aggregate  display,  we  may  speak  of 
"wedded  forms.''  "Husband  and  wife,  though  distincj  individuals, 
unite  for  a   life  in  a  household  of  their  own." 

Synopsis   of   "Forms   of   High   Forest." 

A.  Primeval  forms  of  high  forest. 

a.  Primeval    selection   form. 

b.  Primeval  group  form. 

c.  Primeval   compartment   fori 

d.  Primeval    standard    form. 

B.  Culled  forms  of  high   forest. 

a.  Culled  selection  form. 

b.  Culled  group  form.  l-  axe  culled 

e.  Culled  compartment  form. 

d.  Culled    standard    form.  2'  fire  culled 

C.  Cultured  forms  of  high    forest. 

a.  Evenaged    main    forms,    emanating    from 

1.  cleared  compartment  of  type  of  a.  >.  r. 

2.  short  time  shelter  wood  compartment  type  of  n.  s.  r. 

3.  planting 

4.  underplanting 

b.  Unevenaged  main  forms,  emanating  from 

5.  long  time  shelterwood  compartment  type  "f  n.  s.  r. 

6.  strip  type 

7.  group  type 

8.  selection  type 

c.  Auxiliary    forms. 

9.  standard  form 

10.  two  storied  high  forest. 

A.  Primeval  forms  of  high  forest. 

I.  Characteristic  for  all  primeval  forms  is  a  relative  preponder- 
ance of  the  hypermature  age-classes  (veterans);  a  relatively 
deficiency  of  the  youngest  age-classes  (seedlings,  saplings  and  poles); 
the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  dead,  decaying  or  unsound  speci- 
mens only  temporarily  excelled  in  the  "culled  forms;"  a  large 
number  of  dead  corpses  of  trees  spread  flat  on  the  ground;  irregular 
confines  of  the  parts  composing  the  aggregates;  irregular  composi- 
tion of  such  parts  by  age-classes  and  species,  many  of  which  may 
be  weeds;  usually  a  heavy  layer  of  humus  on  the  ground;  usually 
137 


SYLVICULTURE. 

the  presence  of  a  few  strikingly  large  and  spotless  trees  overtower- 
ing  their  neighbors;  absolute  lack  of  permanent  means  of  trans- 
portation. 

II.  Subdivision  of  primeval   forms   of  high   forest. 

According  to  the  relative  share  held  by  species  of  "  weed  trees  " 
in  the  mixture  of  species  composing  them,  the  primeval  forests 
might  be  subdivided  into  pauci,  multi  and  omnivendible  forests. 
Primeval  woods,  in  which  only  10%  of  the  timber  species  command 
a  value,  might  be  called  "  pauci  vendible  ";  at  50%,  the  term 
"  multivendible  "  and  at  approximately  100%,  the  term  "omnivend- 
ible "  might  be   applied. 

The  vendibility  of  the  members  composing  the  forest,  whilst  it 
controls  the  possibility  and  the  manner  of  its  sylvicultural  man- 
agement, does  not  influence,  however,  the  actual  display  of  the 
forest  in  the  slightest  degree. 

It  will  be  best,  consequently,  to  subjoin  the  viewpoint  of 
vendibility  to  the  viewpoint  of  actual  composition  of  the  forest 
as  displayed  in  the  size  of  its  composing  parts — notably  of  its  age- 
classes. 

Thus  we  arrive  at : 

a.  A  selection  form,  where  the  age-classes  raised  are  mixed 
by    trees   or    small   patches — a   very   uneven-aged    form; 

b.  A  group  form,  where  the  age-classes  raised  are  segregated 
in  groups  occupying  from  one-tenth   to  four  acres; 

c.  A  compartment  form,  where  the  age-classes  raised  are  segre- 
gated in  large,  coherent  areas  (coves,  slopes)  covering  from  twenty 
to  one  hundred  acres — a  very  evenaged  form  of  forest. 

The  epideta  "  paucivendible,"  "multivendible"  and  "omnivend- 
ible "  added  to  the  terms  "  selection  form,"  "  group  form "  and 
"compartment  form"  readily  explain,  in  crude  lines,  the  sylvi- 
cultural as  well  as  the  economic  display  of  a   primeval   forest. 

The  groups  or  the  compartments  often  show  a  sprinkling  of 
huge  trees  known  as  "  standards,"  having  a  much  higher  age  and 
frequently  belonging  to  a  species  different  from  that  or  those  form- 
ing the  main  growing  stock.     Instances  are: 

Yellow  Poplar  standards  in  Beech  compartments; 

White  Pine   standards   in  Balsam   compartments; 

Yellow  Pine   standards  in  Oak  groups; 

Cuban   Pine   standards   in   Cuban  Pine   groups; 

Long-leaf   Pine   standards  in   Cuban    Pine   groups. 

Naturally,  where  the  standards  belong  to  several  age-classes  and 

138 


SYLVICULTURE. 

do  not  form  a  distinct  age-class  by  themselves,  we  merely  meet   a 
selection  form. 

Standards  in  primeval  woods  are  frequent  enough  to  call  for 
the   singling   out   of  a   fourth   form,   namely: 

d.  A  standard  form,  which  might   be  again  subdivided  into: 

A  form  of  standards  over  groups; 

A  form  of  standards  over  compartments. 

A  variety  of  the  latter  subform  found  in  the  Chaparal  thickets 
of  California  and  in  the  Calmia  thickets  of  North  Carolina  might 
be   termed   "  form   of   standards   over  paucivendible   compartments." 

The  two-storied  high  forest  is  often  formed  by  two  or  more 
distinct  species  appearing  in  distinct  forms.  It  had  better  be  con- 
sidered as  a  combination  of  forms,  one  form  being  grafted  upon 
another  (f.  i.,  multivendible  compartments  of  Douglas  Fir  grafted 
upon  the  paucivendible  selection  form  of  Hemlock) ;  or  one  form 
being  wedded  with  another  (f.  i.,  multivendible  group  form  of 
Long-leaf  Pine  wedded  with  paucivendible  compartments  of  Black 
Jack  Oak). 

The  term  "  two-storied  high  forest  "  properly  applies  only  to 
a  permanent  combination  of  two  tiers  of  trees  (representing  one 
or  more  species),  each  tier  emanating  from  regeneration  of  the 
compartment  type  of  n.  s.  r.  It  is  a  compartment  form  wedded 
with  a   compartment   form. 

III.  Treatment  of  primeval  forests: 

The  only  treatment  required  i-  of  a  protective,  not  of  a  sylvi- 
eultural  character. 

As  long  as  the  forest  retains  its  primeval  display,  unhampered 
by  human  interference,  the  regeneration  of  the  primeval  selection 
form  is  of  the  cleared,  shelterwood  or  advance  growth  selection  type; 
the  regeneration  of  the  primeval  group  form  is  of  the  cleared  or 
advance  growth  group  type:  and  the  regeneration  of  the  primeval 
compartment  form  is  usually  of  the  cleared  compartment   type. 

Obviously,  with  the  beginning  of  logging  operations  the 
"  primeval  forms "  are  gradually,  piece  by  piece,  changed  into 
'•  culled  forms."  the  display  of  which  largely  depends  on  vendi- 
bility  and  on  fires. 

Rarely  only  the  primeval  forest  enters  at  once  or  directly  into 
a  cultured  form  (Pisgah  Forest  of  the  Biltmore  Estate;  Xe-ha-sa-ne 
park;  government  forests  in  Galizia)  without  passing  through  the 
stage  of  "  culled  form.  In  the  large  majority  of  cases,  the  primeval 
woods  pass  through  "  culled  forms  "  into  "  cultured  forms,"  in  the 
course  of  generations  of  men  and  of  trees. 
139 


SYLVK   l    I.  I  l    RE. 

I!.  Culled    forma   of   high   forest: 

I.  Characteristic  for  the  culled  forms  of  high  forest  is  the 
aDsence  of  mature  nr  maturing  trees  belonging  to  a  desirable  species; 
the  preponderance  of  weeds,  unsound  trees,  undesirable  species  and 

of  trees  and  poles  badly   crippled   by   the    logging   operations.     Only 
diseased   trees   or   relative   small  trees   of   the  desirable   species   are 

left     tO     seed     the    ground. 

Advance  growth  is  invariably  spoiled  where  the  trees  are  omni- 

veinlilile   or   multivendible. 

Characteristic  for  the  culled  forms  is.  further,  the  presence  of 
large   amounts   of  debris  and   of  a   parched   humus. 

A-  a  rule,  the  culled  forms  show  death  and  scars  due  to 
forest    fires. 

Frequently,  the  culled  forest  displays  an  entirely  new  assort- 
ment of  the  species  composing  it.  the  previously  prevailing  species 
having  been  removed  by  logging.  It  is  more  "mobbish"  than  the 
primeval   forest. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  culled  forms  of  high  forest: 

The  culled  forest  is  usually  more  uniform  than  the  primeval 
forest  from  which  it  emanates,  owing  to  the  uniform  character  of 
the  logging  operations.  Still,  the  compartment  form,  group  form 
and   selection  form   originally   exhibited   are   usually   retained. 

In  the  compartment  form  and  in  the  group  form  a  few  worth- 
less trees  or  veterans  left  standing  and  continuing  to  live  fre- 
quent lv  remind  on  the  "form  of  standards  in  high  forest"  or  on 
the  "form  of  underplanted  high  forest."  (Compare  C,  II,  b,  of 
the  same  paragraph.) 

III.  Treatment  of  the  culled  high  forest  : 

Where  fires  are  kept  out,  the  chances  for  seed  regeneration  are 

good — unusually  g I— owing  to  the  condition  of  the  seed-bed  and 

to  the   unlimited   food  supply   available   for  the    seedlings. 

In  the  case  of  Yellow  Pines,  light  fires  seem  even  helpful  to 
n.  s.  r. 

Since  the  valuable  species  form,  however,  the  minority  amongst 
the  seed-trees,  the  worthless  and  less  valuable  kinds  usually  prevail 
in  the  young  growth  formed  after  culling.  Cleaning  and  weeding 
are  required  to  improve  the  prospects  of  the  minority  composed  of 
noble  species.  Besides,  improvement  cuttings  are  indicated  in  the 
culled  forms:  '  The  culled  form  is  the  form  requiring  improvement 
cuttings." 

The  "aristocrats"  frequently  return  only  to  the  regeneration 
area  after  a  score  or  two  of  years,  the  rash  "mob"  then  acting 
-.1-    nurse-trees    or    as    ushers. 

140 


S  Y L  VI  C  I  L  T  L  l;  K. 

Where  heavy  and  extensive  fires  have  swept  the  culled  forest 
originally  consisting  of  exacting  species,  patient  waiting  alone  ran 
secure  conditions  mure  favorable  to  artistocratic  regeneration.  Fires 
frequently  convert  a  high  forest  of  hardwoods  into  a  coppice  forest. 

The  younger  age-classes  suffer  more  from  fire  than  the  older 
age-classes.  A  tire-swept,  culled  forest  is  deficient,  at  least  tem- 
porarily, in  seedlings,  saplings  and  small  poles.  A  few  years  after 
a  tire,  the  culled  forest  often  displays  the  feature,  of  the  under- 
planted  form  of  high  forest  (Par.  LXV.  C.  II.  b.)  or  of  the  coppice- 
under-standard  form   (Par.  LXXIIIi. 

I  -  I  ultured   forms   of   high   forest: 

I.  Characteristic  for  the  cultured  forms  0f  high  fores!  is  great 
uniformity;  lack  of  hypermature,  unsound  and  misshapen  aristo- 
crats; lack  of  weed-tree-  lack  of  coppice  shoots;  complete  cover 
overhead;  multi-  or  omni- vendibility;  permanent  means  of  trans- 
portation. 

The  cultured  forest  does  not  require  weeding  or  improvement 
cuttings  for  the  reason  that  cleanings  and  early  thinnings  have 
prevented  the  development  of  weed-trees  and  wolf-trees,  whilst  the 
hypermature    veteran    has    been    removed    long    ago. 

If  the  culled  form  is  "the  form  of  improvement  cuttings,"  the 
cultured   form   might    he    termed   "the    form    of    thinnings."    " 

II.  Subdivision   of  cultured   high    forest: 
a.  .Main   cultured   forms  of    high    foresl  : 

1.  Even-aged  cultured  forms,  when  the  age-classes  mixed  within 

a    compartment    differ   by  up   to    25    years. 

aa.  Form  emanating  from  the  cleared  compartment  type  of 
n.   s.   r. 

bb.  Form  emanating  from  the  short-time  shelterwood  compart- 
ment  type  of   „.   s.   v..  the   periods   0f   regeneration   not   exceeding 

25    year-. 

cc.  Form  raised  by  planting  seeds  or  seedlings  over  whole 
compartment-. 

dd.  Form  raised  by  underplanting  seeds  or  seedlings  over 
whole  compartments,  followed  by  (gradual)  removal  of  the  supef- 
structing    tree-   within    less   than    2.">   year-. 

■2.  Uneven-aged  cultured  forms,  when  the  age-classes  mixed 
within   a   compartment   differ   by    over   lV)    year-. 

aa.  Form  emanating  from  the  long-time-fcheiterwood  compart- 
ment type   of  n.   s.  r. 

bb.  Form  emanating  from  -trip  type-,  either  restoeked  by 
n.    -.   r.   or  by   planting. 

141 


SILVICULTURE. 

cc  Form  emanating  from  group  types  of  n.  B.  r.,  or  from 
planted  groups. 

da.  Form  emanating  from  selection  types  of  n.  s.  r. 

b.  Auxiliary    cultured    forms    of    high    forest: 

aa.  Form  of  standards  in  high  forest,  when  a  limited  number 
of  trees  are  left  to  grow  amongst  and  with  the  young  growth  for 
a  longer  or  shorter  number  of  yen-. 

The  standards  might  be  left  either  in  scattering  groups  or 
individually  scattered  over  the  second  growth.  In  the  latter  case, 
only  Btorm-firm  species  will  answer.  It  is  wise  to  leave  the  stand- 
ards in  the  proximity  of  roads  so  as  to  allow  their  removal  without 
inflicting  damage  on  the  young  growth.  Species  well  adapted  for 
standards  arc:  yellow  Pines,  Larches.  White  Oaks,  Yellow  Poplar, 
Black  Locust,  Hickory.  Walnut.  Black  Cherry.  Shade-bearers  and 
flat-rooted  species   will  not  answer  the  purpose. 

It  is  unwise  to  leave  standards  unprepared  by  preceding  cuttings 
for  the  life  in  the  open.  Standards  set  suddenly  free  will  cover 
themselves  rapidly  with  adventitious  branches,  will  grow  stag- 
headed,  will  suffer  from  storm  and  sleet,  and  will  die  without  yield- 
ing the  results  for  which  they  were  left. 

Where  the  standards  shade  the  young  growth  too  badly,  it  may 
be    necessary    to    remove    their    lower    live   branches. 

The  number  of  standards  left  per  acre  does  not  usually  exceed 
2.1.  Very  good  soil  and  short  rotations  allow  of  an  increased  num- 
ber. Standards  may  he.  but  need  not  be,  of  the  same  species  which 
forms  the  undergrowth. 

Where  the  standards  do  not  belong,  approximately,  to  one  and 
the  same  age-class,  there  the  standard  form  bastardizes  with  the 
uneven-aged  forms  emanating  from  the  group-type  or  from  the 
selection  type  of  n.   s.  r. 

bb.  Form  of  two-storied  high  forest,  when  an  upper  and  a 
lower  leaf  canopy  is   maintained    in  distinctly  separate  tiers. 

Species  adapted  to  form  the  lower  leaf  canopy  are:  Beech, 
Hard  Maple,  Black  Gum,  Firs,  Hemlocks.  The  species  in  the  upper 
story  had  better  have  a  light-demanding  character.  The  form  is 
created  by  raising  a  polewood  (even-aged)  of  Yellow  Pine.  Oak, 
Hickory,  Larch,  etc.;  by  early  and  heavy  thinnings  from  below;  by 
very  Heavy  thinnings  after  the  completion  of  the  principal  height 
growth  (year  forty  to  sixty);  and  by  planting  at  the  same  time 
either  seeds  or  preferably  seedlings  of  shade-bearing1  species.  Should 
the  undergrowth  catch  up  with  the  upper  growth,  either  the  one 
•or  the  other  must  be  removed.  The  undergrowth  preserves  the  fer- 
142 


s  Y  L  VICULTURE. 

tility  of  the  soil  by  thorough  shading,  by  the  formation  of  a 
mixed  humus  and  by  increased  leaf-fall.  It  improves  the  bole- 
quality  of  the  upper  growth,  the  crowns  of  the  lower  growth 
holding  the  boles  of  the  upper  in  close  embrace.  In  addition,  it 
prevents  any  part  of  the  timber-producing  factors  of  the  locality 
(atmosphere,  light,  moisture,  soil)  from  lying  unutilized.  Usually 
the   undergrowth   produces   firewood,   the    upper   growth    timber. 

The  so-called  "  Seebach's  modified  high  forest  "  has  Beech  in 
the  upper  as  well  as  in  the  lower  story.  The  lower  story  is 
obtained  from  self-sown  seed  of  the  upper  story  after  very  heavy 
thinning.  Under  and  upper  growth  are  finally  utilized  in  the  same 
year   or  in  the   same   period   of   years. 

III.  Treatment   of   cultured   high   forest. 

Regeneration  in  the  cultured  form  of  high  forest  takes  place 
in  any  of  the  types  of  n.  s.  r.,  or  by  planting  seed-  and  seedlings. 
As  a  rule,  natural  regeneration  is  now  combined  with  partial  plant- 
ing. Cleaning  and  thinning  are  usually  idicated,  whilst,  as  stated, 
weeding  and  improvement  cutting  are  not  required. 
Paragraph  LXVI.     Critical  remarks  on  the  forms  of  high  forest. 

A.  Attitude  of  the  investor: 

It  is  almost  amusing  to  observe  the  difference  of  attitudes 
which  the  statesman,  the  lumberman  and  the  forester  show  with 
respect  to  the  terms  "primeval."  "culled  '  and  "cultured"  forests. 

Still,  all  of  these  forests  arc  justifiable,  at  least  temporarily. 
and  usually  justified  by  the  economic  conditions  evolving  them. 

I.  The  primeval  forest  seems  to  be  the  "forest  in  economic 
stagnation."  Still,  fortunes  haA-e  been  carved  by  many  investors, 
buying  and  retaining  primeval  forests  for  their  own  benefit  and 
incidentally  for  the  benefit  of  later  generations  of  men.  With  every 
parcel  of  primeval  forest  destroyed,  the  value  of  the  balance  left 
increases  in  estimation  and  in  actual  usefulness. 

Sylviculturally,  no  forest  requires  a  more  minute  and  more 
painstaking  treatment  than  the  primeval  forest,  when  its  conversion 
into  cultured  forest  is  at  stake.  Still,  the  small  price  obtainable 
for  its  products  defies  any  attempt  at  a  remunerative  outcome 
of  heavy  sylvicultural  outlays.  What  is  the  use  of  safeguarding 
or  producing  a  second  growth,  by  sylvicultural  acts,  which  is  devoid 
of  any  prospective  value,  or  which  is  of  a  value  inferior  to  the 
expense  required  to  safeguard  it   or  to  produce  it  ? 

Tims,  sylviculturally  as  well  as  financially  it  seems  very  fre- 
quently best  to  leave  the  primeval  wood  unattended,  unregenerated, 
unconverted,   for   the  time   being. 

143 


S1LVI.C1    I.TI    i;  E. 

II.  The  culled  foresl  usually  exists  in  Localities  where  timber 
has  a   higher  value  than   in  the  primeval   backwoods. 

Indeed,  where  the  culling  of  the  forest  has  made  great  progress 
in  a  state  or  in  a  county,  there  the  culled  foresl  is  getting  rapidly 
ripe   for  sylviculture!   treatment. 

Eeavy  culling  merely  proves  a  high  range  oi  stumpage  prices, 
fostered  l>y  a   near-by  market    and  by   good   mean-  of  transportation. 

Wnere  the  foresl  has  been  culled  onlj  of  decidedly  mature 
trees,  there  the  chances  for  good  results  are  bright,  financially  as 
well    as   s\  U  iculturally. 

fhe  attitude  which  the  owner  of  culled  forests  adopts  towards 
sylviculturaJ  investments,  necessarily  depends  on  a  diagnosis  of  the 
tut nre  of  the  lumber  industry  appealing  to  him. 

III.  The  cultured  forest  is  still  a  rarity  in  the  United  Stales. 
and   will    continue  to  he   a   rarity   during   our   lifetime. 

Imagine  for  a  moment,  that  the  famous  Black  forest  of  Ger- 
many were  suddenly  transferred,  with  its  fine  Spruce  woods,  its 
splendid  roads  and  its  skilled  laborers,  into  the  heart  of  the  Adi- 
rondack*! Would  it  be  wise,  financially,  to  continue  its  sylvieul- 
tural  treatment   as  inaugurated  in  Germany? 

It  certainly  would;  the  logs  salable  in  the  Black  Forest  are 
also  salable  in  the  Adirondacks  at  a  good  profit.  And  a  network  of 
splendid  roads  would  tend  to  cheapen  transportation  by  exactly 
that  many  cents  per  standard,  which  the  stumpage  itself  would 
gain   per  standard. 

On  the  other  hand,  that  same  Black  forest  transferred  to  the 
Pacific  coast — say  into  the  Olympic  mountains — would  certainly 
prove   a    financial    ami    therefore    a    sylviculturaJ    failure. 

The  better  it  pays  to  cull  the  forest,  the  closer  at  hand  is 
the  time   of  the  cultured  forest. 

It  must  he  kepi  in  mind,  however,  that  the  change  from  the 
culled  to  the  cultured  forest  requires,  aside  from  a  market  for  the 
products  obtained  and  from  the  willingness  of  the  owner  to  embark 
ii:    sylviculturaJ    investments. 

a.  Investments  in  permaneni   mean-  of  transportation; 

b.  Relative  safety   from   foresl    lire-: 
C   Time. 

Wherever  the  woods  emerge  ill  a  decrepit  condition  from  the 
primeval  stage  after  reckless  lumbering,  heavy  fires,  unlimited 
pasturage,  there  the  adoption  of  a  system  will  he  found  necessary 
alter   scores    of    year-    breaking   entirely    with    the    past    and    raising. 

1  It 


S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  I"  R  E. 

after  thorough  destruction  of  the  past  growth,  by  artificial  means 
a  new  crop  of   valuable  species. 

Large,  continuous  clearings  badly  resist  reforestation  like  the 
prairies,  although  on  a  smaller  scale.  Extensive,  even-aged  woods 
form  "  incubators  *'  for  disastrous  diseases;  suffer  from  snow,  storm, 
drought,  and  frost.  On  the  other  hand,  their  management  is  greatly 
facilitated,  so  that  reinforcing,  cleaning,  thinning,  regeneration  and 
utilization    are    much    cheapened. 

B.  Selection  of   form   by   the    forester. 

I.  The  primevar»forms  of  high  forest  found  by  the  forester 
u>uallv  appear  unretainable.  Whatever  the  case  be,  the  first  stroke 
of  the  axe  is  sure  to  remove  the  mature  and  hyper-mature  trees, 
the  preponderance  of  which  belongs  to  the  character  of  any  primeval 
form. 

However,  when  transforming  primeval  woods  into  cultured 
woods,  the  forester  should  endeavor  to  retain  as  much  as  possible 
the  form  originally  sanctioned  by  nature.  Such  retention  i-  the 
safest  way  to  sylvicultural  success.  Still,  it  usually  necessitates 
heavy  investments  for  permanent  means  of  transportation,  and 
where  the  owner  is  unwilling  to  make  them,  cuttings  by  com- 
partments or  by  strips  are  required,  winch  in  turn  lead  to  the 
adoption  of  the  advance  growth  type,  shelterwood  type,  or  cleared 
type    of    n.    s.    r. 

The  -trip  form,  a-  mentioned  elsewhere,  seems  to  be  particu- 
larly   well    adapted    to    meet    American   need-. 

IT.  The  culled  forms  of  high  forest  must  lie  retained  by  the 
forester  in  the  compartment,  group  or  selection  form  first  en- 
countered, unless  the  culling  ha-  been  particularly  light.  Improve- 
ment cuttings  are  not  apt  to  change  the  form  of  the  forest.  Where 
artificial  reinforcing  is  resorted  to,  the  forest  will  gradually 
develop  even-aged  form-.  When  after  heavy  culling  the  average 
growing  -lock  per  acre  is  badly  reduced,  then  forms  allowing  of 
short  rotation-  are  indicated,  so  especially  selection  forms  ami 
standard  form-.  Frequently  in  such  cases,  the  high  forest  is  aban- 
doned, and  the   coppice  forest   is  resorted  to. 

III.  In  the  cultured  forms,  the  trend  of  the  time-  favors 
uneven-aged  forms,  notably  mixed  group  forms  and  narrow-  -trip 
forms,   on   account   of  greater  safety. 

Heavy  •"thinnings  from  above"  are  in  vogue,  frequently  in 
connection   with    underplanting    lor  underseeding   by   n.   s.    r.). 

Regeneration  is  effected  either  by  planting  compartments,  -trips 
and  groups,  with  or  without  a  shelterwood  overhead,  or  by  the 
various    types    of   n.    s.    r. 

143 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Where  the  deficiency  of  the  growing  stock  lends  to  the.  adoption 
of  -lioit  rotations,  standard  forms,  two-storied  forms,  underplanted 
forms  or  coppice-under-standard  forms  must  be  resorted  to.  In  the 
latter   case,   of   course,   the   high   forest    form   is    thrown   overheard. 

Paragraph  LXVII.     High  Forest  by  Species. 

A.  Oaks:   The  Oaks  rarely   appear  in   pure   stands. 

I.  Primeval  woods.     The  primeval  high  forest  exhibits  the  Oak: 
a.  As  the  lower  story  planted  in  groups  or  compartments  under- 
neath an   upper  story  of  Long-leaf   Pine,  Loblolly   Pine,  Short-leaf 

I'm.' : 

1).  In  small  pure  groups  sprinkled  amongst  the  Bald  Cypress 
and  Red  Gum  of  the   southern  hummocks; 

c.  In  the  selection  form  grafted  upon  compartments  of  high 
forest  of  other  hardwoods,  notably  of  Chestnut,  Hickory,  Gum 
(Ten.);  or  grafted  on  compartments  of  Kalmia,  Rhododendron, 
Chinquapin    (X.  C). 

d.  In    pure    even-aged    groups    (prairie    borders). 

e.  In  selection  forests  mixed  with  many  other  hardwoods  also 
in  -election  form. 

II.  Culled  high  forests:  The  culled  forest  of  oak  is  usually 
axe-culled  as  well  as  fire-culled,  thus  partly  losing  its  character 
as  a  high  forest. 

The  n.  s.  r.  of  White  Oak.  Chestnut  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  at 
Biltmore  proceeds  selectionwise  or  in  compartments,  notably  so  on 
Indian  fields  in  the  Pink-beds;  underneath  Chestnut.  Maples,  and 
Oaks  on  Poplar  hill;  mixed  with  Hickory  on  the  lower  west  slope 
of   Avei  \  s  creek   and   so  on. 

The  Oaks  endure  shade  well  for  a  long  number  of  years,  trail- 
ing on  the  ground  until  freed  from  superstructure.  Coccinea  three 
years  old  i-  only  five  inches  high,  being  clipped  back  continuously 
by    insufficient    lignification    of    its    top-shoots. 

Even-aged  polewoods  of  Oak  are  found  all  over  the  Blue  Ridge 
and  tin'  Piedmont  Plateau.  Examination  will  usually  prove  them 
to  be  lire-culled  coppice  formed  by  the  lire-killed,  younger  age  classes 
of   primeval    woods    (seedlings,   saplings   and   small   poles). 

III.  Cultured   high   forests. 

The  cultured  high  forest  at  Biltmore  is  still  in  statu  nascendi, 
in  the  plantations  on  abandoned  fields  as  well  as  in  the  n.  s.  r.'s 
of  comp.  L02  (compartment  type),  the  slopes  of  Ducker  Mountain, 
etc.  The  growth  of  the  Oaks  during  early  youth  is  very  slow.  The 
soil  is  usually  so  badly  hardened  as  to  require  artificial  help  to 
146 


S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  LITE  E. 

n.  s.  r.  Oak  seedlings  and  saplings  are  rare  in  Pisgah  Forest 
(excepting  3-year-old   Scarlet   Oaks). 

The  Oaks  mingle  with  the  Short-leaf  Pine  everywhere  as  an 
undergrowth  started. by  n.  s.  r..  or  as  a  companion-growth  in  Pine 
polewoods.  Here  too,  however,  the  fires  have  usually  converted 
seedlings   and   saplings   into   stoolshoots. 

In  the  S.  E.,  regeneration  under  shelter-wood  or  in  advance  of 
logging  (by  the  group  type  or  by  the  compartment  type)  seems 
advisable.  In  the  mixture  with  the  Oaks  should  be  encouraged: 
Maples,  Black  Gums,  Pines  (White  Pine  grows  and  retain-  its 
branches  for  a  long  time  in  the  mixture).  Chestnut.  Hickory.  "Walnut. 

Record   of   seed  years  at   Biltmore: 

White  Oak:    good   in    L899. 

Post  Oak:   in  1900  the  only  mast-bearing  oak. 

Black  Oak:    splendid,   full   mast   year  in   1901   in  all   situations. 

Spanish  Oak:   splendid,  full  mast  year  in  1901. 

Chestnut   Oak:    promises   well   in   1904. 

B.  Chestnuts: 

I.  Primeval   fore-t  -  : 

Actually  primeval  forests  of  Chestnut  seem  very  rare.  The 
(best nut  woods  of  the  Appalachians  have  been  ransacked  by  fires 
for  many  decade-  of  years.  The  n.  s.  r.  seems  to  have  been  of 
the  selection  type.  Chestnut  seems  to  avoid  limestone-soil  and 
ceases    to    occur   where    limestone    appears    (Ky;    Ten.). 

II.  Culled  high   forests: 

The  fire-culled  forest  shows  an  absolute  lack  of  seedlings,  sap- 
lings and  poles. 

The  axe-culled  forest  consists  merely   of   coppice. 

Trees  beset  with  dead  branches  are  invariably  wormy 
(Lymexylon). 

,beed  years  seem  to  be  getting  scarce,  possibly  under  the  influ- 
ence of  fires,  to  judge  from  the  reports  of  mountaineers.  The  old 
trees  are  frequently  stagheaded  and  fail  to  successfully  regenerate 
their  kind. 

Seedlings  one  year  old  are  about  eight  inches  high,  when  found 
in  the  woods.  They  appear  individually  scattering  and  not  in 
groups. 

III.  Cultured  high   forests: 

The  cultured  forest  usually  has  the  form  of  coppice  or  coppice- 
under-standards.  Plantations  in  the  United  States  are  made  more 
for  fruit-growing  than  for  timber-growing.  The  abandoned  fields 
at   Biltmore   seem  too   dry   for   successful   development.      Chestnuts 

147 


SI   I.  \   I  c    ULTUE  K. 

planted  as  an  undergrowth  below  Oak  and  Pine  have  done  poorly, 
owing  to  the  ravages  of  squirrels. 

The  poles  and  trees  seem  to  badly  resenl  any  sudden  inter' 
ference    with   the   leaf  canopy   and   with    tin-   humus. 

Thinnings   and   cuttings    in    the    shelters 1   system   should    be 

Light. 

The  competition  of  stoolshoots  invariably  formed  after  cuttings 
reduces  the  prospects  of  seedlings  simultaneously  obtained.  Stool- 
shoots  cannot  be  entirely  prevented  by  deadening  previous  to  cutting. 

Cnestnul  produces  a  splendid  humus  and  is  an  excellent  com- 
panion £or  Oak.-.  Hickories,  Walnut.  Black  Cherry,  Ash  and  Yellow 
Poplar;  also  for  White  Pine  and  Hemlock.  It  regenerates  in 
mixture  with  Yellow  Poplar  on  small  abandoned  fields  of  Pisgah 
Forest    to   a    limited    degree. 

Seed    years:     Fairly    good   mast    in    1898. 

On  the  mountain  tops,  where  Chestnut  stands  in  an  orchard-like 
position,  seed  occurs  annually. 

C.  Hickories: 

I.  Primeval  forest  :  The  Hickories  appear  regenerated  in  the 
selection   type  and  in  the  group   type. 

II.  Culled  high  forest:  The  Hickories  suffer  badly  from  fires. 
Fires  do  not  kill  the  poles,  but  cause  the  butts  to  bursl  subject- 
ing them  to  decay.  Weeding  and  heavy  improvement  cuttings  are 
beneficial. 

III.  Cultured   high   forest: 

From  the  early  pole  stage  on,  the  crowns  should  be  placed  in 
a    tree   position   so  as  to  cause  the   formation  of   wide   rings. 

At  Biltmore,  the  boles  are  apt  to  be  very  branchy,  the  tough 
limbs  being  very  persistent. 

In  the  mountains,  on  stronger  soil,  the  boles  clear  themselves 
readily. 

The  Hickories  regenerate  by  n.  s.  r.  in  abandoned  fields  in 
mixture  with  Black  Gum,  Sassafras,  iellow  Poplar,  Locust.  Oaks, 
etc. 

In  the  plantations  on  abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore,  Bitternut 
al.me  promises  to  be  successful.  The  other  species  are  badly  handi- 
capped  by   rodents   and   seem   to  be  of   very  slow  growth. 

The  Hickories  seem  to  be  immune  from  damage  by  frost  in 
their   native  country;    not    so   in   Germany. 

Seed    years    are    not    of    record. 

D.  Walnut-: 

1  is 


S  YLVICULTUK  E. 

I.  Primeval    forests: 

The  Walnuts  appear  in  the  primeval  woods  invariably  in  mix- 
ture with  other  species,  on  strong  soil,  seemingly  regenerated  by 
the    selection    type. 

II.  Culled   high    forests: 

The  Walnuts  seem  remarkably  fireproof  from  the  early  pole 
stage  on.  Seed  regeneration  is  rare  in  the  woods,  but  more  fre- 
quent on  old  deadenings  close  to  habitations,  where  the  squirrels 
were  held  in  check. 

III.  Cultured    high    forests: 

Without  artificial  help.  n.  s.  r.  seems  very  problematic.  Under 
any  circumstances,  the  rodents  must   he  kept   off. 

Plantations  are  frequently  found  and  do  very  well  in  early 
youth,  unless  the  soil  is  badly  hardened  and  impoverished.  The 
siands  should  he  dense,  whether  pure  or  mixed  with  Oaks  etc., 
so  as  to  produce  clean  boles.  Plantations  seem  to  fail  in  the 
close   proximity    of   old   trees. 

Tlie  plantations  at  Biltmore  have  failed  invariably  in  the  woods, 
owing  to  the  ravages  of  squirrels;  toungya  on  leased  farms  shows 
poor  success,  owing  to  the  unreliability  of  the  lessees;  plantations 
of  seedlings  three  year's  old  tailed  badly;  plantations  of  yearlings 
freeze  to  the  ground  annually  on  all  slopes;  plantations  of  nuts 
on  small  fields  have  done  very  well,  where  the  ground  was  good; 
and  the  change  from  good  to  bad.  brought  about  by  the  undula- 
tions  of   the   soil,   is    very    marked.      Failures    on    i r   s,,i]    are    now 

doctored  up  by  a  nursegrowth  of  Yellow  Pines. — a  remedy  promis- 
ing   SOine    success. 

E.  Beech: 

I.  The  primeval  forest  exhibits  the  compartment,  group  and 
selection  type  of  u.  s.  r.  The  humus  is  usually  very  heavy  and  so 
moist  thai  fires  have  a  poor  chance  to  spread.  In  the  South,  at 
lower  altitudes..   Beech   merely    fringes    the   river   hanks. 

II.  The  culled  high  forest  shows  many  stump  sprouts,  stumps 
three   feet    high    forming  the   sproilts  on    the  top   of  the   stump. 

In  the  Blue  (Irass  Region,  huge  park  trees  are  frequently  found 
in  a  dense  undergrowth  of  seedlings  and  saplings.  Here  the 
more  valuable  species  have  been  culled  out  many  years  ago.  and 
the   Beech   is   left   in  exclusive  possession   of  the   soil. 

III.  The  cultured  high  forests  of  Beech  are  easily  regenerated 
in  the  shelterwood- compartment  type.  The  selection  type  yields 
branchy   boles.     Beech   is  the   best   companion  imaginable  for  faster- 

140 


SYLVICULTURE. 

growing  species;  is  splendidly  qualified  for  an  underwood  planted 
beneath   aristocratic  species;    is   exacting  and   sensitive. 

Plantations  on  abandoned  fields  are  out  of  the  question,  except 
at  high  altitudes. 

No  seed  years  are  of  record  at  Biltmore.  The  trees  on  the 
river  banks  fruit  annually. 

F.  Bass  wood: 

I.  Primeval  forests: 

In  the  Lake  States  and  in  the  Alleghanies,  Basswood  exhibits 
the  form  emanating  from  the  selection  type  of  n.  s.  r.,  grafted 
on  the  compartment  type  of  White  Pine,  or  of  Hard  .Maple,  or 
else  mixed  with  Hard  Maple,  Elm,  Chestnut,  Red  Oak,  Yellow 
Poplar. 

II.  Culled  high  forests: 

The  regeneration  follows  the  selection  type;  fires  clip  the  seed- 
lings and  saplings;    larger  poles  and  trees   seem  to  withstand  well. 

Hi.  Cultured   high   forests: 

Young  seedlings  develop  very  slowly :  they  are  less  sensitive 
than  their  shade-endurance  would  indicate.  Pure  forests  are  found 
only   in  Russia. 

Seedlings  planted  at  Biltmore  on  old  fields,  of  strong  quali- 
ties, have  hesitated  to  develop  for  six  years,  growing  bushy  and 
crooked;    in    1904.    they    promise   good   results. 

Linden  underplanted  below  Oaks  and  Chestnuts  after  moderate 
chinning  on  North  slopes  seems  to  answer  admirably,  forming  long 
and    straight,    although    overhanging    topshoots. 

Seedyears  in  Pisgah  Forest  occur  annually.  The  majority  of 
the    seeds,   however,    seem    to   drop    immature. 

(i.  Yellow  Poplar: 

I.  Primeval    forests: 

Yellow  Poplar  appears  invariably  in  the  selection  type,  or  in 
the   form  of   standards. 

II.  Culled   high   forests: 

IIm'  species  attempts  unceasingly  to  propagate  its  kind  by 
n.  s.  r.  The  heavier  the  destruction  by  the  axe,  the  better  are  its 
chances  for  success.  Fires,  on  the  other  hand,  annihilate  the  -<■<■,!- 
lings  and  check  the  chances  for  regeneration  thereafter,  owing  to  a 
rank  growth  of  weeds  following  the  fires.  In  Pisgah  Forest,  seed- 
lings and  saplings  were  entirely  lacking,  until  fires  were  stopped. 

The  regeneration  on  old  fields,  on  the  other  hand,  is  prolific 
and  easy.  Cattle  press  the  seeds  into  the  ground  and  check  the 
competing  weeds.  Sassafras,  Locust  and  Pine  frequently  act  as 
150 


SYLVICULTURE. 

ushers.  The  old  fields  are  usually  protected  from  fire  by  the 
owners    wishing    to    protect   their    fences. 

]\o  known  species  prunes  itself  as  readily  from  branches  as 
Yellow  Poplar,  the  dead  branches  popping  off  without  leaving  any 
stumps. 

III.  Cultured  high  forests: 

No  species  at  Biltmore  is  as  easily  regenerated  by  n.  s.  r.  as 
Yellow  Poplar.  In  Biltmore  Forest,  the  group  type  is  readily 
carried  through  with  the  help  of  three  or  four  mother-trees  to 
the  acre.  The  other  companions  of  the  mother  trees,  notably  Oaks 
and  Chestnuts,  are  gradually  cut  away;  spreading  Dogwoods  are 
deadened  to  prevent  them   from  forming  stoolshoots. 

In  Pisgah  Forest,  regeneration  is  helped  by  preceding  pasturage 
(especially  in  early  spring,  before  the  seeds  of  Poplar  germinate) 
and  by  weeding  following  in  the  wake  of  n.  s.  r. 

The  seeds  will  never  sprout  in  the  humus;  seedlings  born  late 
in  spring  (June)  and  showing  the  cotyledons  still  in  September  are 
sure  to  be  killed  by  frost;  also  seedlings  growing  in  the  shade  of 
weeds.  The  logging  roads  and  log  yards  are  real  "  nurseries  "  for 
Poplar.     On  steep  ground,  the  seedlings  are  washed  out  by  the  rain. 

The  growth  is  very   fast. 

Seed  years  are  annual;  hollow  trees  are  likely  to  furnish  very 
poor   seeds. 

Plantations  of  3-year-olds  at  Biltmore  on  poor  old  fields  did 
badly:  on  good  soil,  especially  where  a  volunteer  growth  of  Locust 
has  joined  the  plants,  the  success  is  complete. 

H.  Maples: 

I.  Primeval    forests: 

Here  the  regeneration  follows  the  compartment  type  (Adiron- 
dacks,  Missouri  valley),  the  group  type  and  the  selection  type 
(Biltmore,  Northern  Minnesota).  Maple  usually  appears  in  mixture 
with  other  hardAvoods,  with  Spruce  and  White  Pine.  Soft  Maple 
occurs  in  low,  moist  sites  as  well  as  on  dry  ridges.  Hard  Maple 
demands   well-drained  and  strong  soil,  preferring  Northern  aspects. 

II.  Culled  high  forests: 

After  culling,  the  younger  stages  of  Maple  are  usually  left 
in  possession  and  develop  in  dense  thickets,  preventing  more  valu- 
able species  from  establishing  themselves.  In  the  Adirondacks, 
Soft  Maple  is  frequently  found  on  Spruceflats  after  windfalls  (asso- 
ciated with  Yellow  Birch). 

III.  Cultured   high    forests: 

Dr.    Fernow   at    Axton    succeeded    in    establishing,   in   places,   a 
151 


S  Y  1.  VI  CULT  I    I;  K. 

splciiilid  regeneration  obtained  from  advance  growth  n.  >.  r.  of  the 
compartment  type,  removing  the  parents  at  one  stroke.  In  Europe, 
the  shelterwood  compartment   type  answers  admirably. 

Biltmore  Forest  i-  deficient  in  Maple,  still.  Han!  Maple 
planted  on  abandoned  fields,  pure  or  in  mixture  with  White  Pine, 
has  done  admirably,  excepting  dry  S.  W.  slopes,  dry  spurs,  and 
verj    moist    river   bottoms. 

In  Pisgah  Forest,  Red  Maple  usually  appears  a-  a  weed  over- 
shadowing aristocratic  seedlings. 

I.  Ashes: 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  Ashes  usually  regenerate  and  stand 
in  patches  or  groups,  occupying  the  moister  sites. 

II.  (  ulled  high   forests: 

Protected  by  moist  ground,  the  Ashes  stand  a  good  chance  to 
escape  the  iires.  During  early  youth,  the  seedlings  endure  remark- 
ablj  heavy  shade.  Weeding  and  improvement-cuttings  produce 
splendid  results. 

III.  Cultured   high  forests: 

Regeneration  in  the  group  type  is  easy,  if  helped  by  cleaning 
(Ducker  .Mountain  of  Biltmore  Estate)  and  gradual  removal  of  the 
obstructing  trees.  On  old  fields,  on  moist  slopes.  White  Ash  is 
often  accompanied  by    Yellow    Poplar   and    II 

Plantations  of  3-year-old  Green  Ash  ha\ 
more  on   dry.  hard  soil. 

Plantations    of    3-year-old    White    Ash    ii 
well;    also   seed    plantations   on   good   soil    in 

The  early   growth   is   very    last. 

Seeds    arc    profusely     produced    from    the    pole    stage    on. 
J.   Red    Spruce: 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  primeval  Spruce  woods  appear  as 
more  or  less  even-aged  compartments  in  the  swamps  and  sloughs 
of  the  Lake  States  and  on  the  dry.  shallow  South  -lope-,  of  New 
England;  in  the  cleared  group  form  and  in  the  selection  form  in 
Western  X.  C.  at  altitudes  exceeding  5,000  feet,  mixed  with  Aides 
fraseri  (selection);  in  the  selection  form,  grafted  upon  compart- 
ments   of    Beech    and    .Maple,   on   the   hardwood    slopes   of   the    Adiron- 

dacks.  In  the  latter  case,  spruce  never  regenerates  in  the  heavy 
layer  of  broad-leafed  humus,  but  selects  invariably  the  half-rotted 
corpse  of  a   dead   tree  for  a  seed-bed. 

II.  Culled  high  forests:  Tn  slightly  culled  forests  immune  from 
tires.  Red  Spruce  seems  to  reproduce  with  remarkable  ease.  On  fired 
ground;    Birches   and    Cottonwoods    frequently    act    a-    ushers.      Ms 

152 


le 
fi 

sia. 

1  i 

ll  lerlv 

a 

t  Bilt- 

h 

alt 

S\\ 

amps 

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i    very 

lie 

ga 

I'- 

Of  a 

rn 

Ige. 

S  YLVICULT  U  R  E. 

persistence  below  an  impenetrable  leaf  canopy  of  Beech  or  Maple 
is  surprising.  Freed  from  superstructure,  after  long  years  of  suf- 
fering, it  answers  the  chance  for  rapid  growth  almost  immediately. 

III.  Cultured  high  forests:  Spruce  requires  high  atmospheric 
moisture:  is  satisfied  with  shallow  soil:  can  be  readily  reproduced 
by  n.  s.  r.  as  well  as  by  planting. 

Seed  years:  Prolific  in  North  Carolina  in  fall  1901.  The  trees, 
top  heavy  with  cones,  were  mowed  down  by  storms. 

K.  White   Pine: 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  White  Pine  of  the  primeval  woods 
appears  in  compartments,  almost  even-aged,  or  in  groups,  either 
pure,  or  with  an  admixture  of  Hard  Maple.  Linden.  Elm.  Yellow 
Birch;  or  in  the  form  of  standards  over  Red  Spruce  and  Balsam; 
or  in  the  selection  form,  as  in  the  Calmia  thickets  of  the  Pink-bed 
Swamps.  It  is  flat-rooted,  subject  to  windfalls,  in  the  North  not 
tolerant   of   shade. 

II.  Culled  high  forests:  The  gorgeous  White  Pine  forest-  of 
the  Lake  Stale-,  after  culling  followed  by  lire-,  are  invariably 
surrendered  to  a  shrubbage  of  hardwoods.  Second  growth  i-  found 
in  beautiful  groups  underneath  Norway   Pine:   individually  sprinkled 

amongst    .lack    Pine.    Bassw 1.    Birch,    etc:    also    on    old    burns    in 

extensive,  even-aged  compartments;  along  roads  and  at  the  edge  of 
clearings;    in    New    England   on    old    fields. 

In  Western  X.  ( '..  White  Pine  regenerates  readily  on  broom- 
sedge  fields;  in  mixture  with  the  Oaks  on  the  uplands:  in  mixture 
with   Red    Maple   and    Red    Birch    in   the   river   swamps,   etc. 

III.  Cultured  high  forests:  At  Biltmore,  the  n.  s.  r.  of  White 
Pine  started  by  a  few  seed  tree-  succeeds  easily  in  the  group  type. 
White  Pines  planted  under  dense  shelter  require  freeing  soon  (com- 
partment 4.")).  Individual  trees  are  very  retentive  of  branches. 
Plantations  on  several  hundred  acres  have  done  admirably.  White 
Pine  i-  the  easiest  Pine  to  plant  on  old  fields  or  in  groups  in  the 
woods    after    clearing. 

Seed  years  are  frequent  at  Biltmore.  recurring  at  interval-  of 
two   or   three   year-,  f.   i..   fall   of    1902  and    1904. 

L.   Yellow   Pine-: 

I.  Primeval  forests:  The  pure  group  form  (Black-hills)  or 
the  group  form  wedded  with  the  compartment  form  of  Oaks  reach- 
ing  a  lesser  height  than  the  Pines  seem  to  be  typical.  Pine 
standards  are  often  left.  The  compartment  form  of  P.  taeda  is 
also    frequent.      P.    divaricata    and    murrayana    invariably    occur    in 

153 


SYLVICULTURE. 

even-aged  compartments j   P.  paluatris  and  P.  heterophylla  usually 
occur  in  groups. 

II.  Culled  high   forests: 

The  culled  forest  is  usually  visited  by  fires  which  gradually 
convert  an  undergrowth  of  hardwoods,  where  it  exists,  into  coppice. 
Beneath  Longleaf  Pine,  this  undergrowth  begins  to  sprout  only 
when   the   mature  Pine   is   removed. 

P.  rigida  and  P.  echinata  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter  are 
also  coppiced    (Xew  Jersey  Pines)   to  a   limited  extent. 

Where  the  pure  high  forest  continues,  fire  has  usually  improved 
the  chances  for  n.  s.  r.  by  preparing  a  ready  seed-bed  and  by 
lessening  the  severity  of  future  fires. 

All  Yellow  Pines  regenerate  prolifically  on  abandoned  fields, 
often  in  stands  which  artificial  planting  could  not  produce  equally 
well. 

III.  Cultured    high    forests: 

The  n.  s.  r.  of  P.  echinata  in  the  Biltmore  woods  creates  nuclei 
for  small  groups  which  are  freed  and  gradually  enlarged.  Heavy 
thinnings  from  the  early  thicket  stage  on  prevent  crowding  in  the 
pole  stage  and  thereby  check  the  chances  for  successful  attacks  by 
the  bark  beetles.  Pruning  100  decidedly  predestined  trees  per  acre 
seems   remunerative    (dead  branches   only)    at  Biltmore. 

Standard  form  of  P.  echinata  seems   indicated  at  Biltmore. 

All  Yellow  Pines  are  easily  planted  when  one  or  two  years  old 
and  get  along  without  cultivation  on  old  fields.  Heavy  growth  of 
weeds,  on  good   soil,  however,  is   sure  to  smother   them. 

In  pure  and  large  natural  regenerations,  it  is  wise  to  leave 
some  hardwood  standards  with  a  view  to  securing  an  admixture 
of  hardwood   seedlings   in  due  course  of  time. 

In  mixture  with  White  Pine,  Yellow  Pine  is  soon  subdued  on 
good  soil,  white  it   retains  the  lead  on  poor  soil. 

Seed  years  of  Pinus  echinata  at  Biltmore  occur  every  seven 
years.  The  fall  of  1902  was  a  prolific  breeder  of  seeds  even  in  pole- 
woods  :;;>  years  old   (Walker-nursery  at   Biltmore). 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  COPPICE  FOREST. 
Paragraph  LXVIII.     Genesis  of  the  coppice  forest  and  its  methods. 
The  coppice    Eoresl    is  either  the   result    of   stump-shoots  or  is 
obtained    from    rootsuekers.    layers    and    cuttings. 
154 


A*.v  '  /  ' 


SYLVICULTURE. 

A.  Stumpshoots     (or    stoolshoots    or    coppice    shoots). 

I.  Species:  All  hardwoods  whilst  young  form  stump  shoots  wherr 
cut  just  above  the  callus.  Amongst  the  softwoods,  the  Sequoias 
exhibit  enormous  stump  sprouts.  Amongst  the  Yellow  Pines,  P. 
rigida  and  echinata,  after  F.  E.  Olmsted  also  P.  taeda,  are  capable 
of  developing  sprouts  from  stumps  measuring  less  than  six  inches 
in  diameter.  White  Pines,  Spruces,  Firs,  Larches,  Hemlocks,  etc., 
never    form    coppice    shoots. 

II.  Diameter:  The  sprouting  capacity^ rapidly  decreases,  usnnlly 
with_  increasing  diameter  of  the  stumjx  The  diameter  at  which* 
the  principal  height  growth  is  completed  usually  denotes  the  limit 
permissible  for  coppice  rotations.  This  rule  is  particularly  well 
illustrated  by  the  behavior  of  Yelow  Pine,  Birch,  Maple,  Yellow 
Poplar,  Oaks,  Hickories,  etc.  Chestnut  and  Sequoia  do  not  seem 
to    follow   the   rule. 

III.  Soil:  Good  soil  allows  big  stumps  otherwise  unproductive 
of    sprouts    to    form    stoolshoots. 

Good  soil  produces  stronger,  but  less  sprouts  than  poor  soil. 

PV.  Life  of  stumps:  The  life  and  hence  the  sprouting  capacity 
of  stumps  repeatedly  coppiced  is  closely  connected  with  the  resist- 
ance offered  by  the  timber  to  decay.  White  Oak,  Chestnut,  Se- 
quoia and  Locust  are  persevera.nl  sprouters,  the  scars  on  the  stump 
being  protected  from  rotting  by  the  antiseptic  qualities  of  the  sub- 
stances incrustating  the  heart   wood. 

The  reproductive  power  of  Birch,  Beech,  and  Maple  is  not  sus- 
tained for  a  long  time.  Ash  and  Basswood  show  greater  persever- 
ance. 

It  might  be  said  thai  a  long-lifed  species  is  also  a  perseverant 
sprouter. 

The  sprouting  capacity   is  especially  g 1   in   species  capable  of 

forming  a  separate  and  detached  root  system  for  the  sprout  inde- 
pendent from  the  mother  stump.  This  is  the  case  in  species  forming 
sprouts  from  the  base  of  the  stump   (at  the  root  collar). 

V.  Optimum  number  of  stumps  per  acre: 

The  optimum  depends  on  the  length  of  the  rotation.  It  is  con- 
sidered to  be:  For  German  Oak  coppice,  rotation  20  years,  2,000 
stumps  per  acre;  for  Osier  culture,  rotation  one  or  two  years,  80,000 
stumps    per   acre. 

VI.  Manner  of  coppicing:  The  use  of  the  axe  is  preferable  to 
that  of  the  saw.  Stumps  should  be  as  low  as  possible,  to  begin  with. 
In  case  of  stumps — notably  Beech  and  Birch — coppiced  a  number  of 
times  it  is  better  to  cut  in  the  new  wood.    The  scar  should  allow  the 

155 


SYLVK   I    l.T  l  J;  E. 

water  to  inn  off,  instead  of  collecting  it  like  a  saucer.  The  expense 
of  the  genesis  of  the  coppice  forest   i-  practically  nil. 

VII.  Season  of  coppicing: 

It, the  wood  must  he  peeled,  tin-  cul  -hould  he  made  in  early 
3Pring.  Late  spring  cutting  -uhject-  the  new  -pront-  to  earlv  fro-ts, 
(  « >] >|»i<iiiL:   in  Au^n-t    is    supposed  —  tm-  similar   rea-oii- — to.aU'ect    the 

vitality    of   tlie    stumps.     Where   the   shoots   are  not    to   be    | led, 

cutting  in  late  winter  i-  best.  Winter  cutting  prevents  the  stumps 
from  bleeding  and  allows  to  remove  the  product  cut  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  new    shoots  without  injuring  the  stumps. 

Cutting  in  fall  subjects  the  stumps  to  frost-cracks  and  to  bark- 
blistering;  it  causes  the  new-  fleshy  -1 ts  to  appear  early  in  spring, 

at   the  season  of  prevailing  late  frosts. 

Accessibility  of  the  locality  at  the  proposed  season  of  cutting 
and  availability  of  local  labor  further  determine  the  season  of 
eutt  ing. 

VIII.  Reinforcing:  Where  the  number  of  stumps  is  or  becomes 
deficient,  there  the  owner  may  plant  seedlings  or  stump-plants  to 
replenish  the  growing  stock. 

B.  Root  sucker-:  Cottonwbod,  Willow.  Locust,  Alder,  some 
Elms  and  Maples,  after  European  experience  even  Liriodendron  (?) 
form  root  suckers,  especially  on  porous  soil.  The  suckers  are  in- 
creased by  locally  uncovering  the  porous  soil.  They  might  be 
severed  from  the  stump  and  planted  when  two  or  three  year-  old; 
but  this  i-  expensive.  Gardeners  often  use  piece-  of  root-,  say  ten 
inches    long  and    finger-thick,  for  propagating  broad-leaf   species   in 

g 1  soil.     An  observer  in  !•".  and  T.,  .May.  l!K>4.  claim-  to  have  found 

that  Fir  and  Spruce  in  the  Presidential  Range  of  the  White  Moun- 
tain- propagate  their  kind  by  the  natural  and  unaided  formation  of 
suckers  developing    from   long  horizontal   root-. 

(.  Layer-:  A  low,  long  branch  of  a  standing  tree  i-  partly 
buried  in  a  trench  one-half  foot  deep,  held  in  place  by  hook-,  pins  or 
stones,  the  end  of  the  branch  protruding  above  -round.    The  branch 

thus  embedded  form-  roots  and  si ts.     The  latter  are  severed  from 

each  other  a  year  or  two  before  planting  in  the  open. 

Layering  i-  a  gardener's  method  only  locally  used  in  park-.  At 
very  high  altitudes,  under  the  influence  of  very  great  atmospheric 
moisture,  the  low  Spruce  branches  naturally  form  root-  and  shoots 
in  a  similar  manner. 

1).  (  uttiiiL:-:  Willow-  and  Poplar-  are  usually  propagated  by 
"cuttings,"  \i/..:  pieces  of  branches  one  foot  long  and  two  years  old, 
tipped  with  a  piece  one  year  old.  The. cuttings  arc  inserted  obliquely, 
156 


SYLVIC  CJLTURE. 

the  tips  barely  showing  above  the  ground.  Planting  dagger  or  turn- 
ing plow  are  the  tools  used.  Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
bark  from  peeling  off.  It  is  claimed  that  the  constant  use  of  cut- 
tings causes  a  deterioration  of  growth.  Cuttings  of  sapling  size 
taken  from  strong  and  long  branches  are  also  planted  in  good 
nursery  soil  for  a  number  of  years  and  planted  in  the  open  -round 
after  catching  root.  Willows  and  Poplars  allow  of  heavy  trim- 
ming. Among  conifers,  only  Sequoia  permit-  the  use  of  cuttings. 
It  i-  claimed  that  Sequoia-chips  sprout  successfully  in  the  moist 
climate  of  the  I  oast   Range. 

Paragraph   LXIX..    Pedagogy   of   the   coppice   forest. 

The  coppice  forest  1-  tended  by  cleaning,  weeding,  and  thinning; 
also  by  improvement  cuttings  and  pruning. 

A.  Cleanings:  To  prevent  undesirable  shoots  from  developing, 
the  -tump-  producing  them  must  he  removed,  stump-  ,.f  undesira- 
ble species  (Blackgum,  Hazel.  Alder)  can  he  removed  only  by  dig- 
ging, or  by  heaping  dirl  upon  them,  or  by  Bring  heaps  of  debris 
placed  on  the  -tump-.  Usually,  it  i-  preferable  to  deaden  undesira- 
ble tree-  instead  of  trying  to  prevent  their  -tump-  from  forming 
sprouts.  In  some  species,  -tump-  three  feel  high  will  form  poor 
sprouts,  a  quality  which  might  he  taken  advantage  of. 

B.  Weeding:  Misshapen  trees  or  pojes  of  a  desirable  hardwood 
species,  nit  level  with  the  ground,  will  at  once  produce  shoots  of 
good  quality.  Poles  badly  damaged  by  fires  should  he  cut  for  an 
increase  of  vitality.  Trees  left  because  worthless  should  he  .lead- 
ened, unless  they  belong  to  the  aristocracy,  or  unless  they  improve 
the  good  sprouts  a-  well  a-  the  -oil  in  the  role  0f  subordinate 
companions. 

('.  Thinnings:  Thinnings  in  European  coppice  woods  are  rare; 
in  tanbark  coppice  they  usually  purport  to  improve  the  quality  of 
the  hark.  Where  mad.',  the  thinnings  usually  remove  the  weaker 
shoots  of  a  -tump  for  Hie  hem-tit  of  the  Letter  and  stronger  shoots. 
The  rotation-  of  European  coppice  being  short,  heavy  thinnings  tend 
to  deteriorate  the  quality  (branchiness  and  shape)  of  the  -hoot-  as 
well  as  of  the  soil;  and  light  thinnings  are  rarely  remunerative. 

In  America,  coppice  of  Catalpa,  of  Chestnut,  of  Locust  and 
ttickory  may  invite  heavy  thinnings  where  fen.-.'  posts,  telephone 
posts,  railroad   ties,  wagonstock,  etc..  find  a   ready  market. 

In  case  of  Bickory,  thinnings  periodically  removing  the  he-' 
tree-    (a   la    Borggreve)"  might  seem  indicated. 

157 


SYLVICULTURE. 

D.  Improvement  cuttings:     Improvement  cuttings  are  necessary 

in  culled  coppice  forest  emerging  directly  from  primeval  hardwood 
forest  heavily  cut  or  heavily  Bred.  Such  forest  is  invariably  en- 
cumbered wiili  bushy  and  worthless  standards  (if  the  standard 
have  a  value,  the  forest  belongs  to  the  form  of  coppice  under  stand- 
ards described  in  Par.  LXXIll-Par  LXXVIII)  interfering  with  the 
development  of  the  shoots;  or  with  undesirable  species  left  by  the 
logger.     The  mob  frequently  prevails  over  the  aristocrats. 

The  first  final  cut  at  the  end  of  the  firsl  coppice  rotation  usually 
answers  the  purpose  of  an  improvement  cutting. 

E.  Pruning:  Pruning  is  required  to  prevent  coppice  of  Catalpa, 
Locust  and  Ash  from  forming  forks  or  heavy  branches.  Naturally, 
pruning  is  expensive  and  dangerous  at  the  same  time  since  live 
branches  are  removed.  The  danger  is  particularly  great  where  the 
rotations  are  long,  the  pruned  stump  shoots  being  left  for  decades 
of  years  after  pruning. 

In  the  pollarding  form,  pruning  or  rather  lopping  obviously 
comprises  the  harvest  of  the  crop. 

Paragraph  LXX.    Key  to  the  forms  of  coppice  forest. 

Although  coppicing  is  called  a  type  of  natural  regeneration,  it 
is  an  absolutely  unnatural  measure  never  adopted  by  primeval 
nature.     Primeval  forms  of  coppice  forest  proper  do  not  exist. 

Species  propagating  their  kind,  at  least  partially,  by  root- 
suckers  frequently  form  rootsucker  forests  closely  resembling  cop- 
pice forests  proper. 

Chestnuts,  Locusts  and  many  other  hardwoods  broken  down  by 
storm  may  form  natural  sprouts  as  well  from  the  stumps.  Still. 
these  cases  are  probably  so  scattering  as  not  to  deserve  the  name  of 
"form  of  primeval  coppice  forest." 

Thus  there  remain  only  two  large  groups  of  coppice  forests, 
namely  "Culled  Coppice  Forests"  and  "Cultured  Coppice  Forests." 
In  both  cases  we  have  to  deal  only  with  the  la  rue- area  form  or  com- 
part meiit    form   of  coppice. 

Woods  seemingly  consisting  ol  uneven-aged  coppice  shoots, 
mixed  in  groups  or  individually,  are  dealt  with  as  "Forms  of  eop- 
pice-under-standards"  (Par.  LXX  Ill-Par.  LXXVIII),  unless  the 
stanaards  are  worthless  and  promise  to  remain  worthless. 

A.  Culled  forms  of  coppice: 

These  forms  emerge  either  directly  from  omnivendible  primeval 
forms,  or  else  have  passed  through  the  intermediate  stage  of  "culled 
-coppice   under   standards." 

15S 


S  Y  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  U  K  E. 

I.  Characteristic  for  culled  coppice  is: 
An  even  display  of  growth. 

A  surprising  density  of  stand. 

The  presence  of  some  weathered  and  worthless  snags  and 
stumps  protruding  from  the  even  sea  of  coppice. 

II.  Subdivision  of  culled  coppice: 

Uniformity  being  characteristic  for  culled  coppice,  sub-forms  can 
scarcely  be  singled  out,  unless  the  means  of  coppicing — fire  or  axe — 
serve  as  a  criterion.     Hence  there  might  be  distinguished 

a.  The   form   of  fire — culled  coppice,  and 

b.  The  form  of  axe — culled  coppice. 

This  distinction  is  not  made  on  the  basis  of  different  display; 
but  on  the  basis  of  difference  in  treatment  required  by  the  two 
forms. 

HI.  Treatment  of  culled  coppice: 

l'he  culled  coppice  is  regenerated  by  being  coppiced  anew.  In 
the  case  of  fire-culled  coppice,  it  is  wise  to  delay  the  second  cut  as 
little   as   possible. 

Coppicing  in  patches  or  small  groups  is  not  advisable,  the  young 
shoots  requiring  all  the  Iighi  available  for  rapid  lignification. 

An  insufficient  number  of  stumps  may  call  for  artificial  re- 
inforcing. 

Improvement  cuttings  convert  pour  coppice  shoots  interfering 
with  their  neighbors  from  above  into  healthy  coppice  shoots  press- 
ing their  neighbors  helpfully   from    below. 

B.  Cultured  forms  of  coppice: 

No  form  of  cultured  foresl  can  be  obtained  more  easily  and 
more   cheaply  than   the   form   of  cultured   coppice. 

In  the  European  hardwood  forests,  the  cultured  coppice  of  the 
past  has  often  served  as  the  forerunner  of  the  cultured  high  forest 
of  the  present  sylvan  era. 

I.  Characteristic  for  cultured  coppice  is  an  even  stand,  a  dense 
stand,  freedom  from  undesirable  competitors  and  tree  weeds. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  cultured  coppice   forms   are: 

a.  The  simple  form  of  cultured  coppice,  where  all  shoots  have 
the  same  age.  ,  , 

b.  The  two-storied  form  of  cultured  coppice,  where  the  growing 
stock  displays  two  tiers  of  leaf  canopy,  viz.:  an  upper  and  a  lower 
tier,  the  age  of  the  tiers  differing  by  the  length  of  a  rotation. 

In   addition,  a  form  of  "high   stumps"  is  usually  distinguished, 
where  trees  are  cut  some  six  to  ten  feet  above  ground  and  where  the 
shoots  forming  on  that  high  stump  are  cut  at  short  intervals.    This 
159 


SYLVICULT1    i:  E. 
form,  adapted  particularly    for  the  production  of  fascines  a1    Levees, 

i-    known   as: 

c.  The  pollarding  form   of  cultured  coppice. 

In  this  form,  rotations  of  one  to  five  years  are  usually  adopted, 
and  the  "lopping"  takes  place  in  the  "new  wood." 

III.  Treatment    of  cultured  coppice    forms: 

Regeneration  in  the  cultured  forms  of  coppice  is,  of  course,  by 
coppicing,  helped  by  planting  stumps,  cuttings,  suckers  and  layering. 
Regeneration  may  proceed  against  the  direction  of  the  wind  which 
brings  the  heavy  frosts  of  spring  and  fall  (blizzard-direction).  Clean- 
ing ami    thinnings  arc  often  indicated. 

Paragraph  LXXI.     Critical  remarks  on  coppice   forests. 

The  coppice  foresi  generally  furnishes  small-sized  timber,  nota- 
bly firewood  and  farm  supplies,  but  no  or  little  esaw  timber.  Its 
production  is  not  so  many-sided  as  that  of  the  high  forest,  and  for 
that   reason  rio1  equally  safe. 

On  the  other  hand,  allowing  of  shorter  rotations,  the  timber 
investment  is  much  smaller  than  in  high  forest,  and  the  returns 
from  "final  yields"  are  more  frequent. 

A  comparatively  small  area  may  produce,  under  a  coppice  form, 
a  regularly  sustained  yield. 

The  soil  of  the  forest  is  frequently  exposed,  and  shows  a  thin 
layer  of  humus.  Shallow  soil  is.  however,  sufficient  for  the  welfare 
ol  a  coppice  forest. 

The   water-retaining  capacity  of  the  coppice    forest    is   small. 

Coppice  forest  i-  less  exposed  to  storm,  tire.  snow,  and  insects 
(being  broad-leafed  usually),  and  more  exposed  to  late  and  early 
frosts  than  high  forest.  As  a  stock  pasture,  it  is  much  more  pro- 
ductive than  high   forest;    hut   also  much   more  damaged   by   pasture. 

The  expense  of  regeneration  and  of  pedagogy  i-  slight;.  The 
species  forming  shoots  from  below  the  .-round  and  those  forming 
root-suckers  usually  allow    of  long  rotations. 

Paragraph   LXXII.     Coppice   forests  by   species. 

A.  Oaks: 

I.  ( lulled  ( lak   coppice: 

lulled  <)nk  coppice  is  usually  fire-culled.  The  stumps  do  no! 
tire  01  emitting  shoots  after  each  lire,  still,  the  shoots  become 
weak,  stunted  and  bushy-crowned  and  refuse  to  grow  in  diameter  as 
well  as  in  height. 

L60 


S  Y  L  V I  C  U  L  T  U  E  E. 

It  is  remarkable  to  find  that  these  worthless  shoots  may  be  re- 
placed by  strong  shoots  after  coppicing  with  the  axe. 

The  poorer  the  fire-culled  Oak  coppice,  the  greater  is  the  im- 
provement obtainable  by  axe-coppicing. 

II.  Cultured  Oak  Coppice: 

In  Europe,  Oak  coppice  is  the  form  in  which  Oak  bark  is  raised 
for  tanning  purposes,  under  a  rotation  of  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
years. 

In  America,  coppiced  Oak  is  used  only  for  charcoal  and  fire- 
wood— rarely  for  railroad  ties.  Rotations  yielding  ties  will  not 
allow  ot  ready  reproduction  under  the  coppice  form,  unless  the  soil 
is  very  strong. 

At  Biltmore.  Post  Oak  three  inches  through.  White  Oak  ten 
inches  through.  Black  Oak  and  Scarlet  Oak  twelve  inches  through 
are  unlikely  to  sprout. 

A  rotation  01  not  to  exceed  forty  years  seems  indicated.  Such 
a  rotation  might  also  yield  hoop  poles,  poles  for  sphtwood  fabrics 
and  minor  wagonstock. 

B.  Beech: 

Beech  coppice  yields  firewood  only,  charcoal  and  so-called  retort- 
wood  for  dry  distillation. 

Ihe  sprouting  capacity  of  the  Beech  invites  short  rotations. 
Strong  soil  is  required. 

0.  Hickory: 

Hickory  coppice  promises  good  financial  results  on  strong  soil 
only,  irires  must  be  strictly  kept  in  check,  owing  to  the  heavy  scars 
which  they  inflict  on  Hickory,  notations  of  about  twenty  years, 
low  stumps  and  winter  cutting  seem  required. 

On  Biltmore  soil,  stumps  over  six  inches  in  diameter  usually  re- 
fuse to  sprout. 

D.  Locust : 

Locust  coppice  densely  planted  on  old  fields  seems  to  be  a  good 
investment,  although  the  poles  thus  produced  consist  of  sappy  wood 
undesirable  for  fence  posts.  The  young  shoots  suffer  from  a  pith- 
boring  moth    (Ecdytolopha    species). 

The  sprouting  capacity  is  very  good,  helped  by  the  ready  forma- 
tion of  rootsuckers. 

In  Germany,  wagon  stock  is  obtained  in  rotations  of  twenty 
years. 

E.  Chestnut : 

Chestnut  is  the  American  species  best  adapted  for  the  coppice 
forest.  Stumps  of  any  diameter  emit  sprouts.     A  rotation  of  twenty 
161 


SYLVICULTURE. 

to  forty  years  will  yield  vineyard  stakes,  hop  poles,  telephone  poles, 
posts,  rails.,  ties  and  wood  for  the  extraction  of  tannic  acid:  a  rota- 
tion of  five  years  is  said  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  hoop  poles 
for  barrel  hoops. 

The  European  complaint  doe-  not  seem  warranted  in  America 
that  rotations  exceeding  twenty  year-  invite  a  disease  known  as 
"  heart-rot." 

In  Alsace-Lorraine,  thinnings  take  place  in  the  tenth  year:  the 
cut  is  made  in  early  winter,  and  the  stumps  are  sometimes  pro- 
tected from  the  influence  of  frosl  by  hen].-  of  brush.  In  the  Appa- 
lachians, such  precautions  are  not  called  for.  It  i-  unnecessary,  if 
not  unwise,  to  reduce  the  Dumber  of  sprouts  starting  from  one 
stump  artificially.  Spring  cutting  and  high  -tump-  art'  objec- 
tionable. 

On  dry  and  impoverished  -oil.  or  under  the  regime  of  tire-. 
(  nestnut  coppice  i-  hopelessly  lost. 

F.  Cottonwood: 

(  oppice  forest  of  Cottons 1  produces  match  stock  and  pulp- 
wood.     The    stumps   have    little  vitality   and   will   not    endure   more 

than  four  rotation-  of  twenty  year-  each.  Very  low  stumps  are  re- 
quired to  insure  healthy  sprouts  and  to  encourage  the  production  ol 
rootsuckers.     The  growth  i-  very  fa-t    in   the  tir-t   year-. 

G.  "Willows    (Osier-culturei: 

Osier  culture  i-  considered  a  money  maker  in  Germany  where 
labor  i-  cheap.  It  i-  now  in  vogue  in  New  York  and  in  Sew  Jersey. 
The  best  species  are  Salix  viminalis,  Salix  amygdalina,  Salix  pur- 
purea. Salix  acutifolia  (caspica).  The  rotation  comprises  one  or 
two  year-.  With  the  exception  of  Salix  caspica,  a  moist  -oil  i-  re- 
quired   (meadow  land  in  river  bottom- i    by  the   willow-. 

The  stumps  do  not  yield  a  return  for  more  than  twelve  to  -i\- 
teen  years. 

For  the  formation  of  an  Osier  grove,  shoots  two  feci  long  are 
used,  of  which  about  80.000  are  put  in  per  acre.  It  i-  stated  that 
the  more  shoots  there  are  per  acre,  the  better  i-  the  quality  of  the 
Willow,  as  branchy   stuff'  cannot   be   used  for  baskel    making. 

Cultivation  between  the  rows  i-  -aid  to  be  very  advisable  or 
even  necessary,  especially  in  the  first  year.  There  are  many  insects 
feeding  on  the  leaves  and  many  fungi  besetting  the  leaves  of  the 
Willows. 

A  one-year  rotation   i-  best.     After  three   or  four  year-,  however, 
a  two-years"  rotation  frequently  intervenes,  so  a-  to  allow  the  root 
to  develop  unhampered.     The  -hoot-  two  year-  old  are  used  for  the 
1G2 


BYLVK   I    1.  1  1    i 

in  July  ami 


<ii  \rri:i;  iv. 

Illl 

Paragraph   LXXIII.     Genesis  of  coppice -under-standaids  forests  and 
its  meth- 

II    I' 

III 

i  \\  III 

\ 


SYLVICTJ  I.T  IRE. 

II.  Age-classes:  The  number  of  age-classes  in  a  normal  over- 
wood  equals  the  fraction   5   wherein 

R  represents  the  length  of  tln>  rotation  in   the  overwood,  and 
r  represents  the  length  of  the  rotation   in  the  underwood. 
The  normal  difference  of  age  between  consecutive  classes  is  "r" 
year-. 

III.  Normal  formation:  The  overwood  is  composed  of  "  stand- 
ards •'  regenerate!!,  at  the  year  of  coppiced  underwood,  from  self- 
sown  seed  falling  from  the  overwood  or,  in  the  cultured  forest,  from 
planted  seedlings.  The  seedlings  of  the  overwood  grow  up  im- 
merged  and  often  badly  endangered  in  the  new  underwood.  When 
this  is  coppiced  at  the  age  of  r  years,  an  improvement  cutting 
taxes  place  simultaneously  removing  misshapen  or  damaged  stand- 
ards of  the  various  older  classes  as  well  as  the  weaklings  in 
the  youngest  class.  By  this  improvement  cutting  the  leaf  canopy 
of  the  standards,  which  has  had  ample  chance  of  enlargement 
during  the  past  r  years,  is  cut  back  to  a  normal   limit. 

The    older    an    age-class    is,    the    smaller   is    the   number    of    its 

constituents. 

C.  Aonormal    formation   of   overwood   and   underwood: 

A    normally    proportioned    and    normally    formed    overhead    is 

never   found.     Deficiencies   lie 

1.  In   a    lack   of  one   or  the  other   age-class; 

2.  In    an    abnormal    number    of   constituents   per   class; 

3.  In  the  fact,  that  the  overwood  is  partially  recruited  from 
stoolshoots    and   not   from    seedlings. 

Abnormal  coppice  over-standards  is  the  usual  consequence  of  the 
culling  of  primeval  hardwoods  or  of  primeval  pineries  forming  a 
superstructure    over    Oaks,    Hickories.   Gums,   etc. 

The  burned  slopes  and  outskirts  of  the  Alleghanies  usually 
belong  to  the  coppice-under-standard  form.  The  fire-coppiced  under- 
wood here  consists  of  Soft  Maple,  Oalinia.  Rhododendron,  Chestnut, 
Oaks.  Hickories,  Black  Gum,  Sourwood,  Ealesia,  etc..  etc..  all  of 
which    are    usually    devoid    of    value. 

Culled  and  fired  forest  of  Pinus  echinata,  taeda  and  paustris 
frequently  belong  to  the  same  form,  with  Oaks  in  the  underwood 
and   the   Pines    in   the   overwood. 

Paragraph  LXXIV.     Pedagogy  of  coppice-under-standards  forest. 

Coppice  under  standards  i-  or  may  be  tended  by  cleaning.. 
w ling,   improvement    cuttings,  pruning   and    thinning. 

164 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Thinnings  are  applied  to  the  underwood  only:  whilst  the  over- 
wood   alone   is   the   object   of  pruning. 

A.  Cleaning  purports  to  eliminate  undesirable  shoots  in  young 
coppice,  or  removes  desirable  shoots  liable  to  interfere  with  the 
development  of  ovenvood  seedlings  imbedded  in  the  coppice. 

B.  Weeding  removes  weed  trees,  usually  tending  to  form  new 
sprouts  from  the  stumps  of  the  weed  trees  removed.  Weeding  is 
a  necessity  where  a  culled  forest  is  to  be  converted  into  a  cul- 
tured forest,  the  culled  forest  containing  a  large  number  of  weed 
trees. 

At  Biltmore,  the  weed  trees  removed  are  Black  Gum  over- 
shadowing the  coppice  and  the  Pine  seedlings  standing  therein; 
fire-scalded  Oaks  or  Hickories,  bent  and  low  crowned;  wolfs  of 
Yellow  Pine;   pretentious  Dogwoods  or  Halesias  and  so  on. 

C.  Improvement  cuttings  improve  the  prospects  of  the  over- 
wood,  remove  undesirable  members  of  the  overwood  and  regulate 
the  number  of  the  constituents  forming  an  age-class  of  the  over- 
wood.  '"The  normal  cuttings  in  the  overwood  are  improvement 
cuttings." 

In  semi-normal  woods,  the  oldest  class  of  the  overwood  is 
entirely  removed.  Class  II  is  reduced  to  the  former  membership 
of  Class  I:  Class  III  is  reduced  to  the  former  membership  of 
Class  II,  etc.  It  stands  to  reason,  that  the  least  desirable  mem- 
bers of  a  class  should  be  thus  removed.  In  semi-normal  woods, 
the  improvement  cuttings  take  place  at  the  time  at  which  the 
underwood  is  ripe   for  coppicing. 

The  improvement  cutting  yields  timber  of  all  sorts  and  of  all 
sizes   obtained  from   the  A-arious  age-classes. 

The  improvement  cutting  does  not  regularly  intend  to  help 
regeneration.  Frequently,  of  course,  the  stumps  of  trees  removed 
by  the  improvement  cutting  form  sprouts  partaking  in  the  coppice- 
tier. 

D.  Pruning:  Dead  branches  of  the  overwood  trees  might  be 
removed   to   develop  timber  clear   of   dead   knots. 

Live  branches  of  overwood  trees  formed  low  on  the  bole  are 
removed  to  lessen  the  intensity  of  the  shade  to  which  the  under- 
wood and  the  seedlings  imbedded  therein  are  locally  subjected. 

The  members  of  the  overwood,  owing  to  their  free  position, 
are  apt  tc  form  and  retain  heavy  branches.  The  act  of  pruning 
in  coppice  under  standards  corresponds  with  that  described  in  sec- 
tion sixty-three  for  high  forest. 

The  coppice  is  pruned  only  in  rare  instances,  f.  i.,  for  the  im 
provement    of   oak    tanbark. 

165 


s  Y  L  V  I  C  ULTURE. 

E.  Thinnings  are  sometimes  indicated  in  dense  coppice  in  order 

to  increase  the  f 1  and  light   supply  of  the  youngesi    age-class  of 

overwood  imbedded  in  the  coppice;  or  in  order  to  increase  gradually 

the  air  -parr  surrounding  the  members  of  that  class,  so  as  not  to 
subject  them  to  the  shock  of  sudden  exposure  at  the  time  of  cop- 
picing: or  to  obtain  the  ends  of  Par.  l.XIl.  A.,  especially  where 
the  overwood  classes  appear  in  groups;  or  to  improve  the  quality 
and  the  quantity  of  the  bark  in  tanbark  coppice. 

In  all   cases,  the  thinning  must   yield  a  surplus  revenue. 

Paragraph   LXXV.     Key    to    the    forms   of   coppice-under-standards 
torests. 

The  primeval  woods  do  not  contain  any  form  of  coppice  under 
standards.  In  culled  hardwood  forests,  on  the  other  hand,  these 
tonus  are  almost  regularly  met  with. 

A.  Culled  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 

I.  Characteristics:  Primeval  hardwood  forests  are  usually 
paucivendible  only.  After  lumbering  the  merchantable  species  and 
sizes,  a  rank  growth  of  coppice  -1 ts  frequently  enters  an  appear- 
ance under  the  assistance  of  fires,  overshadowed  by  poles  and  trees 
of  all  age-classes  devoid  of  present  value.  Many  individuals  of  the 
overwood  are  badly  burned;  or  are  hollow,  fungus  decayed,  worm 
riddled,  etc. 

Thus   whilst   the  underwood   consists   of  fire  coppice   or   -1 ts 

sprouting  from  the  stumps  of  merchantable  trees,  the  overwood  con- 
sists of  undesirable  species  and  of  immature  trees  usually  crippled 
by  firing  and  felling.  In  addition,  there  are  plenty  of  weed  trees 
left  on  the  ground.  The  younger  age-classes  of  the  overwood  are 
usually  absent. 

In  forests  originally  composed  of  a  Pine  overwood  and  of  a 
hardwood  underwood — a  form  once  frequently  found  all  over  the 
Southeast — the  lumberman  usually  remove-  merely  the  taller  Tines 
scaling  over  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  -mailer  Pines,  if  fireproof, 
henceforth  join  with  the  hardwood  trees  and  hardwood  poles  in 
the  formation  of  an  overwood.  The  underwood  consisting  of  miser- 
aide  tire  sprouts  i-  continuously  clipped  by  foresi  fires.  The  butts 
of  these  "suae-"  are  flattened  on  the  ground,  as  if  liquid  wood 
had  hardened  on  it.  The  -hoot-,  weakly  inserted  on  the  callus, 
can  lie  torn  oil'  easily. 

If  these  snags  are  cut.  fresh  shoots  will  form,  of  much  greater 
vigor  and  of  greater  strength  at   the  point   of  insertion. 

1GG 


SYLVICUL  T  U  R  E. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  culled  coppice  under  standards: 

The  number  of  forms  of  coppice  under  standards  is  particularly 

great,  owing  to  the  variations  occurring  in  the  tiers  of  forest,  viz.: 

the  overwood  and  the  underwood. 

a.  Ine  overwood  is  omni,  multi.  or  pauci  vendible,  as  the  case 
may  be.  It  is  arranged  either  in  groups  or  in  patches  (individuals) 
imbedded   in   the   coppice.      Thus   we   obtain: 

1.  The  form  of  culled  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
group   type,    and 

2.  The  form  of  culled  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
selection   type. 

b.  The  leaf  canopy  of  the  standards  covers  a  certain  percentage 
of  the  ground.  This  percentage,  where  high,  forces  the  underwoods 
into  a  minor  role:  where  small,  it  allots  to  the  underwood  the 
major  part. 

The  Longleaf  Pine  woods  of  the  Smith,  after  heavy  culling, 
illustrate  the  latter  form;  the  Shortleaf  Pine  woods  of  the  Bilt- 
more  Plateau  exhibit  the  former  form.  These  forms  might  be 
designated  as: 

1.  The   form   of   prevailing  coppice   under   standards; 

2.  rihe  form  of  coppice  under  prevailing  standards, 

c.  According  to  the  means  of  coppicing,  I  line  should  be  dis- 
tinguished 

1.  The   form   of   fire-culled   coppice    under    standards; 

2.  The   form  of  axe-culled   coppice   under   standards. 

III.  Treatment  of  culled    forms  of  coppice   under  standards. 

Improvement  cuttings  and.  where  improvement  cuttings  cannot 
be    made,   weeding   are    usually    required. 

Fire  coppice  should  be  cut  down,  wherever  the  growth  is 
stagnant. 

An  undue  preponderance  of  standard-,  may  be  checked  by  the 
use  of  the  axe. 

Planting  of  seedlings  can  usually  be  dispensed  with.  Where  it 
is  advisable  to  plant  seedlings,  the  coppice  must  he  cut  clean  to 
begin  with. 

B.  Cultured   forms  of  coppice  under  standards: 

I.  Characteristic  for  the  cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  stand- 
ards is  the  lack  of  weed  trees  and  of  unhealthy  standards;  further 
the  geometric  regularity  of  the  figures  considered  as  compartments 
and  sub-compartments. 

The  overwood  is  composed  only  of  storm-firm  and  light-demand- 
ing species. 

1(37 


S  V  L  V  I  C  U  L  T  I   R  E. 

II.  Subdivisions  of  cultured  forma  of  coppice  under  standards. 
As  in   the  culled   forest   there   should   be  distinguished: 

a.  The  form  of  cultured  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
group  type  with 

1.  Prevailing  coppice,  or  with 

2.  Prevailing  standards. 

b.  The  form  of  cultured  coppice  under  standards  raised  in  the 
selection    type    with 

1.  Prevailing  coppice,  or  with 

2.  Prevailing   standards. 

the  standards  might  he  planted  in  regular  rows  (diaries  Heyer's 
idea)  or  in  regular  groups  or — irregularly — in  suitable  places;  or 
they  might  be  recruited  from  self-sown  seed  under  the  selection  type. 

III.  Treatment  of  cultured  forms  of  coppice  under  standards. 
The   regeneration  of   the   overwood  as  well   as   its   pedagogy   is 

difficult,  unless  the  group  type  is  carried  through.  Individual  seed- 
lings are  very  apt  to  be  suffocated  in  the  mass  of  faster-growing 
coppice  and  require  continuous,  careful  attention.  Thinnings  are 
required  to  prepare  the  youngest  elass  of  standards  immerged  in 
the   coppice   for   its   future    task. 

The  overw 1  is  sometimes  pruned — in  this  case  of  dead  as  well 

as   of   live   branches. 

Paragraph    LXXVI.      Critical    remarks    on    coppice-under-standards 
forest. 

The  coppice-under-standards  forest  combines  the  good  qualities 
of  the  high  forest  with  those  of  the  coppice  forest.  It  furnishes 
timber  of  all  sizes  in  the  largest  possible  variety.  It  requires  a 
moderate  investment  sunk  into  the  growing  stock  and  allows  the 
overwooa  to  grow  into  log  size  at  a  very  fast  rate.  It  is  a  good 
form  for  the  owners  of  small  woodlands  desiring  steady  returns. 
It  protects   the   fertility  of  the   soil  better  than  the   coppice   form. 

The  logs  furnished  by  the  overwood  raised  selectionwise  are 
necessarily  branchy  and  wide  ringed,  with  the  incident  had  and 
good  qualities  of  such  logs.  The  trees  usually  do  not  yield  more 
than  two  saw  logs. 

Where  the  underwood  is  unsalable  or  low  priced,  stress  must 
be  laid  on  a  prevalence  of  the  overwood.  Where  it  is  valuable  as 
a  tanning  material   or  as   wagon   stock,  the  underwood   is   favored. 

The  danger  from  fire — since  hardwoods  are  usually  at   stake — 
is  not  very  great.     The  density  of  the  brushy  underwood,  however, 
aggravates   the   difficulties   confronting   the   fire   fighter. 
168 


SYLVICULTURE. 

In  Europe,  "  coppice  -under-  standards  "  is  more  and  more  aban- 
doned and  restricted  to  the  inundation  districts  along  the  rivers. 
Here,  on  strong  soil,  the  undergrowth  endures  an  enormous  amount 
of  shade,  and  the  overwood  develops  fairly  long  boles  in  spite  of  a 
free    position. 

The  coppice-under-standards  form  in  Europe  requires  careful, 
minute  and  honest  management:  careful,  because  the  leaf  canopy 
of  the  overwood  rapidly  increases  during  the  rotation  of  the  under- 
wood ;  minute,  because  individual  trees  or  groups  of  trees  must  be 
continuously  watched;  honest,  because  an  unscrupulous  forester  or 
a  thoughtless  owner  may  easily  and  heavily  reduce  the  capital 
of  the  forest  whilst  claiming  to  merely  withdraw  revenue  pro- 
duced by  it. 

In  America,  in  the  hardwood  forests  of  the  Alleghanies  and 
in  the  pineries  of  the  South,  the  form  is  destined  to  play  a  most 
important  role.  The  form  exists  and  will  have  to  be  retained  for 
decades  of  years  to  come,  owing  to  its  tempting  financial  merits; 
the  ease  and  cheapness  of  regeneration;  the  short  period  of  waiting 
between  remunerative  cuts:  the  variety  of  produce;  the  fast  rate' 
of  growth;  the  small  amount  of  growing  stock  required  for 
•■  sustained  "   yields   and   so  on. 

In  the  course  of  time,  curtailing  the  cut  of  standards  or 
allowing  the  coppice  to  grow  into  larger  sizes,  the  forester  may 
gradually  convert  the  coppice-under-standards  fores!  into  a  high 
forest.  The  average  growing  stock,  per  acre,  in  the  high  forest 
contains  about  twice  as  many  cords  of  wood  as  the  average  grow- 
ing stock  in  the  coppice  under-standard-  forest. 

On  the  other  hand,  by  removing  all  standard-,  the  form  of 
simple    coppice    is    readily    obtained. 

In  the  Oak-coppice-under-Pine-standard  forest  of  Biltmore  it 
has  been  observed  that  the  Pine  poles  suffer  less  from  bark  beetles 
than  they  do  in  the  denser  polewoods  of  the  high  forest  of  Pine. 

Paragraph  LXXVII.     Coppice-under-standards  by   species. 

By  culling  and  firing,  every  primeval  forest  of  hardwoods 
existing  in  the  United  States  is  converted  into  coppice  under  stand- 
ards. Again,  many,  nay,  almost  all  two-storied  high  forests  in 
the  South  having  Pine  in  the  overwood  and  hardwood  in  the  under- 
wood present  the  form  of  coppice-under-standards  in  a  modified 
manner. 

The  number  of  constellations  of  species  for  a  place  in  the  over- 
wood  and  in  the  underwood  is  endless. 
160 


SYLVK  ULT1    I:  E. 

A   few  remarks  on  characteristic  forms  must  suffice. 

A.  (  hestnut-coppice  under  standards  of  5fellow  Poplar,  White, 
Chestnut  and  Red  Oak,  Hickory,  Ash,  Locust, — the  Pisgah  Forest 
form. 

(  t  rtain  age-elasse-  of  the  standards— the  sapling  stage  and 
the  pole  stage,  arc  invariably  absent,  owing  to  the  fires  of  the 
last   decades.     The  number  of  Chestnut    stumps   is   deficient.     The 

weed  species  of  the  forest   (Halesia,  Soft    .Maple   Dogw 1.  Calmia, 

etc.)  readily  replenish  the  coppice-stratum.  The  standards  regen- 
erate their  kind  readily  where  the  weeds  are  not  too  rank.  Xo 
means  arc  known  by  which  to  extirpate  the  tree  and  bush  weeds 
preventing  n.  s.  r.  of  the  standards  in  a  sufficiently  promising  way. 
Heavy  pasturage  in  early  spring  practiced  before  the  Chestnut 
stumps  had  time  to  sprout  and  before  the  seeds  of  the  standards 
(excepting  Chestnut  Oak  and  White  Oak)  had  time  for  germina- 
tion may  solve  the  problem.  Such  pasturage,  whilst  it  checks  the 
weeds,  presses  the  seeds  of  the  standards  at  the  same  time  into 
the  mineral  soil.  Other  remedies  are:  Deadening:  cutting  with 
high  stumps  left:  bark  peeling;  removing  side  branches  with  a 
brush  axe,  etc.  However,  entire  extirpation  of  the  [igneous  weeds 
due-  not  seem  financially  advisable  at  the  present  time.  Frequently 
it  might  be  best  to  leave  the  weeds  untouched  for  the  time  being,. 
postponing  the  battle  until  the  undergrowth  of  seedlings  and  cop- 
pice shoots  requires  increased  influx  of  light.  Then.  too.  the  cutting 
of  the  weeds  will  force  them  to  lie  satisfied  with  a  subsistence  below 
the  level  of  the   underwood. 

Chestnut  standards  should  not  be  left,  since  the  -hock  of  a 
sudden  change  of  surroundings  causes  them  to  sicken.  The  adjoin- 
ing   wood-    will    tend    to    reinforce    the    regeneration    area    by    n.    -.    r. 

of  Chestnut,  where  the  compartments  simultaneously  coppiced  are 
-mall  or  narrow.  Artificial  reinforcing  seems  unnecessary  although 
the  planting  of  Walnuts  in  suitable  places  may  prove  remunerative. 

B.  Oak  coppice  mixed  with  Hickory  coppice  under  l'ine 
standards. 

This  form  prevails  on  the  Biltmore  Plateau  and  over  vast 
areas  in  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  Alabama.  North  Carolina.  South 
Carolina,  etc. 

Sylvicuitural  treatment  i-  possible  only  where  the  Oak  can  be 
removed   to  a   nearby   fuel-market. 

Rotations  of   thirty   to  forty   year-   for   the  coppice   -cent   best. 
Shorter     rotation-     are     required     where     the     coppice     j.,     badly 

damaged  by  tin-. 

170 


s.  r. 


S  YLVICULTUE  E. 

In  seed  years  of  Yellow  Pine,  the  coppiced  area  should  be  as 
large  as  compatible  with  the  market.  It  might  he  ^e  to  cut 
ear,  ]n  ta.l  and  to  burn  the  coppice  before  the  Pine  seeds  be^ 
to  fall.  Seed  rears  of  Pine  at  Biltmore  occur  at  intervals  of  seven 
years  Lnprovement  cuttings  should  make  up  the  sustained  "eld" 
a,  tai  as  possible,  m  years  of  deficient  seeding;  or  such  comLrt 
ments  should  be  taken  in  hand,  fa  winch  the  coppLe  growls 
richly  beset  with  Pine  poles   and  Pine  saplings 

In  the  course  of  the  improvement  cuttings,  the  nuclei  of  n    s 
of    Pine    require    careful    attention.      Weeds    like    Chinquapin'  an 
Back   gum    are    checked    wherever    they     obstruct    the    Lirwood; 
where   they   form   part   of   the   vndenv 1.   especially    under  group 

pro  Metier   "e  thaDkfUlIy   ^ ^    -   —  «*  i 

During  ^"7*    ^    a'la,'t'"'    '"    the    f°raati0n    "f    sta^rds. 
During ;   the    earlier    stages.    ]t    retains    its     branches     badly    where 

T  m.(hlk    e°PPice-     «**«   ^e    later   pole    stage,   it   is   apt 

f"    SUff"    ^    -ndfaH-      Groups    of    White   Pfae    standard *X 
answer  better  than   standards   individually    scattered. 

CHAPTER  V. 
PROPAGATION  OF  FOREST   PRODUCTS   OTHER   THAN  WOOD 

AND   TIMBER. 
Paragraph  LXXVIII.     Raising  of  forest  by-products 

In  many  cases  better  revenue  i tafaed  from  the  by-products 

;.;     , '»    '''■    "-'■  tl»»"  from  t,,,  w I  and  timber.     fabackwood 

^,7/  clos«d  to  traffic,  forest  pasture  often  yields  the  only  means 
I;    at!?Tg  ,VV:"!U"-     <»<'•—>>- led  districts,  the  combination 

tuZTZ  \  Z^thiSOften^iS&hle-  ^e  main  prod- 
ucts thus  obtained  and  the  industries  connected  with  then  pro- 
duct  ion  are:  l 

A.  Tanbark  and  raising  0f  tanbarfc: 

The  thickness  of  the  hark  used  for  tanning  purposes  and  ob- 
ained  either  under  a  high  forest  or  under  a  coppice  Lest  system 

number  of  '"  ^  "*"**•  '"  ^  ^  ^^  ^  the 
™  ,      TPS    PM   aCFe    ta    aW    2>000>   ^inforced   by    stump 

Planting  at  each  cutting  The  healthier  the  growth  of  the  shoot" 
the   better   are   the    tanning   contents   of   the   product 

In  America,  at  the  present  time,  no   difference    is   made  in  the 

^s0oil<lfiCOrky:,aik  ^  "'  —  "^  ^  -'tainl^rom 
shoots  only  five  inches  in  diameter. 

171 


S  Y  L  VICULTl'R  E. 

B.  Cork   industry: 

The  cork  industry  is  conducted  in  Southern  France,  Spain, 
Portugal  and  Northern  Africa.  Tor  America,  its  introduction  seems 
highly  remunerative. 

Experiments  made  in  Georgia  and  in  the  (  arolinas  with  plan- 
tations of  Cork  Oak  have  produced  very  healthy  trees:  for  reasons 
unknown  however,  the  cork  production  was  deficient.  Possibly  the 
wrong  species  or  the  wrong  variety  was  selected,  or  else  mistakes 
were  made   in   choosing  soil,  exposure  ana  sylvicultural   treat nt. 

Mayr  recommends  experiments  with  Quercus  variabilis  for  the 
section  of  Germany  productive  of  Castanea  vesca. 

C.  Forest  pasture: 

Up  to  1880,  forest  pasture  in  Longleaf  Pine  woods  of  the 
South  (Cane-brakes)  and  in  the  hardwood  forests  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  has  occupied  the  rank  of  the  most  important  forest  indus- 
try. Nowadays,  pasture  is  indicated  on  many  a  windswept  ridge 
where  the  growth  of  timber  is  stunted,  whilst  the  atmospheric 
moisture  allows  of  a  luxurious  production  of  grass.  Under  nut- 
bearing  trees,  hog  pasture  is  highly  remunerative.  In  '"strong" 
coves,  the  growth  of  weeds  offers  splendid  forage  for  cattle 

The  more  inaccessible  the  forest,  the  less  is  the  value  of  the 
tree  growth.  Here  an  industry  is  advisable  which  converts  vegetable 
fibre  into  animal  matter.  At  the  same  time,  the  advantage  gained 
by  pasturage  during  and  previous  to  regeneration  frequently  reduces 
the  expense   of  regeneration. 

Whether  the  fencing  of  forest  pastures  is  advisable  depends  on 
circumstances.  A  two-stringed  barbed  wire  fence  costs  $40  per 
mne. 

Goats,  as  extirpators  of  woody  weeds  (Corylus,  Azalea)  are 
frequently  useful  on  mountain  pastures. 

Woody  weeds  damaging  the  pastures  are  kept  in  check  by 
continuous  mowing,  especially  if  mowed  in  August.  A  limited  use 
of  fire,  too,  improves  the  pasture.  Forest  pastures  are  invaluable 
as  fire  lanes. 

Pasturage  of  cattle  extends  in  Pisgah  Forest  from  May  1st  to 
October  15th.  Sheep  and  hogs  require  feeding  only  in  February. 
The  revenue  made  per  month  amounts  to:  per  head  of  cattle,  fifty 
cents;    horses,  seventy-five  cents;   sheep,  ten  cents. 

Where  the  growth  of  trees  on  a  permanent  pasture  is  too 
dense,  deadening  or  coppicing  is  required.  Where  it  is  too  little 
or  where  erosion  sets  in,  the  pasture  must  be  abandoned  for  a 
number  of  years.  Dead  trees  placed  horizontally  on  pastured  slopes 
safeguard  the  pasture. 

172 


SYLVICULTURE. 

In  European  and  in  Indian  forests,  pasture  still  plays  a  most 
important  role,  frequently  as  a  prescriptive  right  encumbering 
forests  owned  by  the  Crown  or  by  the  aristocracy. 

Relative  to  forest  pasture  in  the  Cascade  Reserve  of  Oregon  see 
"Forest   Policy." 

Forest  pasture  in  the  Pine  woods  of  the  South  and  of  the 
Southwest    is    of    utmost    economic    importance. 

Forest  pasturage  requires  regulation  in  the  following  points: 
Number  of  animals  per  acre;  species  of  stock  and  of  trees;  season, 
of  pasturage;  remuneration;  closed  years;  firing;  responsibility; 
supervision;  salting;  improvements;  access. 

D.  Forest  fruit  raising: 

I.  Pecan. 

Large  investments  are  being  made  in  Pecan  plantations  in  the- 
South.  Usually  seedlings  three  years  old  are  planted  fifty  to 
sixty  feet  apart.  Payable  crops  are  expected  fifteen  years  after- 
planting.  Cultivation  and  fertilization  of  Pecan  orchards  are  re- 
quired just  as    in   apple   orchards. 

II.  Apple-trees  planted  on  freshly  cutover  woodlands  (North- 
west  slopes)    are    said   to   be   particularly    promising. 

III.  Chestnuts.  Chestnuts  are  either  obtained  from  the  woods- 
where  Chestnut  trees  are  grown  for  timber,  or  from  orchards.  In 
Pisgah  Foresl  seed  years  are  said  to  occur  every  seven  years.  The 
nuts  sell  at  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  per  bushel.  The  mountaineers 
burn   the  woods  to  more  readily  uncover  the  uuts. 

Orcharding  combined  with  grafting  of  French  Chestnuts  (Cas- 
tanea.  vesca)  on  the  American  species  has  been  tried  in  Pennsylvania 
with  little  success  owing  to  forest   fires. 

In  Southern  France  a  large  revenue  is  obtained  from  the  nuts 
($5  to   $6   annually   from   a   good   tree). 

IV.  Acorns.  The  acorns  of  the  White  Oaks  are  -round  as  a 
substitute  for  coffee  (Postum  Cerea]  80%).  In  addition  acorns 
are   of   high   value  for  pannage   and   in  game  preserves. 

V.  Berries.  The  crop  of  berries  growing  in  the  forest  is  locally 
leased  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  huckleberry  crop  i-  improved 
by  periodical  burning. 

E.  Maple  sugar: 

The  production  of-sugar  depends  on  the  size  and  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  individual  trees,  influenced  by  careful  thinning.  An 
underwood  and  a  heavy  layer  of  humus  is  helpful.  Planted  sugar 
orchards  are  rare  and  sutler  from  sun  scald  and  from  hardening 
soil. 

173 


SYLVIOULT  L  RE. 

I".  Naval  stores: 

No  means  are  known  tending  to  increase  the  production  of 
naval  stores.     The  best  yield  i>  obtained  from  healthy,  large  trees. 

G.  Rubber  and  guttapercha. 

H.  Truffles  and  champignons. 

I.  Gingseng    i  Alalia  quinquef olia) : 

Gingseng  grows  in  the  Alleghanies  in  well- sheltered  north  and 
northwest  coves  of  greatest  fertility.  The  young  roots  are  easily 
transplanted  into  nursery  beds.  The  cultivation  of  ginseng  in  the 
woods,  however,  is   not   practicable. 

J.  Sumach  leaves: 

The  leaves,  used  for  tanning  on  a  large  -rale,  are  gathered  on 
abandoned  fields  in  Virginia.  No  care  seems  to  be  devoted  to  the 
reproduci  ion. 

K.  Pharmaceutical  weed-: 

A  large  number  of  forest  weeds  bav<  a  pharmaceutical  value 
and   might   be    locally   propagated  and  fostered. 

L.  Peat   bogs: 

Peat  bogs  reproduce  themselves  where  the  top  layer-  only  are 
taken  oil'  periodically.  Small  benches  are  left  between  the  pits 
utilized. 

M.  Fish   and  game: 

In  the  Prussian  stale  forests,  twelve  per  cent  of  the  annual 
revenue  is  obtained  from  hunting  and  fishing  leases.  Private  owners 
in  the  Adirondacks  and  in  the  Smith  draw  large  revenue  from 
leasing  the  exclusive  privilege  of  bunting  and  fishing.  For  par- 
ticulars regarding  the  raising  and  nursing  of  Fish  and  Game  see 
lectures  on  "Fish  and  Game  Keeping." 

Paragraph  LXXIX.     Combination  of  sylviculture  and  agriculture. 

As  the  woodlol  belongs  to  the  farm  30  does  the  farm  embraced 
by    woodland   belong  to   the   forest. 

Strange  as  it  sounds:  The  forester  abroad  i-  sometimes  charged 
with   the  administration  of  more   farmland  than   of  woodland. 

A  fair  practical  knowledge  of  agriculture  is  indispensable  for 
the   administrator  of    forests.     Truly   agricultural   land  within   the 

foresl    -i Id  he  cleared  in  due  course,  in  pursuance  of  the  maxim 

that   every  acre  of  ground  must    lie  placed    under  the    (permanently) 
most    remunerative  industry. 

The  foresl  farm  produces  victuals  for  the  lumber  camp  and 
forage  for  the  tennis  and  yokes:  it  yields  the  best  possible  tilt' 
lanes. 

174 


SYLVICULTURE. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
a  local,  permanent  or  temporary  combination  of  sylviculture  and 
agriculture  is  frequently  indicated,  in  coppice  forests  as  well  as  in 
high  forests,   in  cultured  forests  as  well  as  in  culled  forests. 

A.  Reasons  prompting  the  forester  to  adopt  "agriculture"  may 
lie  in  the  following  moments: 

I.  Frequently  it  due-  not  pay  to  eradicate  the  ••weed-"*  in  the 
forest  previous  to  artificial  or  natural  regeneration  by  n.  s.  r.  In 
such  cases,  the  forester  may  take  advantage  of  the  fertility  stored 
up  in  the  humus,  using  it  for  a  number  of  year-  for  the  production 
<>f  field  crops  and  freeing  the  soil  incidentally  from  competing  weeds. 

II.  similarly  the  forester  i-  often  at  a  loss  to  save  his  regen- 
erations from  the  attacks  of  wild  or  tame  animal-.  Allowing  the 
plantation-  to  pass  their  earliest  youth  in  the  midst  of  farm  crops 
which  pay  for  the  expense  of  protection  from  animal-  by  imme- 
diate return-,  protection  tor  the  plantations  i-  obtainable  at  a 
reduced  charge. 

III.  The  fertility  stored  away  in  the  accumulated  humus,  al- 
though exhaustible  within  three  or  four  year-,  frequently  furnishes 
a  snug  revenue  (especially  where  farmland  i-  scarce,  a-  in  all 
mountain  districts)  defraying  the  outlay,  or  part  of  the  outlay, 
required   for  successful   reforestation. 

IV.  In  the  prairie-,  agriculture  must  precede  the  tree  plantation, 
which  will  not  thrive  in  -oil  devoid  of  porosity.  The  plantation  of 
trees,  on  the  other  hand,  will  protect  the  farm  from  drought  in 
summer  and  from  high  wind-  during  winter:  it  will  shelter  the 
stock  during   severe   blizzards,  etc. 

Henry  von  Cotta,  a-  early  a-  1819,  advocated  plantations  of 
trees  in  row-  twelve  feet  to  fifty  feet  apart,  the  intervening  spaces 
to  be  used  for  agriculture.  The  trees  and  the  row-  were  to  lie 
decimated  gradually,  and  were  again  to  be  reinforced  in  compliance 
with   the   requirements   of  the  farm. 

Cotta's  plan  might  he  successful  where  drought  i-  to  he  dreaded 
during  summer,  scorching  the  grass  meadow  and  the  grain  field. 

B.  Modern   application : 

I.  Field  crop-  intervening  between  two  generations  of  the  forest. 

All  over  the  pineries  of  the  South  where  abandoned  fields  pro- 
duce splendid  polewoods  of  Pine,  the  woods  are  cut  at  the  thirtieth 
to  sixtieth  year  of  the  trees:  the  -oil  is  then  used  for  the  produc- 
tion of  corn,  cotton  or  small  grain  for  a  number  of  years  and 
thereafter  allowed  to  revert  to  Pine  planted  by  n.  s.  r.  from  adjoin- 
175 


S  Y  LVlCTJ  I.T  I    RE. 

ing  woods.     The  same  system  is  followed  by  thousands  of  farmers 
in  the  old  country. 

II.  Field  crops   temporarily   raised  amongst    and   together   with 

forest  crops. 

a.  In   coppice    forests: 

In  Germany,  the  owners  of  coppice  woods,  after  coppicing,  fre- 
quently burn  tlie  debris  on  the  ground,  ploughing  the  soil  roughly 
thereafter  and  using  it  for  growing  small  grain  or  potatoes  as  long 
as  the  fresh  stool  shoots  do  not  overshadow  the  farm  crops  too 
severely. 

This  system  allows  the  farmer  to  continuously  (although  inter- 
mittently i  produce  field  crops  on  steep  slopes  liable  to  wash,  with 
the  help  of  fertility  furnished  by  the  humus  and  by  the  activity 
of  the  tree  roots. 

0.  In  high  forests: 

1.  In    the    early    stages    of    sylviculture,    acorns    and    pirn ids 

were    frequently    planted    (like    red    clover)    with    barley,    oats    or 
summer  rye.     Compare  Par.  XV  for  details. 

•2.  Sir  1).  Brandis  has  established  in  Burmah  a  system  named 
"  toun.Lrya  *'  by  which  seedlings  of  Teak,  planted  with  rice  by  native 
lessees  on  government  reserves,  obtain  protection  from  wild  animals 
and  tires  as  well  as  from  the  Bamboo  threatening  to  suffocate  the 
seedling-. 

3.  A  similar  system  has  been  practiced  since  1810  in  the  German 
Rhine  valley  where  splendid  polewoods  of  \\hite  Oak  have  thus 
been  raised.  Here  in  years  past  the  returns  from  toungya  used  to 
more  than  cover  the  expense  of  forest  planting  and  protecting.  The 
field  crops  shade  the  *)ak  slightly  and  tend  to  protect  it  from  the 
effect  01  late  frosts  as  well  as  from  the  attacks  of  grub  worms 
(Melolonthidae). 

1.  hi  Western  X.  ('..  the  expense  of  clearing  the  forest  for 
field  crops  amounts  to  ten  dollars  or  twenty  dollars,  according  to 
the  density  of  the  growing  stock  and  according  to  the  yield  derivable 
from    the   sale   of  timber  removed. 

<  »n  g 1  forest   soil  a  few  year-  of  corn  crops  are  apt  to  refund 

tl utlay   incurred    for  clearing. 

Thereafter  the  Pines  the  (inks.  the  Yellow  Poplars  and  the 
Ashes  of  the  adjoining  wood-  will  quickly  produce  a  superior  plan- 
tat  [on  of  t  rees. 

Where  the  -oil  i-  stocked  with  tree  weeds,  and  where  no 
immature    tree-    mu-t    he    sacrificed,    the    system    can    be    strongly 

endorsed. 

170 


SYLVICULTURE. 


Alphabetic  index 


A  PAGE 

Acclimatization    of    trees 18 

Acorns,    planting    of 50 

Advance  growth  types 118 

Advance    growth    compartment    type 120 

Advance  growth  group   type , 121 

Advance    growth    selection    type 123 

Advance  growth  strip  type 121 

Agriculture  in  the   forest 174 

Air  and  tree  growth 8 

Air  in   soil 12 

Alder,   planting   of    seedlings 82 

Aider,  planting  of  seeds • 52 

Alemann's  method  of   winter- storage 51 

Alemann's    planting    spade 67 

Alpine  forest   24 

Altitude  and   tree  growth 37 

Ash,  high  forest  of 152 

Ash,    planting    of    seedlings S3,  80 

Ash,    planting    of    seeds 53 

Atlantic  forest    18 

B 

Bacteria  in  soil 1G,  17 

Ball    planting    68 

Barth's    planting   beak 67 

Basswood,   high    forest   of 150 

Basswood,  planting  of  seeds 55 

Bastard   forms  of  types   of  enesar 87 

Beech   coppice    161 

Beech,  high   forest  of 149 

Beech,  planting   of  seedlings 87 

Beech,  planting  of  seeds 52 

177 


INDEX. 

PAGE 

Biermans'  nursery  mei  hod    s|> 

Biermans'  spiral  spade  66 

Birchj  planting  of  seedlings 82,  ^s 

Birch,  planting   of  seeds 51 

Blue  spruce,  planting  of  seedlings 91 

Borggreve   thinnings    132 

Buckeye,  planting  of  seeds 54 

Bunch-planting    01 

Buttlar's  nursery  method 80 

Buttlar's    planting   iron 07 

C 

Catalpa,  planting  of  seedlings 83,  s; 

cherry,   planting   of    seedlings 84,  >7 

Cherry,  planting  of   seeds 56 

Chestnut   coppice    1G1 

Chestnut   coppice    under    standards 170 

Chestnut,  high  forest  of 147 

Chestnut,  planting  of   seedlings 82 

Chestnuts,    planting    of    seeds 51 

Cleared  compartment    type  of  enesar loo 

Cleared  group  type  of  enesar lot 

(  leared   selection    type 105 

Cleared  strip  type  of  enesar 102 

Cleaning     165 

Commercial    nurseries     72 

Coning  of  seeds 44 

Coning,  statistics  of 45 

Coppice  forest   1  ~>4 

Coppice    under    standards 163,   166,  168 

Corkoak    industry     172 

Cottonwood    coppice    162 

Culled    forms    127.  128,  158,  164 

Cultivation    oi   nurseries 7'.) 

Cultivation  of  plantations 70,  72 

Cultured    forms 136,   140.  14  1.  L45,  159,  L67 

( iylinder  spade    08 

D 

Density    of    cover    overhead 2S 

Density  of  stand 27 

178 


INDEX. 

PAGE 

Dependent   species    2(i 

Depth   of   soil 13 

Dominant,   dominated    29,  30 

Douglas   fir,   planting   of   seedlings 86,  92 

E 

Eclaircies  par  le  haut 132 

Ecological   fa  ctors    S 

Elm.  planting  of  seedlings 83 

Elms,  planting  of  seeds 53 

Englemann's   .Spruce,   planting  of   seedlings 91 

Evenaged    forms     141 

Evenaged    wood    .'!() 

f 

Fall    planting    69 

fertilizing  in   nurseries 75 

final  cuttings   112 

final    stage     112 

firs,  planting  of   seedlings       85,  91 

Firs,  planting  of   seeds 56 

Floral  zones   11 

Food   in    the    soil 13 

Forest  gardens 74 

Forest  pas!  ure    170 

Forest  regions  of  I '.  S IS 

Forms  of  coppice  foresl 158,  159 

forms  of  high  foresi 136,  14:: 

fruit-raising    in    the    inns) 173 

G 

( lenesis  of  high    forest 41 

Gum,    planting  of    seeds 50 

Grafted  forms   137 

(iron]),   definition    of ' 25 

II 

Hair-dressing    of    groups L 15,  122 

Seat  and  tree  growth 10,  38 

Heat     in    soil 13 

Hemlock   .planting  of   seedlings 80,  93 

Hemlock,  planting  of  seeds 59 

179 


i  x  l)  E  \. 

PAGE 

Hickories,  planting  of  seeds 54 

Hickory   coppice    1G1 

Hickory,  high  forest   of 148 

Hickory j  planting  of  seedlings 84,  89 

Horizontal  distribution  of  species 30 

Humus    14,  1G 

I 

Improvement   cutting 127,   129,   157.  ir>-"> 

Intolerant   species 32,   22,  24 

J 

•  lack    Pine,   planting  of   seedlings 85,  90 

L 

Larch,  planting  of  seeds 59 

Latitude  and   tree   growth 37 

Lawson's  Cypress,  planting  of  seedlings sii.  92 

Lawson's  Cypress,  planting  of  seeds GO 

Layering    156 

Leaf   canopy    16 

Leaf-mosaic    9 

Light    and  tree  growth 8,  39 

Light-demanders 32,  33,  34 

Liu  lit -demanding  leaves    9 

Linden,  planting  of  seedlings 87 

Linden,    planting    of    seeds 55 

Locust   coppice    161 

Locust,  planting  of  seedlings 87 

Locust,  planting  of  seeds 54 

Al 

Manteuffel's    nursery    method so 

Maple,  high  forest  of 151 

Maple,    planting    of    seeds 53 

Maple,  planting  of  seeds 53 

Messmates,  classification  of 29 

Messmateship,  degree  of 25 

Mexican  forest    20 

Mixed  woods 34,  35,  40 

Mixed   woods,  advantages  of 35 

Mixed  woods,   disadvantages   of 30 

180 


INDEX. 

PAGE 

Mixed  woods,  rules  for  mixing 36 

Moisture    and    tree    growth 10,  38 

Mound  planting    68 

Mycorrhiza    15 

N 

Natural  seed  regeneration    after   lumbering 99 

Natural  seed  regeneration,   difficulties   of 94 

Natural  seed  regeneration,    help    to 95 

Natural  seed  regeneration,   methodology   of 97 

North   American    Sylva 17 

Nurseries    72,  84 

Nurseries,  protection  in 78 

O 

Oak  coppice    1 60 

Oak    coppice   under   standards 170 

( >ak.   high    forest   of 146 

Oaks,   planting   of   seedlings 81 

( inks,  planting  of  seeds 50 

<  teier  culture   162 

<  )vcr\vood     163 

P 

Pacific  forest   21 

Pasture 110.    114.    120.  120 

Pedagogy  of  coppice  foresl 157.  158 

Pedagogy  of  coppice  under  standards 164 

Pedagogy  of  high  foresl 127 

Planting,  advisability  in   U.  S 41,  42 

Planting  dagger    66 

Planting   hammer    6/ 

Planting,  historically    41 

Planting  in   furrows  and   in   holes 65 

Planting   in    prairies 71 

Planting    in    squares,    triangles,    quadrilaterals 61 

Planting   under    sod-cover 67 

Pollarding    158,  159 

Prairie  planting    71 

Preparatory   cutting    109 

Preparatory  stage    109 

Primeval   forest    14'i 

181 


INDEX. 

PAGE 

Primeval   forms    136,  137 

Protection    of    seed    plantations 49 

Pruning 127,  130,  158,  165 

Pure    woods     25,  34 

Purpose   of   regeneration   in   America 126 

Q 

Qualities   of  soil 14.  39 

Quality  of  soil  and  its  influence  on   number  of  trees 27 

Quantity  of  seed  required   per  acre 47 

R 

Red  Cedar,  planting  of  seedlings 86,  93 

Red  Cedar  (Thuja  plicata  I,  planting  of  set  ds 60 

Regeneration   of  aristocrats   and   of   mob 125,  141 

Reinforcing  . . 49 

Rootpruning  7s 

Rootsuckers    156 

Rotation    29 

Rotation    of   crops : 15 

Rotation  of  forest  crops 127 

Ruling   species    25,  26 

S 

Sassafras,  planting  of  m  edlings 84 

Sassafras,  planting  of   seeds ')'■> 

Sea  -,  m    for    planting    seedlings 09 

^Season  for  seed   planting 48 

Second  growth  forms 130 

Seebaeh's    modified    high    forest 143 

Seeding   cutting    110 

Seeding  stage    110 

Seed,  indications   of   good    qualities   of 42,  43 

Seed-planting    43,   46,  48 

Seedlings,  age,  size  and  number  of 63 

Seedlings,  criteria  of  good 62 

Seedlings   from   wildwoods 72 

Seedlings,   lifting   of 64 

Seedlings,  planting  of 60,  65 

Seedlings,    transportation    of 64 

Seed-planting   in   nurseries 70 

Seed-planting  in  rills  or  broadcast 70 

182 


I  X  I)  E  X. 

PAGE 

Seed,  quantity  required  pei   acre                                        '          ...  47 

Seed    tests    43 

s 1  years   42 

Selection    type    105 

Shadebearei  -   32,  ::::.  :;  t 

Shade-bearing    leaves                             9 

Bhelterw 1   compartment    type                              108 

Shelterw 1   group    type 115 

Shelters 1  selection  type                                                      .......  117 

Shelterw 1    —  T 1-  i  1  •    type..                                                  114 

Shelterwood    types    106 

Sitka  Spruce,  planting  "i  Beedlinga  9] 
Size-classes  -t    trees 

Snow  ami  t grow  t  li 

Sod-ashes  ;., 

Soil,   air   and    water    111                                                                                       ...  12 

Soil-covers    ...  15 

Soil,  heal  and   t" I  in                                                                       ...  13 

Soil-species    . ...  13 

Speed  of  foresl  extension  1 1 

Spring  planting  69 

Spruce,   high    foresl    ..i                                                                   .  152 
Spruce,   planting   "t    Beedlinga 

Spruce,  planting  <>i  seeds  57 

Standards                                                                             1 13,  139,  1 12 

Struct  lire   of    -"il                                                                                         ...  12 

Stump-planting,    advantages    of                                                    ...  60 

Stumpshoots    155 

Subtropical    foresl                                                                      19,   20,  21 

Summer  temperature  and   tree  growth                  37 

Suppressed    29 

T 

Tanbark    i;i 

Thinnings 127.  130,  136,  lii". 

Tolerant   Bpecies ::2.  ::::.  .".I 

Two-storied  coppice  159 

Two-storied   high   foresl 139,  1 12 

Toungya 12.;.  17. ; 

Transplanting    in    nurseries 7S 

Trimming    in    nurseries 79 

Types    of   enesar 07 

• 


IND  E  V 

U  VM.V. 

Qnderplanting    127.  130 

Underwood   163 

Ushergrowl  h    49 


Vendibility  influencing  the  form 138 

W 

Wagener  thinnings    133 

Walnut,  high   forest  of 149 

Walnut,  planting  of  seedlings 84,  87 

Walnuts,    planting    of    seeds 51 

Wartenberg's   planting  iron 67 

Water   in   soil 12 

Weapons  of   species  in   struggle   for  existence ■ 2G 

Wedded   forms    1 38 

Weeding 127,    128,   157,  165 

Weeding  in  nurseries 79 

White  Pine,  high   forest   <»f 153 

White  Pine,  planting  of  seedlings 85 

White  Pines,  planting  <>f  seeds r 58 

Willow    coppice    lt>2 

Wind  and  tree  growth ' 11,  39 

Wintering  of  acorns 51 

Y 

yellow  Pine,  planting  of  seedlings 84,  90 

Yellow  l'ines.  high  forest  of 153 

Yellow  Poplar,    planting    of    seedlings 83. 

Yellow  Pines,  planting  of  seeds 57 

yellow  Poplar,  high    forest   of 150 

Yellow  Poplar,  planting  of  seeds 56 


1S4 


UM 


LECTURES   ON 
FOREST  POLICY 

By  C.  A.  SCHENCK,  Ph.D. 


Director  of  the    Biltmore    Forest    School,    and    Forester    to    the 
Bilrmore  Estate,   N.   C. 


Second       Part 


FORESTRY    CONDITIONS    IN    THE 
UNITED    STATES." 


Biltmore  Forest  School, 

Directors'  Office. 

Biltmore,  N.  C,  January  I,  1904. 

Dear  Sir — My  lectures  on  Forest  Policy  appear  in  print,  pri- 
marily, for  the  benefit  of  the  students  attending  the  Biltmore  For- 
est School.  Forestal  text-books  fit  for  American  use  not  being 
available,  I  have  been  forced,  for  a  number  of  years,  to  lengthily 
dictate  the  essence  of  my  lectures. 

The  following  pages  merely  record  the  dictation.  They  are 
not  intended  for  public  sale. 

I  most  sincerely  request,  dear  sir,  that  you  may  lend  me 
your   aid   in   checking  and  correcting  the   data   concerning  your 

State,  namely,  ,  given  on  page f.  f., 

so  that  this  little  volume,  duly  filed  and  controlled  by  collabora- 
ting friends,  may  thereafter  publicly  appear,  in  a  better  garment 
and  improved  contents,  for  the  benefit  of  the  American  student 
of  forestry. 

Thanking  you  for  any  kindness  that  you  may  deem  fit  to 
show  me  in  connection  with  the  improvement  of  my  lectures  on 
''Forest  Policy,"  I  am,  dear  sir, 

Most  truly  yours, 


LECTURES  ON  FOREST  POLICY 


By  C.  A.  SCHENCK,  Ph.D. 

Director   of  the    Biltmore    Forest    School,    and    Forester  to   the 
Biltmore    Estate,    N.  C. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  ALABAMA: 

i.  Area:  38,300  square  miles,  or  74%  of  total  area,  are 
wooded. 

2.  Physiography:  The  Cumberland  Mountains  force  the 
Tennessee  River  into  Alabama,  where  it  forms  a  huge  curve.  The 
Appalachian  Mountains  send  a  double  chain  of  mountains,  in  a 
northeast  to  southwest  direction,  from  Chattanooga  to  Birming- 
ham. Tombigby  River  and  Alabama  River  join  just  before  emp- 
tying into  Mobile  Bay.  Chattahoochee  River  on  Georgia  line. 
Southern  section  of  State  undulating,  swamps  alternating  with 
slightly  elevated  dunes.  Mountains  near  Birmingham  bear  coal 
and  iron. 

3.  Distribution:  The  southern  third  of  the  State  is  oc- 
cupied by  long  leaf  and  Cuban  pine;  the  former  on  dry,  the 
latter  on  wet  land.  Four  large  isolated  tracts  of  long  leaf  pine 
(unaccompanied  by  Cuban  pine)  in  the  northern  half  of  State.  Taeda 
occurs  all  over  the  State  in  varying  proportion,  accompanying 
here  long  leaf,  there  echinata  or  hardwoods.  Echinata  is  found, 
generally,  outside  the  region  of  Cuban  pine  and  does  not  proceed 
to  the  coast.  Best  stumpage  of  echinata  on  upland,  with  oak 
undergrowth.  Pine  stumpage  estimated,  in  1880,  to  be  21  billion 
feet  b.  m.  Enormous  cypress  swamps  along  the  rivers.  Outside 
the  long  leaf  pine  sections,  the  hardwoods,  notably  black,  Span- 
ish and  post  oak,  prevail  in  number,  but  not  in  importance.  In 
the  curve  of  the  Tennessee  River,  the  southernmost  sentinels  of 
the  fine  hardwood  and  red  cedar  forests  once  typical  for  Tennes- 


FOREST     POLICY. 

see.     In  the  mountain  section,  the  flora  of  the  Cumberland  plateau 
(see  under  Tennessee),  with  some  little  white  pine  and  hemlock. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  525  firms  own  1,224,000  acres  of 
forest.  The  federal  government,  State  railroads  and  homestead- 
ers are  the  chief  owners. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Destructive  lumbering  only  of  recent 
date.  Huge  deserts  are  nowhere  left  by  the  lumber  jack,  as  is  the 
case  in  the  lake  States.  No  pine  resists  fire  better  than  long  leaf. 
Cuban  pine  is  protected  by  its  position.  The  industry  threaten- 
ing ruin  to  the  forests  is  the  turpentine  industry,  which  leaves 
only  taeda  intact.    The  output  of  the  saw  mills  was  in 

1880    $  2,700,000 

1890   8,500,000 

1900    12,900,000 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

Yellow  pine 1.012,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  conifers  32,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  oak   61,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods   44,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Total    1,149,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Mill  investments  average  $5,251  with  1,087  mills.  Logs  on 
stump  are  worth  $1.20,  at  mill  $4.30  per  1,000  feet  b.  m.  Cooper- 
age stock  production,  in  1900,  is  valued  at  $200,000;  miscellaneous 
sawn  products  at  $400,000;  shingles,  notably  cypress  shingles,  at 
$460,000.     In  1885,  the  naval  store  industry  yielded  $851,000. 

Leather  industry  surprisingly  large,  producing,  in  18  tan- 
neries, $1,098,000  worth  of  leather  and  using  18.651  cords  of  oak 
bark,  worth  $62,628. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry:     None. 

6.  Forestry  movement:     None. 

7.  Laws:  Fire  laws  of  1852,  against  wilful  or  negligent 
firing.  Firing  turpentine  orchards  is  under  a  fine  of  $100  to 
$1,000,  or  punishable  with  hard  labor  for  not  more  than  12  months. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  89  acres  of  land  were  irrigated,  in  1899,  for 
tiuck  farming. 

No  rice  fields  enjoyed  irrigation. 

4 


FOREST     POLICY. 

FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  ALASKA: 

i.  Area:  The  total  area  of  Alaska  is  590.000  square  miles. 
The  area  of  woodlands  can  scarcely  exceed  60,000  square  miles. 

2.  Physiography:  The  territory  of  Alaska  forms  a  square, 
traversed  by  the  east  and  west  course  of  the  Yukon  River  and 
framed  by  the  ocean  on  three  sides,  with  two  appendages,  namely: 

(a)  In  the  S.  \Y.,  the  Aliaskan  Peninsula,  with  Kadiak 
and  Apognak  Islands. 

(b)  In  the  S.  E.,  the  mountainous  coastal  belt,  60  miles 
wide  by  500  miles  long,  with  over  1,000  islands  (notably  Sitka 
Island)  fronting  the  coast. 

Mt.  McKinley,  in  the  Alaskan  Range,  lying  somewhat  south 
of  the  center  of  the  territory,  20,464  feet  high,  is  drained  by  the 
Kuskokwim  River.  The  Kuro  Shiwo  causes  abundant  (60  inches 
to  160  inches)  rainfall  and  high  atmospheric  along  the  southern 
coast.  Eternal  snow,  however,  lies  above  the  2,000-foot  contour 
line,  even  in  the  coast  range  and  St.  Efias  Mountains.  The  moun- 
tains are  beset  with  the  hugest  glaciers  on  earth,  outside  the  polar 
region.  Short  growing  season.  Geologically,  Alaska  is  one  of 
the  latest  portions  of  the  continent. 

3.  Distribution:  The  south  coast,  east  of  Kadiak  Island, 
shows  splendid  coniferous  forests,  stocked  with  Sitka  spruce,  bal- 
sam fir  (grandis?)  hemlock,  red  cedar  (Thujaplicata)  and  yel- 
low cedar  (Chamaecyparis  Nutkaensis).  Amongst  the  hardwoods, 
cottonwood  alone  reaches  commercial  size.  Sitka  spruce  pene- 
trates, in  stunted  form,  to  the  Arctic  Circle. 

The  hills  of  the  lower  Kuskokwim  River  have  little  wood; 
heavy  spruce  forests,  however,  exist  on  the  mountain  slopes  of  its 
upper  course,  whilst  the  valleys  exhibit  splendid  summer  prairies. 

The  northwestern  hills  are  bare.  Woodlands  are  found 
along  the  west  coast  up  to  Norton  Sound. 

Arctic  tundra — a  treeless  plain  full  of  ponds  and  swamps — 
extends  from  the  Yukon  northward  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Dwarfed 
spruces  and  willows  dot  it  far  to  the  north. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  Practically  all  woodland  belongs  to 
the  federal  government,  though  the  Russian  Greek  Church  may 
own  comparatively  small  tracts.  Lack  of  surveys  prevents  land 
entries. 

5.  Use    of   timber:      Most    lumber    is    imported    from    the 


FOREST    POLICY. 

Pacific  States.  Coal  (sulphurous)  is  found  in  many  places,  re- 
stricting the  consumption  of  wood.  The  population  scarcely  ex- 
ceeds, in  1902,  90,000,  of  which  two-fifths  are  native. 

Yellow  cedar  is  used  by  the  natives  for  huge  dugout  canoes. 
The  bark  of  the  balsam  fir  is  employed  for  tanning.  The  com- 
mon local  timber  tree  is  the  knotty  Sitka  spruce,  used  for  house 
building,  mine  props,  sledges  and  firewood. 

The  large  output  of  the  fish  canning  industry  (over  51,000,- 
000  lbs.  salmon  in  1899)  requires  packing  crates  and  slack  barrels. 

The  12th  census  reports  a  cut  of  6,500,000  feet  b.  m.  lum- 
ber, mostly  spruce,  valued  at  $90,000.  Much  unlawful  cutting  on 
vacant  timberland. 

6.  Forestry  movement:     None. 

7.  Laws:     None. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Apognac  Forest  and  Fish  Culture 
Reservation  lies  north  of  Kadiak  Island  and  comprises  403,640 
acres. 

The  Alexandria  Archipelago  Forest  Reserve  covers  4,506,240 
acres. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY   CONDITIONS  OF  ARIZONA: 

1.  Area:  16,000,000  acres,  or  22%  of  entire  area  of  Terri- 
tory, are  reported  under  forest. 

2.  Physiography:  Arizona  consists  of  a  high  plateau,  5,000 
feet  elevation,  sloping  gently  towards  Gulf  of  California,  inter- 
sected in  northwest  by  the  Grand  Canon,  and  diagonally  traversed 
from  the  northwest  to  the  southeast  by  a  chain  of  mountain 
ranges,  many  tops  of  which  rise  to  10,000  feet  elevation.  This 
chain  drains  towards  west  into  the  Rio  Gila  and  towards  east 
into  the  Little  Colorado,  both  of  which  are  tributaries  of  the 
Colorado  River.  The  rainfall,  especially  during  the  summer 
months,  often  evaporates  before  reaching  the  ground.  Streams 
are  frequently  smaller  at  the  mouth  than  at  the  head,  due  to  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere. 

3.  Distribution:  Below  3,500  feet  elevation  occur  deserts, 
with  cactus,  yucca  and  agave.  The  river  canons  are  deeply  cut 
into  the  plateaus  and  are  fringed  with  broad-leaved  species,  i.  e., 


FOREST    POLICY. 

cottonwoods,  willows,  alders,  ashes,  hackberries  and  cherries. 
The  foothills  around  the  deserts  show  scattered  scrub  pines; 
scrub  oaks  occur  notably  on  the  hillsides;  Mesas  exhibit  stunted 
oaks  and  pines.  Above  5,500  feet  elevation,  open,  park-like  for- 
ests occur,  notably  of  yellow  pine  (ponderosa),  which,  in  the  San 
Francisco  Mountains  near  Flagstaff,  are  said  to  form  the  largest 
pure  pine  forest  in  the  world.  Trees  are  short,  branchy  and  sappy. 
On  the  northern  slopes,  at  about  6,500  feet  elevation,  occurs 
Douglas  fir.  The  Rocky  Mountain  white  pine  (P.  flexilis)  and 
foxtail  pine  (P.  balfouriana)  are  found  at  similar  elevations  in 
the  San  Francisco  Mountains.  Above  them,  large,  often  pure 
forests  of  Arizona  cypress  (Cupressus  Arizonica).  At  the  timber 
line,  after  Fernow,  Engelmann's  spruce  and  Arizona  cork  fir 
(Abies  Arizonica)  occur. 

The  plateau  north  of  the  Colorado  Canon  is  almost  tree- 
less. 

A  large  number  of  coniferous  species  peculiar  to  Arizona 
are  found  in  the  southern  part  of  the  diagonal  chain.  Here  the 
forest  forms  narrow  stretches  of  fringe  at  altitudes  exceeding 
7,000  feet  elevation.  The  best  known  mountain  ranges  are  the 
Bradshavv  Mountains,  with  25  square  miles  of  forest,  the  lower 
slopes  dotted  with  nut  pines  (monophylla  and  edulis). 

The  Mazatzal  Mountains  contain  about  70  square  miles  of 
forest  (yellow  pine,  white  pine.  Douglas  fir,  white  fir). 

The  White  Mountains  contain  about  100  square  miles  of 
forest.  Here,  near  the  natural  bridge,  a  splendid,  almost  pure 
forest  of  Arizona  cypress  occurs. 

The  Chirihahua  Mountains  contain  160  square  miles  of  for- 
est, a  strip  four  miles  wide  and  forty  miles  long.  The  Arizona 
pine  (Pinus  Arizonica)  and  the  Chirihahua  pine  (Pinus  Chiriha- 
huana),  further,  the  Mexican  pine  (Pinus  cembroides)  and  a  white 
pine  (Pinus  strobiformis)  are  additions  to  the  tree  flora  in  these 
southeastern  mountains,  which  otherwise  consists  of  yellow  pine 
(ponderosa).  white  pine  (flexilis),  Douglas  fir  and  California 
white  fir  (Abies  concolor).  Between  the  deserts  and  forests  there 
is  invariably  found  a  belt  showing  pinons  and  scrub  oaks.  Tim- 
ber species  are  generally  wanting  on  mountains  less  than  7,000 
feet  high. 

4-  Forest  ownership:  The  United  States  reserves  aggre- 
gate, in  1002,  6.740,000  acres.  Large  Indian  reservations,  notably 
the  Moqui  and  Navajo,  in  the  northeast  and  in  the  White  Moun- 


FOREST    POLICY. 

tains.     Lumbermen  own  409,000,000  feet  b.  m.  yellow  pine  stump- 
age  on  202,000  acres. 

5.  Use:  Most  prominent  use  of  the  forest  is  that  for  cat- 
tle and  sheep  pasture.  Forest  fires  do  little  damage,  forests  being 
open.     Sheep  grazing  in  the  reserves  from  April  until  December. 

Output  of  lumber  industry  in  1900  was  36,250,000  feet  b.  m., 
worth  $547,000.  Log  stumpage,  $1.03.  Saw  logs  at  mill,  $7.50. 
Only  14  saw  mills,  with  average  capital  of  $26,000.  No  pulp  or 
leather  industry.  Mining  industry,  near  Prescott,  obtains  sup- 
plies from  the  Bradshaw  Mountains.  Saw  mills  turn  out  largely 
yellow  pine  ties.  Percentage  of  i's  and  2's  in  the  lumber  net 
over  7%. 

6.  The  forestry  movement  in  Arizona  is  nill. 

7.  Laws:  Forest  fire  laws  punish  negligent  or  wilful  firing 
as  a  misdemeanor. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Grand  Canon  forest  reserve  is  not 
a  forest  reserve  proper.  It  contains  forest  only  south  of  the 
Colorado.    It  occupies  1,851,520  acres. 

The  Prescott  forest  reserve  covers  423,680  acres;  the  Black 
Mesa  forest  reserve  4,658,880  acres.  The  latter  extends  to  the 
New  Mexico  line,  forming  a  narrow  belt  of  forest  at  high  ele- 
vations. 

The  San  Francisco  Mountain  forest  reserve,  with  Flagstaff 
in  the  center,  lies  between  the  Grand  Canon  and  Black  Mesa  re- 
serves and  contains  1,975,310  acres.  This  reserve  will  be  imoor- 
tant  for  lumbermen  in  the  near  future. 

In  April,  1902,  the  Santa  Rita  forest  reserve  of  387,300  acres 
was  created.  In  July,  1902,  there  were  created  three  new  re- 
serves, namely: — 

Mt.  Graham  forest  reserve  (118,600  acres); 

Santa  Catalina  forest  reserve  (155,520  acres); 

Chirihahua  forest  reserve  (169,600  acres). 

All  reserves  lie  on  the  diagonal  mountain  range  referred  to, 
and  are  well  selected. 

9.  Irrigation:  In  1900,  190,000  acres  of  farm  land  were 
irrigated.  Area  is  small,  owing  to  irregularity  of  precipitations 
and  lack  of  steady  supply.  The  necessity  and,  at  the  same  time, 
the  opportunity  for  farms  irrigated  from  storage  reservoirs  is 
great. 

8 


FOREST    POLICY. 

Some  tribes  of  Aborigines  have  irrigated  their  farms  long 
before  the  advent  of  the  whites. 

Irrigation  in  the  Salt  River  Valley,  near  Phoenix,  shows 
results  similar  to  those  obtained  in  southern  California.  Fruits 
put  on  the  market  slightly  earlier  and  freight  rates  to  the  east 
slightly  better,  give  Arizona  a  certain  advantage  over  California. 

The  value  of  the  irrigation  works  constructed  is  $4,400,000; 
the  value  of  the  irrigated  products  $2,200,000  (anno  1809). 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  ARKANSAS: 

1.  Area  of  woodlands  45,000  square  miles,  equal  to  84%  of 
the  State.     Probably  maximum  percentage  amongst  the  States. 

2.  Physiography:  Undulating  plains.  Ozark  Mountains 
traverse  northwest  corner  of  the  State  in  a  belt  80  miles  wide 
and  from  1,000  to  2,000  feet  high.  Arkansas  River  traverses  State 
from  west  to  east,  joined  by  the  White  River  close  to  its  junction 
with  the  Mississippi.  Red  River  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
State. 

3.  Distribution:  Forest  everywhere.  A  small  tract  of 
prairie  in  east  central  part  of  State.  South  of  the  Arkansas  River 
and  west  of  the  Mississippi  bottom  lands  gigantic  virgin  forests 
of  pine  occur  (echinata  and  taeda  mixed,  the  former  prevailing 
on  pine  ridges,  the  latter  prevailing  on  pine  flats).  Both  pine 
species  sold  under  the  name  of  "short  leaf  pine."  Stumpage  of 
both  species  very  heavy,  say  6.000  feet  b.  m.  per  acre.  Sargent 
estimated,  in  1880,  the  stumpage  of  short  leaf  pine  at  41,315,000,- 
000  feet  b.  m.  per  acre.  Bald  cypress  found  in  vast  swamps  in  the 
bottom  lands  of  the  rivers.    Stumpage  about  5,000  feet  to  the  acre. 

The  hardwoods  prevail  north  of  the  Arkansas  River  and 
all  along  the  Mississippi;  further,  in  the  bottoms  of  the  Red 
River.  Here  the  trees  are  said  to  be  unsurpassed  in  size.  Black 
walnut  is  said  to  be  particularly  abundant  in  the  valley  of  the 
Red  River.  The  leading  hardwoods  are  white  and  red  oaks,  cot- 
tonwoods,  sweet  gum,  black  gum,  yellow  poplar,  beech,  ash,  hick- 
ories, cow  and  texan  oak.  Pinus  echinata  shows  some  important 
bodies  north  of  the  Arkansas  River  as  well,  whilst  taeda  is  here 
lacking. 

The  composition   of  the   forest   at   Pine   Bluff,  after   F.    E. 

9 


FOREST    POLICY. 

Olmsted,  on  an  average  acre,  excluding  trees  of  under  12  inches 
diameter,  is  as  follows: — 

On  Pine   Land.  In  Hardwood  Bottoms. 

Echinata    5.9  trees  Hickory    5.8  trees 

Taeda   5.3  trees  Cow  oak  48  trees 

White  oak    3.8  trees  White   oak    3-5  trees 

Post  oak  3-3  trees  Holly    2.1  trees 

Black  Oak   07  trees  Ash    1.3  trees 

Gum    2.1  trees  Basswood    0.6  trees 

Spanish   oak    1.2  trees  Post  oak   0.2  trees 

Hickory    0.8  trees  Pines  1.2  trees 

Miscellaneous    0.7  trees  Miscellaneous    1.5  trees 

Apparently  the  pines  form  little  over  half  of  the  growing 
stock  on  pine  lands.     Hardwoods  not  marketable  on  pine  land. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  28%  of  the  hardwood  land  is  re- 
ported attached  to  farms.  517  lumber  firms  own  1,497,000  acres, 
of  6,700  feet  b.  m.  average  stumpage. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Logs  on  stump  are  worth  $1.09,  and  logs 
at  mill  $4.74- 

Logging  in  the  pine  woods  by  cattle  and  high  wheel  trucks, 
or  by  donkey  engines.  Mill  investments,  for  738  mills  reporting, 
are  $9,224  on  an  average.  The  lumber  industry  has  grown  very 
rapidly  of  late — more  so  in  Arkansas  than  in  any  other  State  of 
the  Union. 

In  1880  the  lumber  output  was  valued  at.  . .  .$  1,800,000 
In  1890  the  lumber  output  was  valued  at.  . . .  8,900,000 
and  in  1900  the  lumber  output  was  valued  at.  30,000,000 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

Cypress  108,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Yellow  pine  1,1 13.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Cottonwood    11 7,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Red  gum    61,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  oak   226,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods   40,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Forests  are  little  used  for  pasture,  other  than  hog  pasture. 
The  railroad  freight  consists  largely  of  lumber  and  timber. 
Three  small  tanneries.     No  pulp  or  paper  mills. 


FOREST    POLICY. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  "To  get  rid  of  the  lumber"  is  the 
only  demand.  Conservative  lumbering  attempted  near  Pine  Bluff, 
since  cut-over  pine  land  is  scarcely  salable. 

7.  Laws:    The  usual  fire  laws  are  unobserved. 

8.  Reservations:  None,  excepting  a  military  reserve  at 
Hot  Springs. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  CALIFORNIA: 

1.  Area:  28,600,000  acres  of  forest,  equal  to  22%  of  area 
of  State.  I 

2.  Physiography:  The  Valley  of  California,  drained  by 
Sacramento  from  the  north  and  San  Joaquin  from  the  south,  and 
embraced  by  Coast  Range  and  Sierra  Range,  opens  towards  bay 
of  San  Francisco.  Towards  the  south  the  Coast  Range  emits 
irregular  sentinels,  notably  the  Santa  Lucia  Mountains,  San  Ga- 
briel Mountains,  San  Bernardino  Mountains,  rising  up  to  10,000 
feet  elevation.  Deserts  along  the  Nevada,  Arizona  and  Oregon 
line. 

3.  Distribution:  California  excels  in  the  number  of  conif- 
erous species,  the  variety  of  forest  growth  depending  on  the 
peculiarities  of  her  climate.  Rain  winds  in  southern  California 
are,  strange  to  say,  northeast  winds.  Rainy  season  begins  in  Sep- 
tember, preceded  by  three  or  four  months  of  drought.  Coast 
Range  contains  no  commercial  forests  south  of  Santa  Cruz. 
Water  courses  deep  seated,  torrents  in  winter,  mere  threads  in 
summer,  unfloatable. 

Immediately  along  the  ocean  shore,  stunted  conifers  only 
grow.  Above  shore  belt,  the  famous  redwood  belt  of  the  Coast 
Range,  consisting  of  Sequoia  sempervirens.  The  redwood  belt 
extends  from  the  Oregon  line  southward  to  Santa  Cruz;  it  is 
composed  of  large,  pure  redwood  forests,  exhibiting  greatest 
stumpage  of  any  tree  per  acre.  Accompanying  redwood  are  found, 
principally,  Douglas  fir,  yellow  pine,  sugar  pine,  incense  cedar, 
tideland  spruce  and  three  firs  (Abies  grandis,  magnifica  and  no- 
bilis),  which  run  up  to  the  crest  of  the  range.  The  coniferous 
woods  are  intersected  with  tracts  where  chestnut  oak  and  madrona 
(Arbutus  Menziesii)  dot  the  brush  covered  slopes.  The  east  slope 
of  the    Coast    Range,    towards    the    Sacramento   Valley,    shows   a 

11 


FOREST     POLICY. 

scattering  growth  of  pines  and  oaks,  often  imbedded  in  brush 
thickets. 

The  bottom  lands  of  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Rivers 
have  a  park  like  growth  of  huge  oaks,  which  are  now  rapidly  re- 
moved by  the  farmers. 

Ascending  the  Sierras  from  the  west  we  find  the  lowest 
belt,  below  2,000  feet  elevation,  to  consist  of  gray  (digger  or  nut) 
pine  (Pinus  sabiniana),  the  favorite  nut  tree  of  the  Indians,  occur- 
ring in  very  open  growth,  alternating  with  oaks  and  the  knob 
cone  pine  (Pinus  attenuata),  which  regenerates  only  under  the 
influence  of  fire. 

The  typical  tree  of  the  next  higher  belt,  from  2,000  to  4,000 
feet  elevation,  is  the  nutmeg  tree  (Tumion  Californicum),  which  is 
found  along  the  borders  of  streams.  The  hillsides  show  a  com- 
paratively poor  growth  of  pine  and  fir,  the  Douglas  fir  being  fre- 
quently of  the  "yellow"  variety. 

Above  this  zone,  from  4,000  to  10,000  feet  elevation,  extends 
the  famous  timber  belt  of  the  Sierras.  Rainfall  is  50  to  60  inches. 
Typical  for  the  California  Sierras  is  the  lack  of  any  woody  under- 
growth on  the  ground.  The  soil  is  covered  with  a  growth  of 
flowering  weeds.  Imbedded  in  this  belt  are,  island-like,  ten  groves 
of  the  big  trees  (Sequoia  gigantea).  This  species,  unlike  its  sis- 
ter, the  redwood,  never  grows  in  pure  forests.  The  companions 
are  Douglas  fir,  sugar  pine,  yellow  pine,  incense  cedar  and  firs 
(Abies  magnifica  and  concolor). 

At  elevations  ranging  between  3,000  and  8,500  feet,  incense 
cedar  frequently  replaces  the  big  tree.  On  old  burns,  lodge  pole 
pine  is  found  in  pure  stands.  Amongst  the  nut  pines,  the  one-leaf 
pine  is  highly  thought  of  by  the  Indians.  In  addition,  there  oc- 
cur the  bull  pine  (Pinus  Jeffreyi)  and  the  big  cone  pine  (Pinus 
Coulteri). 

The  highest  belt,  reaching  up  to  the  timber  line  at  12,000 
feet,  is  the  home  of  the  firs  proper.  Here  the  red  fir  (Abies  mag- 
nifica) and  the  white  fir  (Abies  concolor)  prevail.  Timber  line 
itself  shows  the  Alpine  hemlock,  young  trees  of  which  are  buried 
in  snow  all  winter.  Pinus  monticola,  the  white  pine,  is  said  to 
excel  in  power  of  resistance  to  storms.  The  limber  white  pine 
(Pinus  flexilis)  and  the  white  bark  pine  (Pinus  albicaulis)  are 
also  found.  Two  typical  species  for  this  zone  are  the  foxtail  pine 
(Pinus    Balfouriana)    and   the   bristle   cone  pine   (Pinus   aristataV 


FOREST    POLICY. 

In  addition,  twisted  pine  (Pinus  contorta)  occurs  on  high  moun- 
tain pastures. 

Crossing  to  the  east  slope  of  the  Sierras,  the  growth  soon 
gets  poorer,  for  lack  of  rain.  Only  pine  species  are  found  here, 
especially  lodgepole  pine,  yellow  pine  and  bull  pine.  Close  to 
the  Nevada  line  desert  growth  only  occurs,  such  as  mesquit  and 
yucca. 

In  southern  and  southwestern  California  there  are  scarcely 
any  commercial  forests.  Along  the  Arizona  and  Nevada  line  the 
Mohave  desert  and  Colorado  desert  cover  millions  of  acres.  The 
plains,  close  to  the  sea  and  rivers,  have  dense  groves  of  willows 
and  sycamores.  Majestic  oaks  occur  scatteringly  in  the  river 
valleys.  In  addition  there  are  huge  cottonwoods.  On  the  edges 
of  the  deserts,  in  slight  depressions,  two  Prosopis  species  are 
found,  i.  e.,  mesquit  (Prosopis  juliflora)  and  screw  bean  (Pro- 
sopis odorata).  Pihons  or  nut  pines  are  also  found.  The  Cal- 
ifornia palm  (Washingtonia  filifera)  is  found  in  canyons  opening 
toward  the  deserts.  In  the  deserts  themselves  are  scattering  yuc- 
cas. Ascending  the  mountain  ranges  the  trail  winds  through  end- 
less chaparral  thickets,  dotted  with  live  oaks  and  scrub  pines 
(piiion).  Forests  occur  at  high  altitudes  on  the  Sierra  Madre. 
San  Bernardino,  San  Gabriel,  Cuyamaca  and  San  Jacinto  Moun- 
tains. Here  prevail  yellow  pine,  Coulter's  big  cone  pine,  big 
cone  fir  (Pseudotsuga  macrocarpa),  white  fir  (concolor),  in  com- 
pany with  sugar  pine,  incense  cedar,  lodgepole  pine  and  limber 
white  pine.  In  the  semi-arid  zone  reaching  up  to  the  5,000-foot 
contour  line  are  at  home  juniper,  single  leaf  pine  and  gray  pine, 
whilst  the  moister  slopes  and  canyons,  or  the  water  courses,  ex- 
hibit live  oak,  sycamore,  walnut,  alder,  willow  and  cottonwood. 
The  bristle  cone  fir  (Abies  venusta),  a  large  fir  of  the  canyons, 
seems  unique  in  the  Santa  Lucia  region. 

4.  Ownership:  Farmers  are  said  to  own  1.673,000  acres 
of  forest  land.  The  United  States  forest  reserves  cover  8,800,000 
acres;  the  United  States  parks  1,100.000  acres;  both  together 
about  one-third  of  all  the  forests  and  8.6%  of  the  area  of  the 
State.  According  to  the  last  census.  156  lumber  firms  control 
1.177,000  acres  of  forest  land,  mostly  situated  in  the  Coast  Range, 
and  containing  one-sixth  of  the  timber  of  the  State. 

5.  Use:  There  is  scarcely  any  hardwood  fit  for  cooperage, 
carriage  works  and  furniture.  Firewood  is  costly  in  southern 
California.     Large  lumber  operations  are  conducted  on  the  Coast 

T3 


FOREST    POLICY. 

Range  only,  supplying  South  America  and  the  far  east.  Here  a 
yield  of  1,000,000  feet  b.  m.  per  acre  is  amongst  the  possibilities. 
Logging  is  done  by  railroad  and  donkey  engines.  Commercial 
species,  aside  from  redwood,  are  sugar  pine,  Douglas  fir,  incense 
cedar  and  red  fir  (Abies  magnifica).  Redwood  is  said  to  furnish 
the  best  tank  material  and  railroad  ties,  if  tie  plates  are  used. 
From  the  Sierras,  lumber  is  exported  into  Nevada  and  Arizona 
for  the  use  of  the  mines. 

The  Alpine  meadows  of  the  Sierras  offer  good  pasture,  but 
are  said  to  suffer  severely  from  sheep  pasture.  Regeneration  in 
Sierra  belt  is  said  to  be  poor,  no  undergrowth  being  at  hand.  On 
old  clearings,  near  mines,  sugar  pines  and  yellow  pines  are  said 
to  show  a  good  second  growth. 

The  tannin  industry  of  California  occupies  the  tenth  rank 
among  the  States,  using  during  the  last  census  year  36,123  cords 
of  chestnut  oak  bark,  valued  at  $16  per  cord.  Production  is 
largely  sole  leather. 

The  paper  and  pulp  industry  is  nill,  five  plants  having  died 
during  the  last  decade. 

The  products  of  the  lumber  industry  were  worth: — 

In  1850 0.9  million  dollars. 

In  1870 5.2  million  dollars. 

In  1890 8.8  million  dollars. 

In  1900 13.8  million  dollars. 

The  total  cut  in  the  census  year  was  only  864  million  feet 
b.  m.,  drawn  from  a  growing  stock  of  36  billion  feet  b.  m.,  owned 
by  private  individuals.  Log  stumpage  is  worth  $1.16.  Logs  at 
mill  are  worth  $4.63.  California  leads  in  the  use  of  traction  en- 
gines, which  are  employed  on  undulating  ground.  The  mill  es- 
tablishments are  large,  next  in  size  to  those  of  Minnesota  and 
Wisconsin,  the  investments  averaging  $29,300.  Eucalyptus  planta- 
tions are  made  in  the  timberless  regions  of  the  south  to  obtain 
posts  and  firewood.  Species  recommended  are:  Eucalyptus  globu- 
lus, rostrata,  viminalis,  corynocabyx,  leucoxylon. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  California  has  been  sensible  of  the 
dangers  threatening  from  forest  destruction  and  forest  fires,  since 
agriculture  depends  largely  on  the  possibility  of  irrigation,  safe- 
guarded by  forests.  A  State  Board  of  Forestry  was  established 
in  1885,  drawing  a  good  appropriation,  writing  some  valuable  re- 

14 


FOREST    POLICY. 

ports  and  establishing  some  experiment  stations.  In  1891,  polit- 
ical decrepitude  caused  the  board  to  lose  its  foothold.  A  promi- 
nent member  of  the  board  was  Abbot  Kinney.  To  him  is  due 
the  introduction  of  Eucalyptus. 

The  tree  botany  of  the  State  has  been  advanced  by  J.  G. 
Lemmon.  The  California  legislature  has  memorialized  the  United 
States  government  to  set  aside  all  forests  for  reserves.  When, 
in  1897,  all  western  reservations  were  opened  to  pasture  by  Bin- 
ger  Hermann,  the  California  senators  opposed  the  move  and  se- 
cured exemption  for  their  State.  At  the  university  of  South-Cal- 
ifornia a  forestry  school  was  established  in  1899.  The  Sierra  Club 
(John  Muir,  President)  and  the  California  Water  and  Forest  As- 
sociation (since  1898)  are  taking  up  the  work  of  the  defunct  State 
board.  Sheep  owners  are  the  only  people  in  California  opposing 
the  forest  reserve  policy. 

7.  Laws:  The  usual  fire  laws.  The  State  Board  of  For- 
estry demanded  of  Congress,  but  in  vain: — 

(a)  The  temporary  repeal  of  the  timber  and  stone  act. 

(b)  A  law  providing  for  sale  of  stumpage  only  from  for- 
est land,  the  government  retaining  the  fee  simple  rights.  State 
law  of  1903  appropriates  $15,000  to  assist  the  Bureau  of  Fores- 
try in  a  canvass  of  the  forest  resources. 

8.  Reservations:  The  total  area  reserved,  in  1902,  is  8.8 
million  acres.  The  reserves  are  well  selected,  covering  the  tops 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  high  mountain  ranges  of  the  south. 
No  reserves  on  the  Coast  Range. 

The  Sierra  forest  reserve,  aggregating  4,096,000  acres,  lies 
south  of  the  Yosemite  National  Park,  is  about  200  miles  long  by 
50  wide  and  comprises  the  Sequoia  National  Park,  General  Grant 
National  Park  and  Mount  Whitney  Military  Reservation.  North 
of  the  Yosemite  National  Park  lies  the  Stanislaus  forest  reserve, 
covering  691,200  acres.  The  Lake  Tahoo  forest  reserve,  of  136,335 
acres,  is  the  only  reserve  drained  by  the  Sacramento.  The 
highest  summits  of  the  Sierras  are  in  the  reserves.  85%  of 
the  reserves  are  timbered  and  15%  are  covered  with  snow  or  gla- 
ciers.   70%  of  the  85%  have,  however,  suffered  from  fire. 

The  southern  reserves  form  links  in  a  long  chain  running, 
approximately,  east  and  west,  and  consist  of  the 

Pine  Mountain  and  Zaca  Lake  forest  reserve  (1,644,594 
acres). 

IS 


FOREST    POLICY. 

San  Gabriel  Timberland  reserve  (155,520  acres). 
Santa  Ynez  forest  reserve  (145,000  acres). 
San  Bernardino  forest  reserve  (737,280  acres). 
Trabuco  Canon  forest  reserve  (109,920  acres). 
San  Jacinto  forest  reserve  (668,160  acres). 

The  reserves  were  established  solely  to  protect  the  water 
supply.  The  brush  thickets  occupy  from  50%  to  90%  of  the  re- 
served tracts. 

The  Yosemite  National  Park  comprises  the  Yosemite  Val- 
ley, which  was  ceded  to  California  by  Congress  in  1854,  and  is 
now  in  charge  of  three  commissioners  said  to  be  lacking  in  good 
taste. 

9.  Irrigation:  Value  of  products  from  irrigated  land  ex- 
ceeds those  in  any  other  State.  The  average  size  of  the  irrigated 
farms  is  75  acres.  Cost  per  acre  of  irrigation  system  is  $16.80 
and  average  yearly  cost  is  $1.70.  In  1903  the  State  appropriates 
$45,000  to  assist  federal  departments  in  mapping  and  surveying 
reservoirs  and  in  studying  methods  of  water  distribution. 

The  "district  law"  of  1887  causes  great  ease  in  bonding  ir- 
rigation districts,  and  hence  throws  heavy  burdens  on  the  irriga- 
tionists.     Many  of  the  bonds  issued  are  now  worthless. 

The  irrigation  systems  were  constructed  at  an  expense  of 
$19,200,000. 

Irrigation  in  the  north  is  rather  the  exception.  In  the  south 
it  forms  the  rule.  Along  the  Sierra  streams,  water  is  lavishly  used. 
In  the  south,  the  greatest  economy  prevails. 

Shipments  of  oranges  raised  in  the  south,  in  1899,  were 
$7,000,000  in  value. 

In  1899,  1,600,000  acres  were  irrigated.  Value  of  irrigated 
crops  was  $33,000,000. 

Irrigation  prevails,  where  the  precipitations  and  the  flow- 
age  of  streams  are  least;  on  the  other  hand,  where  there  is  no 
danger  from  frost. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  COLORADO: 

1.  Area:     33.500  square  miles  of  woodland,  or  32%  of  the 
area  of  the  State. 

2.  Physiography:     The  105th  meridian  separates  the  eastern 

16 


FOREST     POLICY. 

third  from  the  western  two-thirds  of  the  State.  The  eastern 
third  is  a  treeless  plateau,  falling  from  6,000  to  4,000  feet,  towards 
the  Kansas  State  line.  Little  rainfall.  The  central  third  of  the 
State  is  the  crest  of  the  continent  and  is  covered  with  irregular 
ridges  rising  up  to  14,000  feet  elevation.  From  here  the  South 
Platte  and  Arkansas  Rivers  run  east;  the  Rio  Grande  south;  the 
tributaries  of  the  Colorado  River  (the  Green,  White,  Grand  and 
San  Juan  Rivers)  west;  the  North  Platte  river  north. 

The  western  third  of  the  State  is  a  high  plateau,  intersected 
by  high,  detached  mountain  ranges  and  peaks.  Large  parks  are 
characteristic  of  this  mountain  section.  In  winter  the  snow  at 
Durango,  in  the  southwest,  is  said  to  be  six  feet  deep.  The  rain- 
fall west  of  the  crest  is  much  greater  than  east  of  the  crest. 

Forest  fires  have  played  more  havoc  in  Colorado  than  in 
any  other  State. 

3.  Distribution:  The  central  crest  is  sparingly  timbered 
with  yellow  pine,  lodgepole  pine,  limber  white  pine  and  foxtail 
pine.  Engelmann's  spruce,  usually  associated  with  balsam  (lasio- 
carpa),  yields  the  best  logs  and  must  be  considered  the  main 
timber  tree  of  Colorado.  It  is  found  at  elevations  ranging  from 
X.000  to  12,000  feet.  On  moist  sites,  forests  are  formed  by  Colo- 
rado blue  spruce  and  the  gray  modest  variety  of  Douglas  fir,  fol- 
lowed by  quaking  aspen  after  devastation.  All  over  the  foothills 
pinon  dots  the  ground  (edulis),  often  replaced  by  the  one-seeded 
juniper.  Along  the  rivers,  a  fringe  of  hardwoods  (especially  cot- 
tonwoods,  box  elder  and  ash)  is  found.  The  best  timber  is  said 
to  stand  in  the  southwest.  It  seems  that  the  western  third  of  the 
State  has  some  timber  everywhere,  although  it  is  not  heavily 
timbered  anywhere.  Lodgepole  pine  is  the  prevailing  species  in 
the  parks.  The  Rocky  Mountain  oak  (Quercus  undulata)  forms 
brushy  thickets  on  all  exposures.  Rivers  fringed  with  cotton- 
wood,  box  elder,  elm  and  ash. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  Most  forest  land  belongs  to  the  fed- 
eral government.  Lumbermen  own  92,000  acres  only.  44.000 
acres  of  forest  are  said  to  be  attached  to  farms.  One-seventh  of 
the  wooded  area  is  reserved. 

5.  User  The  forest  is  subservient  to  irrigation  and  mines. 
Majority  of  cut  is  yellow  pine.  Total  cut  in  census  year  was 
135,000,000  feet  b.  m.,  worth  $1,627,000.  Stumpage  of  yellow 
pine  on  best  holdings  8.000  feet. 

17 


FOREST     POLICY. 

Logs  on  the  stump  are  worth  $1.12  per  thousand;  at  mill, 
$4.99.  There  are  155  saw  mills  of  $3,883  average  investment,  59 
of  which  are  said  to  control  671,000  feet  b.  m.  stumpage.  Mineral 
products  of  the  State  are  worth  $30,000,000  annually.  Stock  pas- 
ture plays  a  very  important  part. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Colorado's  constitution  is  the  only 
constitution  emphasizing  forestry.  State  forestry  association  since 
1884.  Various  attempts  to  transfer  custody  of  the  United  States 
forests,  for  protective  purposes,  to  the  State.  Irrigationists 
strongly  in  favor  of  reserve  policy. 

7.  Laws:  In  1885  a  State  forest  commissioner  and  "forest 
conservators"  (justices  of  the  peace  and  county  commissioners) 
for  the  protection  of  forests.  Fire  law  notices  to  be  kept  posted 
by  the  conservators.  Law  of  1897  creates  a  Department  of  For- 
estry, Fish  and  Game;  its  forest  commissioner  is  charged  with 
forest  extension,  with  water  preservation  and  with  the  care  and 
records  of  all  woodlands  at  any  time  belonging  to  the  State. 

The  State  agricultural  college  has  four  experiment  stations 
and  offers  a  course  in  arboriculture.  A  law  of  1901  practically 
prohibits  lumbering  on  public  domain  above  irrigation  districts. 
Campers  must  secure  permits.  Non-resident  hunters  must  secure 
"game  and  forest  wardens"  for  guides.  Railroads  are  required 
to  keep  right  of  way  cleared,  to  supply  engines  with  spark  arrest- 
ors,  to  be  responsible  for  damage  by  fire  started  by  locomotive 
sparks. 

The  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  has  the  privilege  of  obtaining 
repair  material  from  United  States  forests. 

8.  Reservations:  The  reserves,  in  1902.  cover  4,849  square 
miles,  which  is  5%  of  area  of  State  and  15%  of  wooded  area  They 
are  well  selected  and  should  be  increased  in  the  southwest. 

The  South  Platte  forest  reserve  (683.520  acres),  Plum  Creek 
tiniberland  reserve  (179,200  acres)  and  Pike's  Peak  timberland 
reserve  (184,320  acres),  north  of  Colorado  Springs,  are  extremely 
valuable  for  mines  and  irrigation  purposes.  They  contain  little 
merchantable  timber,  due  to  cutting  and  burning. 

The  Battlement  Mesa  forest  reserve  contains  858.240  acres; 
the  White  River  forest  reserve,  1,129,920  acres.  These  two  reserves 
drain  towards  the  Colorado  River.  The  standing  live  timber  of 
these  two  reserves,  after  Sudworth,  consists  of  the  following 
stumpage.  in  million  feet  b.  m.: — 

18 


FOREST    POLICY. 

In  White  River  reserve:  Spruce,  930;  balsam,  310;  aspen, 
too:  lodgepole  pine,  50;  Douglas  fir,  25. 

In  Battlement  Mesa  reserve:  Spruce,  112;  balsam,  37;  as- 
pen, 65. 

9.  Irrigation:  The  products  of  irrigation  are  forage  crops 
and  coarse  grain  staples;  further,  cantaloupes,  peaches,  potatoes. 

Farming  depends  entirely  on  irrigation.  On  the  South 
Platte  and  Arkansas  Rivers  irrigated  farming  is  highly  developed, 
handicapped  in  its  progress  by  private  ownership  of  water  stor- 
age at  the  headwaters. 

The  irrigated  area  of  Colorado,  1,611,000  acres,  exceeds 
that  of  all  other  States.  The  value  of  the  irrigated  products  was, 
in  1899,  $15,100,000.  The  irrigation  system  constructed  cost  $11,- 
700.000. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  CONNECTICUT: 

1.  Area  under  forest,  1,900  square  miles,  or  39%  of  the 
State,  are  classed  as  woodland. 

2.  Physiography:  The  Connecticut  River  traverses  the 
State  centrally,  running  north  to  south.  Low  mountains  and 
hills  stretching  in  the  same  direction  show  rugged  and  stony  slopes. 

3.  Distribution:  The  primeval  woods  are  extinct.  A  third 
or  fourth  growth  of  coppiced  chestnut,  oak,  birch,  ash,  elm,  hick- 
ory, basswood  and  cottonwood  forms  the  woodlands,  mixed  with 
white  pine  said  to  readily  reproduce  on  old  fields  and  wood  lots. 
The  usual  coppice  rotation  is  30  years. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  50  mill  firms  own  9,195  acres  of  for- 
est. Average  stumpage  is  said  to  be  9,200  feet  b.  m.  (?)  90% 
of  the  woodlands  are  attached  to  farms. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Stumpage  costs  $2.90;  logs  at  mill,  $7.88 
per  1,000  feet  b.  m.  187  saw  mills,  mostly  along  the  rivers,  report 
an  average  investment  of  $3,567.  The  output  of  the  lumber  indus- 
try is  rising  in  value. 

In  i860 $    572,000 

In  1880 1,076,000 

In  1900 1,118,000 

19 


FOREST    POLICY. 

The  cut  in  1900  aggregated  107,600,000  feet  b.  m.,  in  which 
white  pine  participates  with  23,800,000  feet  b.  m.;  chestnut  with 
64,500,000  feet  b.  m.  The  coppice  woods  produce  large  quantities 
of  fuel. 

Leather  industry:  The  output  of  7  tanneries  is  valued  at 
$891,000.  It  consumes  495  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth  $3,810; 
133  cords  of  oak  bark,  worth  $1,041;  3.516  barrels  of  bark  extract, 
worth  $37,909;  205  bales  of  gambier;  494  barrels  of  quebracho; 
in  tons  of  sumac,  and  chemicals  worth  $1,791. 

In   1900,  50,000  hides  and  300.000  sheep   skins   were   tanned. 

The  output  of  the  paper  industry  is  valued  at  $3,565,000.  No 
cord  wood  is  used;  only  rags,  waste  paper,  manilla,  imported  pulp 
and  imported  fiber. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Some  interest  is  manifested  in  plant- 
ing waste  sand  land.  The  Connecticut  forest  association  is  pre- 
sided over  by  the  State  forester. 

7.  Laws:  Fire  laws  of  1886.  Tax  exemption  on  planta- 
tions made  on  abandoned  fields,  consisting  of  1,200  saplings  6  feet 
high,  for  20  years. 

In  1901  the  office  of  State  forester  (Mr.  Walter  Mulford) 
was  created,  charged  with  the  acquisition  of  waste  land  at  a  price 
not  to  exceed  $4  per  acre.  Appropriation,  $2,000.  Seed  is  to  be 
used  for  planting.  The  expense  of  reforestation  is  not  to  exceed 
$2.50  per  acre.     The  State  pays  taxes  on  her  own  woodland. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  56  farms,  situated  along  brooks,  have  471 
acres  under  ditch;  expense  of  system  $34.21  per  acre. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  DELAWARE: 

1.  Area:  700  square  miles,  or  35%  of  State,  are  wooded. 
Very  little  merchantable  timber  left  after  12th  census. 

2.  Physiography:  Delaware  occupies  the  northeastern  por- 
tion of  the  peninsula  formed  by  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware 
Bays.     Soil  sandy,  slightly  undulating. 

3.  Distribution:  In  the  northern  half  of  the  State  the 
broad-leafed  species  prevail.  Here  appears,  scatteringly  attached 
to  farms,  a  struggling  second  growth  of  oaks,  maple,  poplar  and 

20 


FOREST     POLICY. 

gum.     In  olden  times   "Delaware   white  oak,"   coming  from  this 
section,  was  famous  as  shipbuilding  timber. 

In  the  southern  half  of  the  State,  woodlands  consisting  of 
pines  (mitis;  rigida;  virginiana)  and  broad-leafed  species  predom- 
inate over  the  farms. 

4.  Forest  ownership:     10  firms  own  2,203  acres. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Logs  on  stump  are  worth  $3.52;  at  mill, 
$5-55-  76  saw  mills  report  an  average  investment  of  $3,255.  The 
output  of  the  mills  rises  in  value  from  census  to  census,  in  spite 
of  supplies  reported  as  waning.     It  was  in 

1850  $236,000 

1880  411,000 

1900  471,000 

The  cut  in  the  census  year  consisted  of: — 

Conifers  30,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hardwoods  6,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

After  Fernow,  in  1887,  200,000  cords  of  firewood  were  cut, 
selling  at  $3  to  $4  per  cord.  The  Dupont  Powder  Works  use 
willow  charcoal,  obtained  from  their  own  plantations.  Staves 
and  headings  locally  produced  are  worth  $37,000.  The  local  pro- 
duction of  furniture  and  carriage  stock,   etc.,   is  practically  nill. 

The  leather  industry  is  important,  its  output  (from  20  firms) 
being  $9,500,000  in  the  12th  census  year.  The  product,  however, 
consists  almost  entirely  of  goat  skins.  These  skins  are  not  tanned 
by  the  vegetable  tanning  process,  but  chemicals  (chromium,  alum- 
inum and  other  salts)  are  used.  The  price  of  the  chemicals  con- 
sumed alone  is  $244,000.  The  consumption  of  hemlock  bark 
amounts  to  1,316  cords  only;  that  of  oak  bark  to  300  cords  only. 

The  paper  and  pulp  industry  produces  $600,000  worth  of 
goods.  It  consumes  large  amounts  of  fiber  and  pulp  produced 
elsewhere.  There  are  used,  however,  21,320  cords  of  poplar  wood, 
locally  produced  and  valued  at  $131,467  (for  soda  fiber). 

6.  Forestry  movement:     None. 

7.  Laws:  Delaware  has  excellent  laws  relative  to  the  main 
impediments  to  forestry,  which  are  taxes  and  fires. 

(1)  Property  is  taxed  only  on  its  rental  value.  Hence 
woodland  is  almost  exempt  from  taxation,  the  rents  being  ex- 
ceedingly small. 

21 


FOREST    POLICY. 

(2)  Firing  of  woodlands  is  punishable  unconditionally  and 
everywhere.  The  only  fires  allowed  are  those  kindled  between 
March  10  and  May  1  by  land  owners  intending  to  burn  their 
clearings  previous  to  plowing. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:    None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  FLORIDA: 

1.  Area:  37,700  square  miles,  or  70%  of  State's  area,  under 
forest,  mostly  stocked  with  commercial  timber. 

2.  Physiography:  Southern  section  consists  largely  of 
swamps  and  hummocks,  impassable  from  June  to  October  (Lake 
Okeechobee).  North  of  the  28th  degree  of  latitude,  the  country 
is  level,  rarely  undulating.  Here  the  swamps  are  found  more 
near  the  coast. 

The  western  section  of  the  State,  near  Tallahassee,  is  higher 
than  the  rest  (average  about  250  feet  above  sea  level),  inter- 
cepted with  low  mountain  ranges. 

Frost  is  rare;  the  summer  climate  is  unhealthy  in  the  south. 
The  Everglades  show  from  1  to  3  feet  of  water  even  during  the 
dry  season  of  the  year.  Drought  frequent  from  February  to 
June. 

3.  Distribution:  Sargent  estimates,  in  1880,  the  stand  of 
pine  at  6,615,000,000  feet  b.  m.  A  line  drawn  from  Charlotte  Har- 
bor to  Cape  Malabar  divides  the  State  into  a  northern  three- 
fifths  and  a  southern  two-fifths. 

(a)  Northern  section.  It  contains  long  leaf  and  Cuban 
pine,  with  some  little  Taeda.  Long  leaf  pine,  on  its  way  south, 
loses  continually  in  volume  and  in  quality  of  timber.  Along  the 
shore,  evergreen  oaks,  notably  live  oak,  are  found  in  place  of 
pine;  further,  palmetto  and  scrub  pines.  In  the  western  coun- 
ties, near  Tallahassee,  broad-leafed  species  of  northern  character 
prevail  besides  the  pines.  Large  yellow  poplars,  ashes  and  hick- 
ories occur  here  along  the  water  courses. 

In  the  bottoms,  cypress  and  gum  swamps  are  said  to  scale 
10,000  feet  b.  m.  per  acre.  Evergreen  broad-leafed  species  (mag- 
nolias, oaks,  bays)  fringe  such  swamps.  A  species  peculiar  to 
this  region  is  the  "stinking  cedar"   (Tumion  taxifolium)  and  the 


FOREST    POLICY. 

pencil  cedar,  the  latter  of  splendid  quality  on  hummocks  and  bot- 
tom land.  Palmetto  occurs  everywhere  on  moist  soil  and  aban- 
doned fields  as  a  weed.    There  is  practically  no  echinata. 

(b)  Southern  section.  The  southern  section  has  only  one 
pine,  the  Cuban  pine,  to  show,  which  grows  on  saftd  dunes  in  the 
Everglades.  Cypress  swamps  prevail  everywhere.  Along  the 
coast  and  on  the  "Keys,"  the  northern  sentinels  of  the  West 
Indian  tropical  flora  occur  in  small  specimens.  Their  occur- 
rence is  commercially  unimportant.  Amongst  them  are  mahog- 
any and  lance  wood  (Ocotea  catesbyana  Sarg.). 

4.  Forest  ownership:  113  lumber  firms  own  1.318,000 
acres;  balance  of  forests  belong  to  State,  federal  government, 
farmers  and  holders  of  old  Spanish  land  grants. 

5-  Use  of  timber:  368  saw  mills  of  $16,588  average  in- 
vestment. Logs  on  stump  worth  $1.22,  at  mill  $6.23.  Value  of 
mill  output  was  in 

1880 $  3,100,000 

1890 5.500,000 

icx>o 10,800,000 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of 

Cypress 110,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Yellow  pine 712,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hardwoods ' 2,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Red  cedar  (Virginiana)  output  is  not  given  by  the  12th 
census.  The  largest  pencil  cedar  mills  of  the  world  exist  at 
Cedar  Keys.  Cypress  is  used  for  door,  sash,  shingles,  fish  and 
syrup  barrels;  long  leaf  pine  for  railroad  ties,  car  sills,  trestle 
bridge  timbers,  doors,  blinds,  flooring  and  general  house  build- 
ing purposes,  also  for  shingles.  Value  f.  o.  b.  steamer,  on  an 
average,  now  $14  per  1,000  feet  b.  m.  (in  1895  only  $9). 

Conservative  lumbering  has  been  practiced  along  the  Gulf 
coast  by  lumbermen  for  dozens  of  years,  unknowingly,  since  only 
prime  stumpage  used  to  be  convertible  into  lumber.  Logging 
was  done  in  former  days  by  canals  (which  in  many  cases  were 
20  miles  long),  dug  as  connections  between  trees,  swamps  and 
water  courses. 

No  leather  industry,  although  the  mangrove  (Rhizophora 
mangle)  forests  of  the  tropical  south  might  yield  bark  extremely 
rich  in  tannin. 

23 


FOREST    POLICY. 

No  paper  industry. 

6.  Forestry  movement:     None. 

7.  Laws:  Wilful  firing  of  woodlands  punishable.  Fires 
rare,  after  Sargent,  owing  to  multitude  of  swamps. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  Florida  leads  among  the  humid  States — 
the  rice-growing  States  excepted — in  the  value  of  irrigated  prod- 
ucts and  in  number  of  irrigated  farms  (only  1,485  acres).  180 
truck  farms  (winter  farming)  report  irrigation.  Cost  of  system, 
$101.52  per  acre  (very  high). 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  GEORGIA: 

1.  Area  under  forest  42,000  square  miles,  or  71%  of  total 
area,  containing,  after  12th  census,  mostly  (?)  merchantable  for- 
ests. Sargent,  in  1880,  estimated  stand  of  pine  at  16,800,000,000 
feet  b.  m.,  a  figure  found  much  too  low. 

2.  Physiography:  The  extreme  northwestern  eighth  of  the 
State  is  traversed  by  the  Table  Mountain  and  Alleghany  Ranges, 
spurs  of  which  protrude  to  Rome  and  Atlanta.  Southeast  of  the 
mountains  the  Piedmont  plateau  occupies  two-eighths  of  the 
State,  separated  by  a  line  running  through  Augusta,  Macon  and 
Columbus  from  the  remaining  five-eighths  of  the  State  formed 
by  the  level  or  slightly  undulating  coastal  plain.  The  huge  Okefe- 
nokee  Swamp  lies  in  the  extreme  southeast. 

3.  Distribution:  The  mountainous  section  has  the  species 
of  the  southern  Appalachians,  namely,  white,  red,  scarlet  and 
chestnut  oak;  chestnut,  walnut  and  hickory;  yellow  poplar,  cu- 
cumber, sweet  and  yellow  birch;  cherry,  beech,  locust,  rigid  and 
table  mountain  pine;  also  white  pine  and  hemlock.  In  the  Pied- 
mont plateau,  oaks  and  hickories,  with  or  under  Pinus  echinata 
(usually)  or  taeda.  A  stray  island  of  long  leaf  pine  is  found  on 
the  Alabama  line  in  the  northwest.  The  lowlands  of  the  coastal 
plain  show  long  leaf  pine  on  sandy  soil,  mixed  with  taeda  on 
moister  sites.  Huge  swamps  near  coast  and  rivers  are  stocked 
with  cypress  and  gums.  White  cedar  prefers  the  half-swamps 
Evergreen  broad-leafed  species  (Persca,  Magnolia)  line  the 
swamps.  Cuban  pine  grows  far  inland,  up  to  100  miles  from  shore, 
occupying  the  wet  dells  in  the  long  leaf  pine  woods. 

24 


FOREST    POLICY. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  453  firms  own  1,108,000  acres  of  for- 
est, containing  3,800  feet  b.  m.  average  stumpage.  The  balance 
of  the  wood  lands  belongs  to  farmers,  or  to  counties  and  State 
under  tax-forfeitures. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Long  leaf  pine  was  and  is  frequently  sold 
as  "Georgia  pine."  The  woods  are  far  from  being  exhausted. 
The  inroads  of  the  turpentine  industry  seem  more  injurious  to 
the  perpetuity  of  the  forest  than  those  of  the  lumber  industry. 
1,202  mills  of  $4,274  average  investment.  Logs  on  stump  are 
worth  $1.01;  at  mill,  $4.4t-  Logging  by  railroad  and  by  rafting. 
Value  of  output  in 

i860 $  2,400,000 

1870 4,000,000 

1880 4,900,000 

1890 6,500,000 

1900 13,700,000 

The  cut  of  1900  consisted  of: — 

Yellow  pine   1.295.000,000  feet  b.m. 

Other  conifers  18,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hardwoods    39,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Cooperage  and  miscellaneous  industries  are  small,  their  out- 
put amounting  to  only  $135,000  in  the  census  year. 

The  leather  industry  produces  in  36  establishments  $1,187,000 
worth  of  products  and  consumes  23,217  cords  of  oak  bark  (valued 
at  $87,000);  85  cords  of  hemlock  bark;  5,107  barrels  of  oak  bark 
extract  (worth  $41,000).  and  950  barrels  of  quebracho  extract 
(worth  $16,800). 

Paper  and  pulp  industry:     None. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  In  1887  a  bill  asking  for  a  forest 
commission,  etc.,  seems  to  have  failed. 

7.  Laws:  Firing  of  woods  by  the  owner  must  be  preceded 
by  notice  given  the  adjoining  land  owners  (excepting  the  months 
ot  March  and  April). 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  7,856  acres  of  rice  fields  were  irrigated  in 
1899,  constituting  35%  of  the  total  rice  area  and  yielding  72%  of 
the  total  rice  product.     Cost  of  system,  per  acre,  is  $31.85. 

25 


FOREST    POLICY. 
FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  IDAHO: 

1.  Area:  35,000  square  miles,  or  42%  of  the  State,  are 
wooded. 

2.  Physiography:  Southern  third  is  traversed  by  the  east 
and  west  course  of  the  Snake  River  and  consists  of  barren  plains. 
The  northern,  wedge-shaped  part  of  the  State,  contains  the  moun- 
tainous Coeur  d'Alene  region.  The  Teton  and  Yellowstone 
Ranges  form  the  boundary  towards  Wyoming;  the  Bitter  Root 
Mountains  the  boundary  towards  Montana.  The  mountains  of 
central  Idaho  drain  southward  towards  the  Snake  River,  north- 
ward towards  the  Salmon  River. 

3.  Distribution:  Southern  lava  plains,  destitute  of  timber 
and  vegetation,  except  sage  brush.  The  Salmon  River  Mountains 
are  unexplored  and  contain,  after  Gannett,  little  timber.  The 
Rockies  show  yellow  pine,  Douglas  fir,  lodgepole  pine  and  west- 
ern white  pine.  In  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  Douglas  fir  and 
yellow  pine  prevail  below  6,000  feet  elevation,  lodgepole  pine 
above  6,000  feet  elevation.  In  the  extreme  north  a  dense  forest 
cover,  originally  found,  is  now  badly  burned.  Here  yellow  pine 
and  Douglas  fir  cease  to  be  prevailing;  white  pine  (monticola)  and 
larch  (Larix  occidentalis)  preponderate,  numerically  and  in  vol- 
ume. In  the  Priest  River  Mountains  three  zones  may  be  distin- 
guished. In  the  highest  zone,  above  4,800  feet,  balsam  (Abies 
lasiocarpa)  and  white  bark  pine  preponderate. 

The  zone  between  2,400  feet  and  4,800  feet  is  the  largest  and 
contains  white  pine  and  larch. 

In  the  lowest  zone,  Douglas  fir  is  mixed  with  yellow  pine, 
lowland  fir  and  western  red  cedar.  Lodgepole  pine  is  found  all 
over  the  northern  and  eastern  part  of  Idaho,  taking  advantage  of 
heavy  fires.  Black  hemlock,  lowland  fir  and  Engelmann's  spruce 
also  occur. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  4,147,200  acres  of  forest  land  are 
reserved.  Lumbermen  own  only  84,000  acres  in  the  lowest  zone, 
with  6.900  feet  average  stand  per  acre.  Over  200,000  acres  lie  in 
the  Indian  reserves.  Over  600.000  acres  of  forests  are  attached 
to  farms. 

5.  Use:  Timber  is  mostly  used  for  mining  props.  The 
mill  cut  in  1000  was  worth  $937,000,  and  consisted  largely  of  yel- 
low pine.    The  stumpage  is  worth  $1.09.     Logs  at  mill  are  worth 

26 


FOREST    POLICY. 

$3.95.     114  saw  mills  report  an  average  investment  of  $4,759.     No 
paper,  pulp  or  leather  industries. 

6.  Forestry  movement:    Nill. 

7.  Laws:     Usual  fire  and  camper's  laws.     Arbor  Day  law. 

8.  Reservations:  Bitter  Root  forest  reserve,  meant  to  pro- 
tect irrigation  in  Washington,  contains  4,147,200  acres,  of  which 
690,000  acres  lie  in  Montana. 

The  Priest  River  forest  reserve,  part  of  which  (104,000  acres) 
lies  in  Washington,  comprises  645,120  acres. 

9.  Irrigation:  Only  possible  from  small  feeders  in  outskirt 
valleys. 

The  products  of  irrigation  are  forage  crops  (alfalfa)  and 
small  grain  at  the  higher  elevations  of  4,000  to  5,000  feet;  orchard 
fruit  at  elevations  of  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  notably  along  the  lower 
course  of  the  rivers  (Snake  River). 

The  irrigated  area,  600,000  acres,  has  produced,  in  1899, 
$5,400,000  worth  of  crops  from  irrigation  systems  costing 
$5,100,000. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  ILLINOIS: 

1.  Area:  10,200  square  miles  or  18%  of  area  of  State  are 
classed  as  woodland. 

2.  Physiography:  Gently  rolling  prairies.  Mississippi 
River  on  western  line.  Illinois  River  traverses  State  from  north- 
east to  southwest. 

3.  Distribution:  The  southern  third  of  the  State  once  con- 
tained good  to  splendid  hardwood  forests  stocked  with  the  hard- 
woods of  the  Mississippi  River  Basin,  in  addition  to  cypress 
swamps.  The  northern  two-thirds  are  prairie,  excepting  a  belt 
along  the  lake,  on  which  white  pine  is  sparingly  found.  The 
oak  openings  on  the  prairie  are  stocked  with  burr,  scarlet,  red, 
black  and  post  oaks. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  All  woodland  is  attached  to  farms, 
excepting  162,000  acres  of  4,800  feet  b.  m.  average  stumpage, 
owned  by  167  lumber  firms. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Chicago  is  still  the  most  important  lum- 
ber distributing  center  in  the  United  States,  fed  by  the  pineries 


FOREST    POLICY. 

of  the  Lake  States  and  by  the  hardwood  forests  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley.  There  are  found  in  the  State  825  saw  mills,  of 
$3,815  average  investment,  and  280  large  planing  mills,  of  $25,000 
average  investment.  The  output  of  the  lumber  industry  is  rising, 
being  $5,000,000  in  1880  and  1890,  and  $7,600,000  in  1900.  The  cut 
of  home  grown  timber  in  1900  consisted  of: 

Conifers 138,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Cottonwood 19.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  ook 170,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods 63,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Logs  are  worth  on  stump  $2.64  and  at  mill  $8.36  per  1,000 
feet  b.  m. 

The  leather  industry  has  used  in  the  census  year  18,312 
cords  of  hemlock  bark  (imported)  and  22.846  bales  of  gambier. 
Products  are  valued  at  $7,800,000. 

The  pulp  and  paper  industry  uses  only  864  cords  of  native 
wood,  and  depends  on  straw,  rags,  waste  paper  and  pulp  of  for- 
eign  manufacture  for  its  raw  material. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  None  except  Arbor  Day  and 
bounties   for  prairie   planting. 

7.  Laws:  Firing  of  woods  and  prairies  permissible  only 
from  April  15  to  October  15.  Railroads  liable  for  fires  starting 
from  sparks.     Bounty  of  $10  per  acre  for  forest  plantations. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  INDIANA: 

1.  Area:    After  12th  census,  10,800  square  miles,  or  30%  of 
State,  are  wooded.     No  large  forests  exist. 

After  recent  official  investigations, 
250,080  acres  are  stocked  with  heavy  timber; 
834,506  acres  contain  second  growth,  and 

3.733.456  acres  are  described  as  thin  wood  pasture. 

2.  Physiography:    Undulating  land.     Main  river  is  the  Wa- 
bash.   692,738  acres  are  classed  as  waste  lands  in  1903. 

28 


FOREST    POLICY. 

3-  Distribution:  Prairie  only  in  some  .northern  counties 
where  the  forest  is  said  to  be  expanding.  Entire  balance  of  In- 
d:ana,  ioo  years  ago,  was  heavily  wooded  with  12  species  of  oak 
3  of  elm,  2  of  walnut,  7  of  hickory,  3  of  maple,  3  of  birch,  4  of 
ash,  yellow  poplar,  linden,  buckeye,  black  and  honey  locust,'  dog- 
wood, catalpa,  sassafras,  hackberry,  red  mulberry,  sycamore  iron- 
wood,  chestnut,  beech,  cottonwood,  white  pine,  gray  pine  and 
Virginia  pine,  bald  cypress,  tamarack  and  red  cedar.  All  trees 
show  splendid  bole  development.  The  requirements  of  the  farmer 
and  home  seeker  have  caused  the  forest  to  be  considered  a  mere 
encumbrance  of  the  ground.     Only  small  groves  now  exist. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  162  lumber  firms,  in  1900,  owned 
104.000  acres  of  woodlands.     The  rest  is  attached  to  farms. 

5-  Use  of  timber:  Indiana  leads  the  United  States  in  the 
output  of  wagon  stock  (raw  material),  producing  33%  of  the  en- 
tire output.  In  furniture  stock,  Indiana  is  second  only  to  Ohio. 
One-half  of  Indiana's  manufactures  rely  on  the  forest  for  their 
raw  material.  Log  stumpage  worth  $5.39  (maximum  amongst 
Union  States);  logs  at  mill  worth  $9.39  per  1,000  feet  b.  m.  There 
are  1,829  saw  mills  of  $4,500  average  investment. 

Output  of  the  lumber  industry 

In  1870  was  $12,300,000 

In  1880  was 14,300,000 

In  1890  was  20,800,000 

In  1900  was  20.600,000 

The  cut  in  1900  was: — 

Conifers 3,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  oak 646,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods  . . .  .336,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Toral 985.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

The  leather  industry,  comparatively  small,  produces  $1  - 
500,000  of  leather  and  consumes  700  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  7,000 
cords  of  chestnut  oak  bark  and  5,000  barrels  of  oak  bark  extract. 

The  pulp  and  paper  industries  are  said  to  use  6,300  cords  of 
domestic  (?)  spruce,  10,500  cords  of  Canadian  spruce,  20,300  cords 
of  poplar  and  4,200  cords  of  miscellaneous  woods,  in  addition  to 
29 


FOREST    POLICY. 

a  large  quantity  of  rags  and  straw  (120,000  tons).    39  mills  produce 
$4,200,000  of  paper  products. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Recent,  but  energetic  propaganda, 
influenced  by  John  P.  Brown  (of  Connersville). 

State  forest  association. 

7.  Laws:  Fire  laws  since  1818.  A  unique  forest  reservation 
law  (of  1899)  encourages  private  reserves.  Such  reserves  (which 
must  not  exceed  in  acreage  an  eighth  of  a  tract  individually  owned, 
trees  per  acre)  are  assessed  at  $1  per  acre  only,  whilst  the  aver- 
age assessed  value  of  farm  land,  in  1898,  was  $20.  In  1901  there 
existed  284  private  reserves,  covering  5,312  acres.  Law  of  1901 
creates  a  Board  of  Forestry,  consisting  of  five  members,  one  of 
them  drawing  a  salary  (W.  H.  Freeman).     Its  duties  are: — 

(1)  Collection  of  statistics. 

(2)  Forestry  education. 

(3)  Formulation  of  plans  for  private  and  State  forest  re- 
serves.    Insufficient  appropriations. 

8.  Reservations:  2,000  acres  of  State  forest  reserves  are 
set  aside  by  law  of  1903,  as  a  demonstration  forest  and  for  nur- 
sery purposes. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  IOWA: 

1.  Area:  Area  of  woodlands  is  7,000  square  miles,  equal 
to  13%  of  area  of  State.  Settlement  has  reduced  the  woodland 
area  by  50%.     Planted  forests  said  to  aggregate  120,000  acres. 

2.  Physiography:  Level  or  undulating  land,  extending 
from  the  Missouri  to  the  Mississippi. 

3.  Distribution:  Broad  bottom  lands  of  the  Mississippi 
bore,  and  still  bear  splendid  hardwoods,  the  best  in  the  south- 
eastern section.  In  the  western  prairie  section  the  streams  are 
skirted  with  hardwood  groves  from  one-half  to  4  miles  wide.  Of 
the  northeastern  flora  there  occur  in  the  hardwood  bottoms: 
shag  bark  and  bitternut  hickory;  burr,  red,  black  and  white 
oaks;  green  ash,  hard  and  soft  maple,  box  elder,  basswood,  white 

30 


FOREST    POLICY. 

elm  and  butternut.  From  the  southeast  enter  the  Kentucky  cof- 
fee tree,  honey  locust,  swamp  white  oak,  pin  oak,  laurel  oak,  red 
bud,  Ohio  buckeye,  mocker  nut,  pecan  and  black  walnut.  The 
only  conifers  found  are  white  pine,  scattered  in  extreme  north- 
east, and  red  cedar. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  Practically  all  woodland  belongs 
to  farmers.  43  lumber  firms  own  56,160  acres,  stocked  with 
4,900  feet  b.  m.  on  the  average  acre. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Woodlands  are  used  for  pasture.  Dur- 
ing seasons  of  drought,  young  growth  is  frequently  found  dying. 
The  lumber  industry,  in  addition  to  the  cooperage  industry,  is 
about  to  exhaust  the  fine  hardwoods.  Logs  on  stump  are  worth 
$4.95;  logs  at  mill,  $12.16  (maximum  of  the  United  States).  Still 
there  are  now  left  264  mills  of  $18,885  average  investment.  The 
largest  of  these  mills  are  located  on  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
saw  pine   rafts  coming  from    Minnesota  and  Wisconsin. 

The  value  of  the  sawn  product  in  1870  and  1880  was  $6,000,- 
000;  in  1890  it  was  $12,000,000;  in  1900  it  had  dropped  to  $8,700,000. 

The  output  of  the  mills  in  the  census  year  was  303,000,000 
feet  b.  m.  of  conifers  and  40,000,000  feet  b.  m.  of  hardwoods. 
Since  there  is  but  little  white  pine  found  in  Iowa,  it  seems  as 
if  white  pine,  not  home  grown,  composed  the  bulk  of  the  output 
of  softwoods.  Lumbermen,  however,  are  said  to  still  own.  inside 
the  State,  231,000,000  feet  b.  m.  of  conifers  (?). 

Leather  industry,  none.  Paper  industry  uses  straw  (12,- 
350  tons  of  straw  in  census  year). 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Arbor  Day  since  1874.  Prairie 
planting  still  practiced,  the  favorite  species  being  soft  maple, 
green  ash  and  box  elder.  The  Agricultural  College  at  Ames 
has  given  instruction  in  tree  planting  for  almost  30  years. 

7.  Laws:  Prairie  fire  law.  A  law  exempting  almost 
$6,000,000  worth  of  property  from  taxation,  in  order  to  encourage 
tree  planting,  is  now  repealed. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:     No  data  available. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  KANSAS: 

1.     Area:     5.700   square   miles,   or  7%   of  the   State's   area, 
are  wooded. 

31 


FOREST     POLICY. 

2.  Physiography:  Undulating  prairies.  Arkansas  River, 
from  Colorado,  traverses  the  western  half. 

3.  Distribution:  A  few  yellow  pines  occur  in  the  higher 
ridges  of  the  western  section,  which  is  otherwise  treeless,  ex- 
cept for  the  fringes  of  popiar  and  willow  in  the  river  canyons. 

The  eastern  section  shows  wide  belts  of  hardwood  forests 
along  the  streams,  the  best  timber  being  found  in  the  extreme 
southeast,  where  the  heavy  timbered  outskirts  of  the  Mississippi 
River  hardwood  bottom  lands  appear. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  About  1,000,000  acres  of  forest  are 
said  to  be  attached  to  farms.  Not  quite  8,000  acres  are  owned  by 
22  lumber  firms,  stocked  with  3,500  feet  b.  m.  on  the  average  acre. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Lumber  industry  in  Kansas  has  de- 
clined since  1880,  when  146  establishments  were  cutting  45,000,- 
000  feet  b   m.  of  lumber. 

In  1900  there  were  in  existence  54  mills,  showing  lowest 
average  investment  in  the  United  States,  namely,  $1,070.  Value 
of  product,  $104,000,  against  $683,000  in  1880.  Log  stumpage 
worth  $2.17;  logs  at  mill,  $7.84  per  1,000  feet  b.  m. 

Fuel  and  fencing  are  badly  required  by  the  farmers. 

Lumber  for  building  purposes  obtained  from  the  east  and 
south. 

Paper,  pulp  and  leather  industries:   None. 

6.  Forestry  movement:     Usual  Arbor  Day  enthusiasm. 
The  State  Agricultural  Board  reports  119,000  acres  planted 

in  forest  since   1884. 

Some  of  the  best  catalpa  plantations  are  found  on  rich 
prairie  soil  in  Kansas.  In  1885  the  office  of  Commissioner  of 
Forestry  was  created,  issuing  reports  and  distributing  seedlings. 
The  State  Horticultural  Society  tries  to  centralize  interest  in  tree 
planting  and  issues  a  Tree  Planter's  Manual.  Kansas  City  boasts 
of  employing  a  "Forester." 

7.  Laws:  Bounty  Law  of  1868  is  repealed.  Wilful  firing 
is  fined  $500.  It  is  the  sworn  duty  of  the  justices  of  the  peace 
to   bring  incendiaries  to  judgment. 

8.  Reservations:  94,732  acres  of  sandy  land,  south  of  Ar- 
kansas River,  are  withdrawn  from  entry  to  be  used  for  planting 
trees.     No  presidential  proclamation  issued  so  far. 

9.  Irrigation:  In  the  census  year  24,000  acres  of  land  were 
irrigated  (2,000  acres  from  wells). 

32 


FOREST     POLICY. 


The   irrigated   crop  was  valued  at  $226,000.     The   construc- 
tion expense  of  the  irrigation  system  was  $530,000. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  KENTUCKY: 

1.  Area:     Area  of  woodlands  22,000  square  miles,  or  53%. 

2.  Physiography:  Ohio  River  on  the  north.  Mississippi 
River  on  the  west.  The  Big  Sandy,  tributary  of  the  Ohio  River, 
on  West  Virginia  line.  Cumberland  Mountains  in  the  extreme 
southeast,  giving  rise  to  the  Kentucky  River,  which  runs  north 
into  Ohio,  and  to  the  Cumberland  River.  Undulating  plateau 
well  watered. 

The  Cumberland  Mountains,  where  limestone  formation  pre- 
vails, have  coal  and  iron  mines.  Middlesborough  about  the  center 
of  the  coal   industry. 

3.  Distribution:  Kentucky  •"barrens"  in  the  southwest,  very 
productive  of  tobacco,  hemp  and  grain.  Here  the  pioneers  found 
big  stumps  called  "stool  grubs,"  the  remnants  of  a  splendid  for- 
est, probably  burned  by  the  Indians.  The  black  oak  forest  (black 
jack,  black  post  and  Spanish  oak)  is  gradually  invading  the 
"barrens." 

The  bottoms  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers,  subject  to 
inundations,  exhibit  in  the  swamps  bald  cypress,  sweet  and  black 
gum.  On  very  wet  soil,  cottonwoods,  cow  oaks,  gums,  ashes  and 
hickories  of  splendid  development  occur.  On  somewhat  drier  soil, 
beech,  red  oak,  yellow  poplar,  white  oak  and  burr  oak  prevail. 

In  the  "Blue  Grass  Region,"  gigantic  red  cedars,  walnuts, 
poplars,  hickories,  beeches,  sycamores,  lindens,  locusts,  coffee 
trees  and  white  oaks  have  been  cleared  away,  and  only  groves 
or  fringes  of  these  species  are  now  left.  In  the  mountain  section, 
walnuts,  chestnuts,  chestnut  oaks,  yellow  poplars,  ashes,  hickories, 
three  maples,  locusts,  white,  red  and  black  oaks  of  splendid  de- 
velopment form  the  bulk  of  the  timber. 

The  section  above  the  falls  of  the  Curhberland  River  was 
practically  untouched  as  late  as  1880. 

The  pines  form  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  timber. 
White  pine,  accompanied  by  hemlock,  occurs  at  the  higlfer  alti- 
tudes of  the  Cumberland  Mountains.     Echinata  is  scattered  over 

33 


FOREST    POLICY. 

the  southern  two-thirds  of  the  State,  especially  in  the  east,  never 
forming  pure  forests,  groves  on  abandoned  fields  excepted.  Pinus 
Virginiana  seems  to  develop  unusually  good  boles  in  the  eastern 
half  of  State  and  is  locally  used  for  custom  lumber.  Rigida  is 
found,  like  echinata,  running  up  higher  into  the  mountains. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  208  mill  firms  own  382,000  acres  of 
forest,  having  4,700  feet  b.  m.  average  stumpage.  After  the  12th 
census  this  stumpage  includes  125,500,000  feet  b.  m.  black  walnut, 
which  figure  seems  largely  overestimated. 

5.  Use  of  timber:     The  value  of  the  sawn  product  was  in 

1850 $  1,500,000 

i860 2,500,000 

1870 3,600,000 

1880 4,100,000 

1890 7,900,000 

1900 13,800,000 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

Conifers    34,600,000  feet  b.  m. 

Ash   4,900,000  feet  b.  m. 

Black  walnut  2,100,000  feet  b.  m. 

Poplar    279,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  oak 392,800,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods 63,100,000  feet  b.  m. 

Total  776,500,000  feet  b.  m. 

In  the  census  year  there  were  further  produced  60,000,000 
shingles,  worth  $115,000;  63,000,000  (mostly)  oak  staves,  worth 
$1,042,000;  3,500,000  sets  of  heading  worth  $234,000.  Furniture, 
wagon  and  agricultural  stock  is  valued  at  $1,358,000.  Kentucky 
ranks  6th  in  cooperage  and  8th  in  miscellaneous  timber  indus- 
tries. The  ratio  of  forestry  in  wages,  investments  and  products 
to  all  other  industries,  in  1900,  was  that  of  14  to  100.  1,232  mills 
showed  an  average  investment  of  $4,658.  Logs  are  worth  on 
stump  $2.67,  and  $6.86  at  mill.  Logging  in  mountains  by  oxen; 
elsewhere  by  oxen,  horses  and  mules.  Transportation  largely 
by  raft,  or  loose  driving.  Small  portable  mills  in  tracts  far  from 
rivers  and  railroads.     Big  mills  on  Cumberland  River. 

34 


FOREST    POLICY. 

Leather  industry  yields,  in  1900,  a  product  worth  $3,750,000, 
and  uses  1,080  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth  $9,440;  29,840  cords 
of  oak  bark,  worth  $22,400;  13,300  barrels  of  bark  extract,  worth 
$139,000;  besides  some  quebracho,  gambier  and  sumac. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry  is  insignificant. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Little;  recently  stirred  up  by  Fed- 
eration of  Women's  Gubs.  Berea  College  gives,  through  Prof. 
S.  C.  Mason,  excellent  training  in  conservative  forestry  to  farm 
boys.     Agricultural  reports  allude  to  forestry  and  its  importance. 

7.  Laws:  In  a  number  of  counties  the  firing  of  woods  is 
forbidden.  Constables  are  required  to  extinguish  fires  at  expense 
of  county. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  LOUISIANA: 

1.  Area:  28,300  square  miles,  or  62%  of  the  total  area  of 
the  State,  are  wooded. 

2.  Physiography:  Undulating  land,  alluvial  soil,  river  bot- 
tom lands  subject  to  continuous  inundations.  Mississippi  River 
forms  the  eastern  line.  Red  River  of  the  South  traverses  the 
State  from  northwest  to  southeast.  Sabine  River  is  on  the  Texas 
line;  the  Pearl  River  on  the  lower  Mississippi  State  line.  A  mul- 
titude of  water-courses  form  a  help  to  the  utilization  of  the  for- 
est and  to  the  prevention  of  fires. 

3.  Distribution:  After  the  12th  census,  the  southwest  por- 
tion is  prairie.  Long  leaf  pine  in  two  large  bodies,  separated 
by  the  Red  River,  aggregating  4,300,000  aces  of  densest  stump- 
age  (4,000  to  6,000  feet  and  over  per  acre)  often  untouched.  No 
Cuban  pine.  Echinata  and  Taeda  extend  from  Red  River  north- 
ward to  State  line.  The  former  species  frequently  shows  an  un- 
dergrowth of  Spanish  oak,  black  jack,  post  oak  and  hickories. 
Cypress  grows  in  enormous  swamps,  with  red  gum  and  black  gum. 
Along  rich  bottoms,  evergreen  magnolias,  water  oaks,  red  oaks, 
gums,  cottonwoods,  burr  oak,  white  ash,  pecan,  persimmon,  sas- 
safras and  beech.     In  drier  localities,  cow  oak  and  burr  oak. 

35 


FOREST     POLICY. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  The  State  owns  large  swamp  tracts. 
The  farmers  own  35%  of  all  the  woodlands.  170  lumber  firms 
own  1,500,000  acres  of  6,700  feet  average  stumpage. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  The  use  of  cypress  for  cooperage  was 
large  as  early  as  1880,  when  the  pine  woods  were  still  untouched. 
The  main  center  of  long  leaf  pine  mills  is  now  at  Lake  Charles 
(Calcasieu  River).  Main  center  of  short  leaf  pine  mills  is  at 
Shreveport  (Red  River). 

In  1900,  405  mills  existed,  of  $25,800  average  investment. 
Logs  were  worth,  in  1900,  on  stump,  $1.22,  and  at  mill,  $5-59- 

New  Orleans  is  not  a  mill  center,  but  is  the  largest  south- 
ern shipping  point  of  the  lumber  and  cooperage  industry. 

Moss  ginning  is  an  industry  turning  out,  in  1880,  $550,000 
worth  of  material.  There  are  no  later  statistics.  Turpentining 
is  only  recently  introduced,  tending  to  ruin  the  prospects  for  con- 
servative lumbering,  owing  to  the  danger  of  fire  connected  with 
it.  In  1880,  Sargent's  fire  statistics  show  a  loss  of  $6,000  worth 
of  timber  only,  virgin  pine  being  fireproof  and  the  other  species 
protected  by  swamps.  Sargent,  in  1880,  estimates  the  stand  of 
pine  at  48,200,000,000  feet  b.  m.  The  products  of  the  lumber  in- 
dustry are  valued,  in  1880,  at  $1,700,000;  in  1890,  at  $5,700,000,  and, 
in  1900,  at  $17,400,000;  a  very  rapid  increase. 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of  1,200,000.000  feet  b.  m.  (800,- 
000,000  yellow  pine,  340,000,000  cypress,  50,000,000  cottonwoods, 
5,000,000  white  oak).  The  average  stand  of  white  oak  is  said  to 
be  7,800  feet  b.  m.  per  acre  (?).  Swamps  cleared  of  cypress  are 
doomed  to  lie  barren. 

No  pulp  industry. 

Three  small  leather  concerns  use  a  few  cords  of  oak  bark, 
sumac  and  a  few  barrels  of  extract. 

6.  Forestry  movement:     None. 

7.  Laws:     Unknown. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  Louisiana,  leading  the  States  of  the  Union 
in  rice  production,  irrigates  from  water-courses  and  from  wells 
202,000  acres  of  rice  fields. 

The  cost  of  the  irrigation  system  averages  only  $12.54  per 
acre. 

36 


FOREST    POLICY. 
FORESTRY   CONDITIONS   OF   MAINE: 

1.  Area:  Woodlands  comprise,  after  12th  census,  23,700 
square  miles,  or  79%  of  State.  In  1893  the  State  assessor  reports 
only  15,000  square  miles  of  forest. 

After  report  of  the  forest  commissioner  in  1903  forest  lands 
comprise  21,000  square  miles,  and  14,800  square  miles  are  taxed 
as  "wholly  wild  land." 

2.  Physiography:  The  north  and  northwest  are  said  to  be 
mountainous.  Mount  Katahdin,  the  highest  peak,  is  5,385  feet 
high.  The  south  and  southeast  is  hilly.  Lakes,  valuable  for  for- 
est transportation,  are  found  all  over  the  State.  The  coast  line 
is  deeply  indented.  The  most  important  rivers  are  the  Andros- 
coggin, Kennebec,  Penobscot  and  St.  John,  the  latter  on  and 
close  to  the  New  Brunswick  line.  18,000  square  miles  are  abso- 
lute forest  land. 

3-  Distribution:  The  conifers  of  the  northern  pine  belt 
(white  pine,  red  spruce,  white  spruce,  hemlock,  balsam,  tamarack, 
white  cedar)  occur  mixed  with  maple,  white  and  yellow  birch, 
beech,  ash.  oak,  hickory  and  basswood  in  varying  proportions. 
Large  bodies  of  hemlock  used  to  exist  in  the  southeast.  Valuable 
bodies  of  poplar  are  found,  especially  on  the  Kennebec.  Only 
the  immediate  coast  region  between  the  Kennebec  and  Penobscot 
lacked  the  conifers. 

The  State  is  largely  cleared  in  the  south,  and  the  north  is 
culled  of  its  white  pine.  Pulp  wood  has  been  removed  from  one- 
half  of  the  wild  lands.  Still  lumbermen  alone  in  1900  were  re- 
ported to  be  owners  of  over  1.000,000,000  feet  b.  m.  of  white 
pine.  Good  second  growth  of  white  pine  is  found  all  over  the 
southern  counties.  Regeneration  of  spruce  is  frequently  met  be- 
neath an  ushergrowth  of  gray  and  white  birch,  poplar  and  pine. 

The  sustainable  yield  of  the  spruce  woods  amounts  to  637,- 
000,000  feet  b.  m.  (after  Ralph  S.  Hosmer)  per  annum. 

Forest  Commissioner  E.  E.  Ring  publishes  the  following 
figures  as  the  result  of  recent   explorations:— 

Stumpage  of  coniferous  timber  (9  inches  and  over 
in   diameter)    in   million   feet  b.    m. 

Dsry=e     %™»   pxber  K&bec  And^«  T&nor 

SPruce 6.942  5.166  3,883  3.248  2.000 

Pine 427  153  

Cedar 1,830  438  

37 


FOREST     POLICY. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  204  saw-mill  firms  own  2,108,000 
acres  of  2,000  feet  (only?)  stumpage.  Paper  firms  own  several 
hundred  thousand  acres  of  woodland,  largely  cut  over.  22.4%  of 
woodland  is  attached  to  farms. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  The  State  contains  832  saw  mills,  of 
$11,754  average  investment.  Stumpage  costs  $2.52;  logs  at  mill, 
$8.15  per  1,000  feet  b.  m. 

Value  of  output  of  saw  mills  and  timber  camps  was: — 

1850  $  5,900,000 

i860  6,600,000 

1870  1 1,400,000 

1880  7,000,000 

1890  11,800,000 

1900  13,500,000 

The  cut  for  saw  mills  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

Spruce 425,000,000  feet  b.  m 

White  pine 220,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hemlock 89,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  conifers 87,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hardwoods 29,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Total 850,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

There  were  produced  in  the  census  year  $903,000  worth 
of  shingles,  $408,000  worth  of  cooperage  stock,  $364,000  worth  of 
lath,  $600,000  worth  of  boxes,  $20,000  worth  of  baskets  and  wood- 
enware,  $294,000  (60%  of  output  of  United  States)  worth  of  bob- 
bins and  spools  (white  birch)  (Ring  reports  a  production  of  800,- 
000,000  spools,  worth  $1,000,000,  for  1903). 

The  hardwood  industries  are  increasing  with  the  expansion 
of  the  railroads  ("Hardwood  Novelty  Mills").  Modern  lumber- 
ing is  astonishingly  conservative  and  never  destroys  the  chances 
of  a  good  second  growth.  Conservative  lumbering  in  pure  spruce 
woods  ("black  growth")  is,  however,  apt  to  be  followed  by  sweep- 
ing blow-downs.  Logging  for  pulp,  consuming  about  275,000,000 
feet  b.  m.  annually,  is  less  wasteful  than  logging  for  lumber. 
Saw  mills,  on  the  other  hand,  are  less  interested  in  permanent 
supplies  than  puip  mills.  Average  age  of  spruce  logs  is  about  200 
years.  The  use  of  the  cross-cut  saw  is  novel  in  the  Maine  woods. 
Logs   are   usually   peeled    (which    requires   summer  cutting),   and 


FOREST    POLICY. 

long  lengths  of  logs  are  held  out.  Railroading  is  gradually  su- 
perceding river  driving. 

Leather  industry:  31  firms  produce  $2,451,000  worth  of 
leather  and  consume  40,600  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth  $229,- 
000;  4,000  cords  of  oak  bark,  worth  $28,000;  1,080  bales  of  gam- 
bier,  worth  $7,370;  200  barrels  of  extract,  worth  $2,740;  125  tons 
of  sumac,   worth  $7,675;   chemicals,   worth  $5,615. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry:  35  mills  produce  in  the  census 
year  $13,200,000  worth  of  material  and  consume:  home-grown 
spruce,  265,000  cords,  worth  $1,325,000;  Canadian  spruce,  20,600 
cords,  worth  $170,000;  home-grown  poplar,  49,000  cords,  worth 
$199,000;  Canadian  poplar,  500  cords,  worth  $1,700;  other  pulp- 
wood,  6.500  cords,  worth  $21,700. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Public  sentiment  is  aware  of  the 
inter-dependence  between  the  State's  prosperity  and  the  safety 
of  the  forest;  hence  forest  fires  are  not  allowed  to  roam  at  ran- 
dom. The  memory  of  famous  fires,  like  the  Miramichi  fire  of 
1825,  has  helped  to  mould  public  opinion.  The  fire  warden  sys- 
tem, however,  is  still  inadequate. 

The  public  are  interested  in  developing  the  resort  charac- 
ter of  the  woods.  Pine  offspring  in  farming  sections  is  carefully 
husbanded. 

Good  reports  by  Chas.  E.  Oak  and  Austin  Cary  in  1894  and 
1896;  by  E.  E.  Ring  in  1902. 

7.  Laws:  The  State  Land  Agent  (now  E.  E.  Ring)  acts 
as  Forest  Commissioner,  since  1891.     His  duties  are: — 

(1)  Forestry  education,  through  public  schools. 

(2)  Preparation  of  circulars  relative  to  care  of  woodlands, 
to  be  furnished  upon  application  to  any  citizen  of  the  State. 

(3)  Distribution  of  fire  reports  (blank  forms)  amongst  fire 
wardens. 

(4)  Posting  fire  law  notices. 

(5)  Collecting  forest,  lumber  and  fire  statistics. 

(6)  Prevention,  control  and  extinguishment  of  forest  fires 
in  unorganized  townships. 

Guides  are  licensed  and  charged  with  protection  of  the  forest. 

Fire  wardens  are 

(a)  In  unorganized  townships  appointed  by  the  forest  com- 
missioner (since  1903),  paid  by  the  State  at  the  rate  of  $2  per  day. 
Helpers   summoned  by  the   warden   are  paid   15c.   per  hour.     An 

39 


FOREST     POLICY. 

emergency  fund  of  $10,000  annually  is  set  aside  for  this  purpose 
by  the  legislature. 

(b)  In  organized  towns  recruited  from  the  selectmen,  each 
selectman  serving  ex  officio  as  warden  for  a  specified  district,  at 
the  expense  of  the  town,  which  also  pays  for  helper's  services. 

The  fire  wardens  shall  submit  to  the  forest  commissioner 
reports  on  the  extent,  damage  and  cause  of  forest  fires;  further, 
on  the  remedial  measures  taken  to  subdue  fires  within  their 
wardships. 

Fire  wardens  seem,  however,  not  punishable  for  neglect 
of   duty. 

The  forest  commissioner  has,  unfortunately,  no  control  over 
the  fire  wardens  in  organized  towns. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  11  farms  irrigate  17  acres  for  truck  produc- 
tion. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  MARYLAND: 

1.  Area:  4,400  square  miles,  or  44%  of  State.  After  12th 
census  very  little  of  wooded  area  contains   merchantable   timber. 

2.  Physiography:     Three  sections. 

Western  section  in  Alleghanies  and  Blue  Ridge  Mountains, 
with  altitudes  of  over  3,000  feet.  The  Potomac,  forming  the  West 
Virginia  and  Virginia  line,  breaks  through  the  Blue  Ridge  on 
extreme  east  corner  of  West  Virginia. 

The  middle  section  presents  a  plateau,  falling  from  the  Blue 
Ridge  down  to  Chesapeake  Bay. 

The  eastern  section  of  lowlands  consists  of  two  peninsulas 
formed  by  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  Potomac  River  and  Delaware  Bay. 

3.  Distribution:  The  mountain  section  was,  originally, 
heavily  timbered  with  white  pine,  hemlock,  maple,  birch,  beech 
and  spruce — the  Adirondack  forest  at  an  elevation  1,000  feet  higher 
than  it  is  found  in  the  Adirondacks.  Now  little  virgin  forest  is 
said  to  be  left. 

The  central  section  was,  originally,  covered  with  hardwoods. 
Now  chestnut  coppice  prevails,  or  a  second  growth  of  white  oak, 
black  oak,  hickories  and  gum. 

The  eastern  peninsula  shows  a  second  or  third  growth  of 
pitch  and  scrub  pine,  mixed  with  hardwoods. 

40 


FOREST     POLICY. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  114  firms  own  66,928  acres  of  3,700 
feet  b.  m.  average  stumpage. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  The  lumber  manufacture  has  never  been 
prominent  in  Maryland.  After  the  census  reports,  however,  it 
continues  growing,  in  spite  of  the  lack  of  primeval  supplies.  The 
output  of  the  Maryland  mills  was  valued  in 

1850 $    585,000 

i860 605,000 

1870 1.501,000 

1880 1,813,000 

1890 1 ,600,000 

1900 2,650,000 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

Yellow  pine   79,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hemlock    21,200,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  pine   1,600,000  feet  b.  m. 

Spruce    3.500,000  feet  b.  m. 

Miscellaneous  conifers     4.300,000  feet  b.  m. 

Oak  66,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Chestnut    5,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Poplar    5.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Miscel.  hardwoods  .  . .     2.300,000  feet  b.  m. 

Logs  on  stump  are  worth  $2.92:  at  mill.  $6.75.  366  mills 
represent  an  average  investment  of  $3,643. 

The  cooperage  industry  was  important  in  olden  times;  had 
greatly  declined  in  1880,  and  depends  in  1900  almost  entirely  on 
the  use  of  imported  cooperage  stock,  turning  out  $700,000  worth 
of  products.  The  home  grown  staves  and  headings  are  worth 
only  $15,000.  No  furniture  stock  and  little  carriage  stock  is  ob- 
tained inland. 

The  box  factories  turned  out,  in  1000,  $1,800,000  worth  of 
boxes,  and  seem  to  depend  on  imported  stock  for  raw  material. 

Leather  industry:  There  are  21  tanneries  of  $1,754,000  an- 
nual output.  They  consume  3,116  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  valued 
at  $21,888;  12,087  cords  of  oak  bark,  valued  at  $80,603;  309  barrels 
of  oak  bark  extract;  in  tons  of  sumac  and  chemicals;  25  tons 
of  quebracho. 

The  paper  and  pulp  industry  produces,  in  21  mills.  $2,600,000 
■worth  of  products  and  uses  23,229  cords  of  home-grown  spruce, 

4i 


FOREST     POLICY. 

worth  $147,615;  4,616  cords  of  poplar,  worth  $30,825;  20,623  cords 
of  other  woods,  worth  $135,825. 

6.  Forestry  movement:     None. 

7.  Laws:     A  bill,  failing  in  1902,  provided  for: — 

(a)  State  Board  of  Forestry,  consisting  of  three  members, 
one  to  be  a  scientific  forester,  two  to  be  owners  of  100  acres  of 
farm  land.  Commissioners  hold  office  at  Annapolis,  are  supplied 
with  a  secretary  and  receive  $600  each  annually.  Their  duty  is 
to  purchase  woodland  at  the  headwaters,  at  a  price  not  to  exceed 
$8  per  acre,  or  else  deforested  land  in  other  sections  of  the  State. 
No  price  limit  is  given  for  the  latter  purchases.  An  appropria- 
tion of  $30,000  annually  is  set  aside  for  land  purchase,  and  $6,000 
for  salaries  and  expenses. 

(b)  Bounties  of  10  cents  a  tree  shall  be  paid  for  every 
locust,  black  walnut,  hickory,  red  and  black  oak  planted  according 
to  certain  regulations;  also  a  bounty  of  5  cents  for  every  chestnut 
thus  planted  and  for  trees  of  other  species  fit  for  fence  posts. 
$5,000  are  annually  provided  for  bounty  payments. 

Only  malicious  firing  is  punishable. 

8.  Reservations:  None,  the  above  cited  reserve  law  hav- 
ing failed  to  pass. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  MASSACHUSETTS: 

1.  Area  under  forest:  After  12th  census,  4,200  square  miles, 
or  52%  of  the  State,  are  wooded.  A  State  canvass  of  1885  gives, 
however,  only  1,390,000  acres  of  woodland  classed  as  follows: — 

317,000  acres  of  timber  over  30  years  old. 
993,000  acres  of  growth  under  30  years  old. 
6,000  acres  of  planted  forest, 
74,000  acres  of  woodland  not  classified. 

2.  Physiography:  The  western  half  of  the  State  is  moun- 
tainous. Here  the  Taconic  and  Hoosac  Ranges,  with  the  Berk- 
shire Hills,  rising  in  Mount  Graylock  to  3.535  feet  elevation.  The 
eastern  half  is  hilly,  or  flat  in  the  southeastern  peninsula. 

3.  Distribution:  Massachusetts  forms  part  of  the  north- 
ern pine  belt,  stocked  originally  with  white  pine,  hemlock  and 
spruce,  mixed  with  hardwoods  in  varying  proportions.     The  hard- 

42 


FOREST    POLICY. 

wood  coppice  now  existing  consists  of  maple,  chestnut,  oaks,  gray- 
birches,  hickories  and  pitch  pine.  Scattering  red  cedar  and  a 
few  groves  of  white  pine  or  hemlock  are  frequently  met. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  The  Boston  park  system  now  ag- 
gregates 6,784  acres.  162  lumber  firms  own  41,000  acres  of  9,000 
feet  b.  m.  stumpage.  Cities  near  South  Orleans,  after  Sargent, 
have  fully  10,000  acres  planted  in  pitch  pine.  The  balance  of  the 
woodlands  is  attached  to  farms. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Stumpage  costs  $2.64;  logs  at  mill, 
$949-  534  saw  mills,  the  larger  ones  placed  along  the  Connecticut, 
report  an  average  investment  of  $7,518.  The  value  of  the  sawed 
output  is  constantly  rising: — 

1850  $1,500,000 

i860  2,200,000 

1870 3,500,000 

1880  3,100,000 

1890  5,200,000 

1900  6,500,000 

The  cut  of  the  mills  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

Spruce    29,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  pine   261,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hemlock   12,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other   conifers    2,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Chestnut  and  oak 42,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Total  346,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

A  large  proportion  of  this  cut  seems,  however,  to  have  orig- 
inated in  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire. 

Farm  lots  are  said  to  produce  nearly  600,000  cords  fire  wood 
and  over  400,000  railroad  ties. 

Woodenware,  manufactured  from  second  growth  white  pine, 
forms  an  important  industry  (notably  near  Winchendon). 

Large  production  of  hoop  poles.  The  miscellaneous  indus- 
tries are  otherwise  insignificant.  The  box,  casket  and  barrel  in- 
dustries rely  entirely  on  stock  imported  from  other  States  for  a 
production  valued  at  $5,500,000  per  annum. 

Leather  industry:  Massachusetts  is  second  only  to  Penn- 
sylvania in  leather  production.  119  plants  produce  $26,000,000 
worth  of  leather  and  consume  62,000  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth 

43 


FOREST    POLICY. 

$498,000;  1. 000  cords  of  oak  bark,  worth  $9,000;  15,500  bales  of 
gambier,  worth  $106,000;  17,000  barrels  of  extract,  worth  $170,000; 
3.600  tons  (!)  of  sumac,  worth  $190,000;  500  tons  quebracho,  worth 
$8,000;  chemicals  worth  $307,000. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry:  Massachusetts  is  second  only  to 
New  York  in  these  industries;  still  her  consumption  of  wood  is 
small,  consisting  of  home-grown  spruce,  21,200  cords,  worth  $110,- 
000;  Canadian  spruce,  13.800  cords,  worth  $113,000;  home-grown 
poplar,  3,000  cords,  worth  $18,000;  other  wood,  1,000  cords,  worth 
$5,000.  Enormous  amounts  of  rags,  manilla,  waste  paper;  further, 
imported  pulp  and  fiber  form  the  chief  raw  material. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  The  Massachusetts  Forestry  As- 
sociation is  backed  by  wealthy  and  educated  tree  lovers,  and 
employs  a  forester  (T.  F.  Borst).  The  Arnold  Arboretum,  at 
Jamaica  Plains,  offers  unrivalled  advantages  to  the  student  of 
dendrology.     Chair  of  forestry  at  Harvard  since  1903. 

7.  Laws:  The  selectmen  of  towns  appoint  annually  one 
or  more  fire  wardens,  paid  according  to  the  pleasure  of  the  town. 
Unique  and  interesting  is  a  law  allowing  cities  and  towns  to  con- 
tract loans  and  to  secure  State  contributions  (50%  of  expense)  for 
forest  park  purposes.  Tax  exemptions  are  granted  for  ten  years 
on  plantations,  consisting  of  2,000  saplings  over  4  feet  high  (per 
acre),  made  on  abandoned  fields.  Sand  dunes  at  Cape  Cod  are 
being  replanted  under  State  law. 

8.  Reservations:  City  reserves  are  small,  but  of  great  local 
importance.  Three  State  reserves,  called  the  Mount  Tom,  Gray- 
lock  and  Wachusett  State  Parks,  were  established  in  1902  and 
placed  in  charge  of  a  State  forester. 

9.  Irrigation:  28  farms  irrigate  134  acres,  for  truck  pro- 
duction. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  MICHIGAN: 

1.  Area:  Area  of  woodland,  inclusive  of  stump  land,  is 
67%  per  cent  of  State  area,  or  38,000  square  miles.  Fernow  gives 
38%  only. 

2.  Physiography:  Two  peninsulas.  Ground  level  or  undu- 
lating with  sandy  or  gravelly  ridges.  Splendid  shipping  facilities 
via  the  lakes.  Rivers  important  in  the  white  pine  industry  are 
the  Muskegon,  Manistee,  Shiawassee.  Kalamazoo  and  Saginaw. 

44 


FOREST     POLICY. 

3.  Distribution:  Prairies  only  in  the  extreme  south  of  the 
lower  peninsula.  South  of  the  43d  degree  of  latitude,  broad-leaved 
species  prevail  on  land  pre-eminently  fit  for  agriculture.  Here 
are  found  elm.,  ash,  basswood,  maple  and  white  oak  of  splendid 
development. 

The  northern  part  of  the  lower  peninsula  and  the  entire 
upper  peninsula  were  occupied  by  the  famous  pineries  of  Michi- 
gan, sprinkled  with  swamps  of  tamarack,  cedar,  spruce  and  bal- 
sam, and  sand  barrens  stocked  with  jack  pine,  poplar,  birch  and 
scrub  oak. 

In  the  pineries  there  are  mixed  with  the  white  pine,  often 
as  an  undergrowth,  ash,  sugar  maple,  beech,  oaks,  hemlock,  bass- 
wood,  elm. 

In  1880  the  standing  hemlock  was  estimated  to  be  seven 
billion  feet  b.  m.,  carrying  seven  million  cords  of  bark. 

The  maple  sugar  industry  is  important,  Michigan  ranking 
third  in  1880. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  The  State  claims  3,000,000  acres  of 
so-called  tax  homesteads,  which  are  held  for  sale  to  ignorant  im- 
migrants. 

320  lumber  firms  own  2,750,000  acres  stocked  with  5,300  feet 
b.  m.,  on  an  average. 

In  the  southern  section  wood  lots  are  usually  owned  by 
farmers. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  From  1862  to  1887  the  State  produced 
$870,000,000  worth  of  white  pine.  In  1880,  Sargent  reports  for 
white  pine  a  growing  stock  of  35,000,000  feet  b.  m.,  whilst  Fernow, 
in  1896,  estimates  it  at  6,000,000  feet  b.  m.  (underestimate).  An- 
other five  years  will,  probably,  bring  about  the  end  of  the  white 
pine  in  Michigan. 

In  lumber  production  Michigan  has  recently  lost  its  leader- 
ship, held  since  1870,  to  Wisconsin.  The  value  of  the  saw  mill 
products  was  in 

1850 $  2,500,000 

i860 7,000,000 

1870 32,000,000 

1880 52,000,000 

1890 83,000,000 

1900  54,000,000 

45 


FOREST    POLICY. 

The  cut  of  1900  consisted  of: — 

White  pine    1,300,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hemlock 850,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Cedar    370,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  conifers 1 10,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Ash  86,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Basswood 46,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Elm    1 10,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Maple    400,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  oak  135,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods. . .      52,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Logs  are  worth  on  the  stump  $3.06;  at  mill,  $7.60. 

1,613  mills  of  $20,900  average  investment  are  reported. 
Michigan  still  leads  the  United  States  in  the  value  of  miscellaneous 
forest  products  (furniture,  wagon,  agricultural,  cooperage  and 
flooring  stock),  the  output  being  $6,700,000. 

In  the  shingle  production,  worth  $3,200,000,  it  is  second 
only  to  Washington.  The  splendid  railroad  systems  developed  in 
the  past  now  facilitate  the  logging  of  hardwoods.  A  State  cen- 
sus of  1884  estimates  the  cord  wood  consumption  at  SZA  million 
cords  annually,  worth  8.9  million  dollars. 

Paper  industry  uses  12,300  cords  of  home-grown  spruce 
and  83,000  cords  of  Canadian  spruce.  Total  value  of  product  is 
$4,200,000,  for  1900. 

Leather  industry  consumes  in  census  year,  in  27  tanneries, 
62,000  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  valued  at  $498,000;  1,000  cords  of 
oak  bark,  valued  at  $8,800;  3,700  barrels  of  hemlock  bark  extract, 
worth  $45,000,  and  13,500  barrels  of  oak  bark  extract,  worth 
$124,000. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  The  impediments  to  conservative 
forestry  are:  Agricultural  qualities  of  white  pine  soil,  excessive 
taxation,  total  lack  of  means  to  check  fires,  difficulty  of  conserva- 
tive lumbering  in  scattering  holdings  of  virgin  woods  subject  to 
wind  fall. 

In  1875  a  forestry  commission  was  created,  dying  after  two 
years  of  existence. 

In  1887  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture  was  constituted  as  a 
"Forestry  Commission."  Forestal  agitation  is  lead  by  Senator 
C.  W.  Garfield,  assisted  by  the  university,  the  agricultural  college, 
farmers'  institutes  and  women's  clubs. 

46 


FOREST     POLICY. 

In  1899  the  "Forestry  Commission"  (appropriation  $2,000 
annually)  was  revived  as  a  commission  of  inquiry  and  legislative 
advice.  It  consists  of  three  scientific  members,  but  no  lumber- 
men. Allowance  $2,000  a  year,  to  be  spent  for  gathering  statistics. 
A  department  of  forestry  was  established  in  1901  at  the  State  Uni- 
versity (now  under  Dr.  F.  Roth),  and  57,000  acres  of  land  for- 
feited for  non-payment  of  taxes  were  turned  over  to  the  commis- 
sion to  be  worked  for  two  years.  In  lieu  of  these  57,ooo  acres  a 
recent  law  has  turned  over  to  the  commission  all  State  holdings 
in  three  townships  at  the  head  waters  of  the  Muskegon  River. 
By  the  aid  of  a  continuous  appropriation  of  $7, 500  a  year,  the 
commission  is  gradually  acquiring  the  contiguous  lands,  so  as  to 
make  these  reserve  holdings  more  solid.  The  attempt  of  reserving 
all  land  forfeited  for  non-payment  of  taxes  (and  of  a  protective 
character)  for  State  reserves  failed  in  1901. 

7.  Laws:  Fire  laws  since  1817.  Not  enforced.  Loss  from 
fires  reported  by  Sargent  is  $1,000,000  in  1880. 

8.  Reservations:  Now  64,000  acres  at  the  head  of  the 
Muskegon  River. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  MINNESOTA: 

1.  Area:  Woodlands,  inclusive  of  stump  land,  cover  52,000 
square  miles,  an  area  equal  to  66%  of  the  State.  Stand  of  white 
pine  after  Sargent,  in  1880,  eight  billion  feet  b.  m.;  after  Gen. 
C.  C.  Andrews,  in  1895,  seventeen  billion  feet  b.  m. ;  after  Horace 
B.  Ayres,  in  1900,  twelve  billion  feet  b.  m. 

2.  Physiography:  Undulating.  10,000  lakes  and  lakelets, 
the  largest  being  Red  Lake,  Leech  Lake  and  Millelac  Lake.  A 
multitude  of  swamps  increase  in  size  and  number  towards  the 
north.  Hills  are  rare.  The  Rainy  River  and  Rainy  Lake  form 
the  boundary  line  towards  Ontario;  the  St.  Louis  River  empties 
at  Duluth;  the  St.  Croix  River  runs  on  the  Wisconsin  line;  the 
Red  River  on  the  Dakota  line;  the  Mississippi  starts  in  Lake 
Itasca  and  is  navigable  from  Minneapolis  southward. 

3.  Distribution:  Two-fifths  of  the  State  is  prairie,  ad- 
joining the  Dakota  and  Iowa  lines;  another  fifth,  next  to  prairie, 
shows  hardwoods  prevailing  over  the  softwoods;  the  remaining 
two-fifths  is  pine  land  and  swamp  land. 

47 


FOREST     POLICY. 

The  northwestern  pine  belt  of  the  United  States  readies 
its  western  limit  in  Minnesota.  The  species  prevailing  in  the 
hardwood  belt  are  black  oaks,  sugar  maple,  birches  and  cotton- 
wood.  In  the  pine  belt,  white  pine,  Norway  and  jack  pine  are 
found,  according  to  the  soil.  The  poorer  the  soil,  the  more  jack 
pine.  White  pine  occurs,  usually,  with  an  undergrowth  of  lin- 
den, maple  and  hazel.  In  the  swamps,  black  spruce,  balsam,  white 
spruce,  white  cedar  and  tamarack.  On  the  wind-swept  side  of 
lakes,  conifers  are  missing.  No  hemlock  is  found,  a  fact  denied 
by  H.  B.  Ayres.  Birches  and  poplars  occupy  cut-over  white  pine 
land  and  secure,  acting  as  nurses  or  ushers,  if  fire  is  kept  out,  a 
gradual  recurrence  of  white  pines.  White  pine  underneath  white 
pine  is  never  found,  whilst  Norway  pine  immediately  replaces 
Norway  pine,  and  whilst  jack  pine  invariably  follows  in  jack  pine's 
wake. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  85  lumber  firms  own  2,025,000  acres 
of  3,900  feet  average  stumpage  per  acre.  State  owns  between  2 
and  3  million  acres  of  land  forfeited  for  non-payment  of  taxes. 
The  United  States  own  enormous  tracts  still.  30  townships  re- 
main unsurveyed  north  of  the  continental  divide.  Large  Indian 
reserves. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  The  value  of  the  products  of  the  lum- 
ber industry  in  Minnesota  gives  it  third  rank  as  a  lumber  produ- 
cing State.  Minnesota  came  slowly  to  the  front,  having  in  1880  an 
output  of  $7,400,000;  in   1890,  $25,000,000,  and  in   1900,  $43,600,000. 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

White  pine 2,250,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Norway  pine 108.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  conifers   20,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Spruce     1,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hardwoods    62,000,000  feet  b.  m. 


Total    2,441,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

The  miscellaneous  industries  (furniture,  cooperage,  wagon 
stock,  flooring,  spools,  etc.)  yielded,  in  1900,  only  $1,300,000. 
White  pine  and  hardwoods  in  Minnesota  are,  on  the  average, 
inferior  to  white  pine  and  hardwoods  in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan. 

404  saw  mills  of  $60,848  average  investment  (maximum  in- 
vestment, by  far,  of  United  States).  Logging  by  rail  is  taking 
the  place  of  log  driving,  on  which  the  mills  of  Minneapolis  used 

48 


FOREST    POLICY. 

to  depend.  Skidding  by  horses  during  the  winter  months  forms 
the  rule.  Sleighing  over  ice  roads  to  the  lakes  or  rivers.  Wages 
of  workmen  about  $28  (with  full  board)  per  month.  Large  amount 
of  timber  consumed  by  the  iron  mines  of  northeastern  Minnesota. 
Logs  are  worth  $3.40  on  stump,  and  $8.09  at  mill. 

The  leather  industry  is  small,  hemlock  lacking.  Nine  tan- 
neries use  107  cords  of  bark,  37  barrels  of  extract  and  a  little 
gambier  and  quebracho. 

Relative  to  paper  and  pulp  industry,  no  data  are  given  by 
the  12th  census.  Possibilities  are  very  good,  since  there  is  plenty 
of  spruce.     Big  Weyerhauser  mill  near  Duluth. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Since  1876  a  forestry  association 
encourages  prairie  planting.  Bounties  for  prairie  planting  since 
1891.  Arbor  Day  since  1883-1884.  The  Hinckley  fire,  of  Septem- 
ber 1,  1894.  through  which  a  large  number  of  lives  and  many  mil- 
lions of  dollars  worth  of  stumpage  were  lost,  caused  the  creation 
of  a  forest  fire  warden  system,  effective  enough  to  prevent  a  sec- 
ond Hinckley  conflagration,  but  insufficient  for  the  absolute 
safety  of  forestal  investments.  The  legislators  hailing  from  the 
prairies  antagonize  outlays  benefitting  the  wooded  portion  of  the 
State.     The  State  auditor  is  "forest  commissioner." 

Town  supervisors  and  the  mayors  of  cities  are  constituted 
fire  wardens  and  are  fined  for  neglect  of  duty.  Remuneration 
only  $2  per  day  for  not  to  exceed  15  days  annually  (two-thirds 
paid  by  county  and  one-third  by  State).  The  chief  fire  warden 
($1,200  salary)  is  appointed  by  the  State  auditor;  he  maintains 
and  superintends  the  activity  of  the  fire  wardens;  has  authority  to 
mass  them  at  points  of  danger;  controls  an  emergency  fund  of 
$5,000  for  suppression  of  fires.  Annual  forest  statistical  reports 
of  great  value,  by  General  C.  C.  Andrews. 

Forestry  lectures  by  Prof.  S.  B.  Green  at  the  Minnesota 
State  College  of  Agriculture. 

The  proposition  to  establish  a  national  park  at  the  Chip- 
pewa Indian  reserve  ceded  to  the  United  States  was  enthusiasti- 
cally upheld  by  the  Minnesota  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs  and 
by  the  railroads.  The  influence  of  the  lumbermen  caused  partial 
defeat  of  the  park  bill.  As  the  law  stands,  the  agricultural  lands 
of  the  Chippewa  reserve  are  to  be  opened  to  settlers;  the  pine 
lands,  after  the  timber  is  sold  at  public  auction,  will  form  (with- 
out the  President's  proclamation)  a  national  forest  reserve.     5% 

49 


FOREST     POLICY. 

of  the   timber,   however,   will   be  left   according   to   the   selection 
of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry. 

The  friends  of  forestry  now  endeavor  to  obtain  a  national 
park  in  the  northeast,  close  to  Lake  Superior. 

7.  Laws:  "Staples  bill"  forbids  the  removal  of  timber 
previous  to  payment  of  back  taxes. 

"Cross  bill,"  of  1899,  makes  State  forestry  feasible  on  land 
either  donated  by  lumbermen  or  set  aside  by  the  State  for  reserve 
purposes.  Practically  no  appropriation  and  practically  no  dona- 
tions. Companies  are  forbidden  to  own  over  5,000  acres  of  land. 
Fire  warden  law,  see  under  "forestry  movement." 

8.  Reservations:  The  Lake  Itasca  State  forest  reserve  is 
insignificant. 

The  Chippewa  or  "Minnesota  National"  forest  reserve  will 
be  gradually  established  after  timber  is  sold,  and  is  expected  to 
finally  comprise  225.000  acres. 

9.  Irrigation:      None. 


FORESTRY    CONDITIONS    OF    MISSISSIPPI: 

1.  Area:     Area  of  woodlands,  32.300  square  miles,  or  70%. 

2.  Physiography:  Alluvial  and  diluvial  soil.  Huge  bot- 
toms between  Mississippi  and  Yazoo  Rivers.  The  Pearl  River 
on  the  Louisiana  line.  The  Tombigby  River  drains  the  north- 
eastern part. 

3.  Distribution:  Originally  the  forest  Avas  half  pine  and 
half  hardwood.  Long  leaf  pine  prevails  in  the  south,  extending 
northward  to  the  latitude  of  Vicksburg  and  Meridian,  on  sandy 
soil,  especially  on  former  dunes.  A  belt  along  the  Mississippi, 
some  30  miles  wide,  is  free  from  long  leaf  pine.  Cuban  pine, 
with  the  long  leaf,  up  to  60  miles  from  the  coast,  occupies  moist 
soil,  on  which  it  regenerates  freely.  It  is  not  found  west  of  the 
Pearl  River.  Echinata  is  not  found  close  to  the  coast,  begin- 
ning where  Cuban  pine  ends.  It  often  appears  mixed  with 
long  leaf  and  taeda  pine,  and  prevails  on  the  divide  separating 
the  Tombigby  from  the  Yazoo  Rivers  on  5,000  square  miles. 
Trees  are  more  scattering  than  in  Texas  and  Arkansas,  the  hard- 
woods taking  a  larger  share  in  the  composition  of  the  forest. 
Taeda  occurs  everywhere  east  of  the  Yazoo,  from  the  coast  up 
to  the  Tennessee  line,  under  the  name  of  short  straw  pine,  lob- 

50 


FOREST    POLICY. 

lolly,  swamp,  slash  and  rosemary  pine.  It  occupies  moister  and 
more  loamy  soil,  and  is  often  found  in  inundation  districts.  The 
undergrowth  or  suite  consists  of  black  and  sweet  gum,  red  oak 
and  magnolia  on  wet  soil;  of  hickories,  Spanish  oak  and  black 
jack  on  drier  soil.  Spruce  pine  (glabra)  occurs  in  small  clumps 
on  rich,  terraced  soil.  Cypress  fills  huge  swamps  along  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Yazoo  Rivers.  White  cedar  occurs,  with  taeda,  in 
half-swamps. 

In  the  bottom  lands  are  found  cottonwood,  both  gums, 
white  oak,  cow  oak  (prevailing);  Texan  oak,  water  oak  (nigra), 
magnolia  and  beech.  Further,  walnut,  shagbark  hickory,  yel- 
low poplar,  sycamore,  mulberry,  elm  and  holly.  Burr  oak  and 
red  oak  are  here  wanting.  Overcup  oak  (lyrata)  occurs  under 
the  name  "swamp  oak." 

4.  Forest  ownership:  349  firms  own  1,214.000  acres, 
stocked  with  7,600  feet  b.  m.  per  acre.  The  United  States,  the 
State  and  railroads,  notably  the  Mobile  and  Ohio,  own  large 
tracts.     The  balance  is  owned  by  farmers. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  In  the  census  year,  820  mills  of  $9,400 
average  investment.  In  1900,  log  value  on  stump,  $1.30;  at  mill, 
$460.       The  output  of  the  saw  mills  was  valued  in 

1880  at    $  1,900,000 

l890  at    5,700,000 

1900  at    15,600,000 

The  cut  in  the  census  year  consists  of 

Yellow    pine    064.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other   conifers    37,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Cottonwood      39,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Red   gum    23.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White    oak    102.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Other   hardwoods    .  . .  42.000,000  feet  b.  m. 


Total 1,207,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hardwood  logging  is  very  expensive;  yellow  pine  logging, 
with  four  yoke  of  oxen  hitched  to  a  high-wheel  cart,  is  very 
cheap.  The  average  logging  distance,  for  pine,  slightly  exceeds 
one-third  of  a  mile.  Expense  of  logging  (cutting  and  hauling), 
$1.25;   of  railroading,   50  cents  per  1,000  feet  b.   m. 

51 


FOREST    POLICY. 

Railroad  grades  are  fearful.  Minimum  log  diameter  of  long 
leaf  pine  admitted  is  10  inches.  Average  log  size  about  220 
feet  b.   m. 

Turpentine  industry  is  now  tapping  the  pole-woods  as  well 
as  the  tree-woods.  Lumbermen  box  two  or  three  years  before 
cutting.  Echinata  and  heterophylla  as  well  as  palustris  are  boxed. 

Leather  industry:     Insignificant. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry:     None. 

6.  Forestry  movement:     None. 

7.  Laws:  Firing  on  vacant  land  is  allowed  only  during 
the  three  spring  months.  On  appropriated  land,  malicious  firing 
only  is  prohibited. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  In  1899,  40  acres  were  irrigated;  30  acres 
in  rice  and   10  in- truck. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  MISSOURI: 

1.  Area:  41,000  square  miles,  equal  to  60%  of  the  area 
of  the  State,  are  classed  as  woodlands. 

2.  Physiography:  The  Mississippi  River  forms  the  east- 
ern line;  the  Missouri  River  traverses  the  State  from  west  to  east. 
Undulating  plains.  Highest  mountains  are  the  Ozarks,  from 
800  feet  to   1,000  feet  high. 

3.  Distribution:  The  northwestern  portion  is  prairie,  with 
the  usual  forest  groves  along  the  rivers.  The  south-southeastern 
part  exhibits  short  leaf  pine  (echinata)  on  the  hills,  notably  on 
the  Ozarks,  alternating  with  stretches  of  post  oak  barrens.  The 
undergrowth  underneath  pine  is  formed  by  oaks  (scarlet,  black, 
post,  white),  hickories  and  black  gum.  Altogether,  3.000,000  acres 
of  pine  are  said  to  be  found,  the  average  stumpage  being 
only  2,000  feet  b.  m.  (after  Mohr,  often  3,000  to  4,000  feet 
b.  m.).  The  lower  dells  of  the  east,  south  of  the  Missouri,  show 
splendid  broad  leaf  forests,  where  oak,  walnut  and  ash,  of  prime 
quality,  are  still  found  away  from  the  railroads.  In  the  deep 
swamps  of  the  southeast,  cypress  and  tupelo  gum  prevail.  In 
shallow  water,  swamp  maple,  swamp  plane  tree,  swamp  white 
ash  and  water  honey  locust  occur.  In  the  damp  woods,  gigantic 
cottonwoods,  burr  oaks,  gums  and  cypresses.     Here,  perhaps,  is 

52 


FOREST    POLICY. 

the  best  remaining  supply  for  white  hickory.     Gigantic  Texan  oak, 
sweet  gum,  willow,  water  and  scarlet  oak  are  also  met. 

4-  Forest  ownership:  In  south,  much  forest  owned  by 
speculators.  274  lumber  firms  control  869,545  acres,  of  5,500  feet 
b.  m.  average  stumpage.  Farmers  own  two-thirds  of  woodlands. 
State  owns  500,000  acres. 

5-  Use  of  timber:  1,169  (I)  mills,  with  an  average  invest- 
ment of  $5,336,  beset  the  forests.  Large  cooperage  concerns  using 
cottonwood,  elm  and  oak.  White  oak  cut  for  railroad  ties  and 
bridge  timber.  Stumpage  price  averages  $1.89.  Logs  at  mill 
worth  $6.91. 

Leather  industry  uses  774  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  2,936 
cords  of  oak  bark  and  869  barrels  of  bark  extract.  Output  of 
industry,  $816,000. 

The  cut  of  the  census  year  was: — 

White   oak    250,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Pine     269,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Cypress      10,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Cottonwoods      76,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Elm     28,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Red    gum    51,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other   hardwoods    35,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

No  paper  and  pulp  industry.  Value  of  saw  mill  products 
rose  from  6.3  million  dollars,  in  1870,  to  11. 2  million  dollars 
in   1900. 

Hardwood  bottoms  are  invariably  thought  to  be  convert- 
ible into  excellent  farm  lands. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Arbor  Day  established  in  1886. 
Forestry  lectures  at  State  Agricultural  College.  Residents  seem 
to  vie  with  one  another  to  steal  the  timber  belonging  to  non- 
residents. 

7.  Laws:  Fire  fines  up  to  $500.  No  inclination  of  jurors 
to  punish  timber  theft  and  incendiarism. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9-     Irrigation:     No  data  available. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  MONTANA: 

1.  Area:     42.000  square  miles,  or  29%  of  State,  is  wooded. 

2.  Physiography:      The    109th    meridian    divides    Montana 
in  half.     The  eastern  half  consists  of  high  plains  fit  for  pasture 


53 


FOREST    POLICY. 

only,  traversed  by  the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  Rivers,  the 
courses  of  which  are  cut  600  to  900  feet  deep  into  the  plateau. 
This  eastern  half  contains,  practically,  no  forests. 

The  western  half  contains  barren  land  only  in  the  extreme 
north  (Maria  River  Basin).  Three  main  mountain  chains  may  be 
distinguished  in  the  western  half. 

(1)  The  Coeur  d'Alene  and  Bitter  Root  Mountains  on 
the  Idaho  line.  Water  runs  towards  the  Pacific  from  both  slopes 
via  Columbia  River. 

(2)  The  main  Rockies,  lying  between  the  Flat  Head  Basin 
and  the  Missouri  River,  which  drain  westward  on  the  west  slope 
and  eastward  on  the  east  slope. 

(3)  The  northern  extension  of  the  Yellowstone  Range  ex- 
tending northward  to  the  center  of  the  State.  Water  runs  from 
both  slopes  entirely  towards  the  Atlantic,  via  the  Yellowstone 
and  Missouri  Rivers. 

All  these  mountains  are  less  rugged  and  by  3,000  feet  lower 
than  those  in   Colorado  and  Wyoming. 

3.  Distribution:  The  best  forests  of  Montana  and  of  the 
entire  Rockies  are  found  in  the  chain  of  the  Coeur  d'Alene  and 
Bitter  Root  Mountains.  On  the  mountain  chain  forming  the  crest 
of  the  continent  the  forests  are  equal  to  the  best  of  those  in 
Wyoming  On  the  third  mountain  range,  draining  solely  east- 
ward, the  forests  are  equal  to  those  of  the   Yellowstone  region. 

The  western  cedar  (plicata)  is  scarce  and  small.  It  is  found 
in  best  valley  soil  only  at  low  elevations.  Lowland  fir  and 
Engelmann's  spruce  occur  in  moist  bottoms  associated  with 
Douglas  fir.  Lodgepole  pine  forms  very  extensive  forests  at 
medium  altitudes.  Limber  white  pine  and  balsam  (lasiocarpa) 
are  found  in  great  bodies,  especially  on  the  eastern  drainage; 
larch,  white  pine  (monticola)  and  hemlock  prevail  on  mountains 
draining  towards  the  west.  Along  the  rivers,  cottonwoods  and 
box  elders  occur.  Quaking  aspen  replaces  the  conifers  after  heavy 
burnings  on  north  slopes. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  Lumbermen  own  very  small  tracts 
only,  since  taxes  are  high.  Indian  reservations  and  railroad 
grants  cover  large  tracts.  (Northern  Pacific  and  Great  North- 
ern Railroads.)  The  forest  reserves  cover  about  7,500,000  acres. 
Over  one-fifth  of  Montana  still  belongs  to  the  United  States. 

5.  Use:  The  mining  interests  of  Montana  stand  para- 
mount.    Montana  is  second  in  the  production  of  gold  and  silver, 

54 


FOREST     POLICY. 

and  first,  by  far,  in  the  production  of  copper,  amongst  the  States 
of  the  Union. 

Next  in  importance  are  the  livestock  interests.  The  stock 
consists  of: — 

1,000,000  cattle. 

2,800,000  sheep. 
200,000  horses. 

The  forest  is  meant  to  subserve  the  mines,  supplying  props, 
fuel  and  ties;  and  agriculture,  supplying  water  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses. To  the  west  are  the  large  plains  of  Washington.  To  the 
east  those  of  the  Dakotas  and  Montana,  which  can  be  irrigated 
only,  it  is  claimed,  by  using  water  coming  from  the  Montana 
Mountains.  Log  stumpage  is  worth  $1.18  on  an  average,  and  logs 
at  mill  $4.11.  Mill  investments  average  $13,475-  38  lumber  firms 
control  about  600,000,000  feet  stumpage,  said  to  average  6,600 
feet  per  acre. 

Mill  products  were  worth  in 

1870     $    430,000 

1880    527,000 

1800    1,182,000 

1000    almost  3,000,000 

In  1900  the  cut  of  timber  was  257,000,000  feet  b.  m.,  three- 
fifths  of  which  was  yellow  pine,  the  balance  consisting  mainly 
of  red  fir  and  tamarack. 

The  destruction  by  fire  is  said  to  be  beyond  belief. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Numerous  petitions  to  Congress 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  central  reserves.  Geo.  P.  Ahern 
delivered  lectures  on  forestry  at  the  Montana  College  of  Agri- 
culture, at  Bozeman,  for  a  number  of  years. 

7.  Laws:  Penalty  for  wilful  or  careless  firing.  County 
commission  required  to  keep  fire  laws  posted.  Tax  rebate  on 
forestry  plantations. 

8.  Reservations:  Only  690,000  acres  of  the  Bitter  Root 
reserve  lie  in  Montana.  The  Flathead  forest  reserve,  comprising 
1.382.400  acres,  and  the  Lewis  and  Clarke  forest  reserve,  com- 
prising 2,926.080  acres,  both  lying  on  the  crest  of  the  Rockies, 
have  been  recently  combined  into  one  reserve  under  the  name 
of  the  latter.  At  the  same  time,  the  reserved  acreage  was  in- 
creased, making  the  new  "Lewis  and  Clarke  forest  reserve" 
1,670,270  acres. 

55 


FOREST     POLICY. 

The  Gallatin  forest  reserve  of  only  40.320  acres,  near  Boze- 
man,  is  unimportant. 

The  Madison  forest  reserve  (736,000  acres),  bordering  the 
Yellowstone  Park,  and  the  Little  Belt  Mountain  forest  reserve 
(501,000  acres),  both  established  in  1002,  seem  important  for  irri- 
gation at  the  head  of  the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  Rivers. 
On  the  Lewis  and  Clarke  forest  reserve,  western  larch  is  by  far 
the  prevailing  species,  having  twice  the  stumpage  of  Douglas  fir 
and  five  times  the  stumpage  of  yellow  pine.  In  the  same  reserve 
there  seems  to  be  more  spruce  than  either  yellow  pine  or  lodge- 
pole  pine.  The  Canadian  larch  and  spruce  are  sentinels  of  the 
British  Columbia  forest  flora. 

The  Absaroka  forest  reserve  of  1,311,600  acres,  recently 
established,  lies  north  of  the  Yellowstone  Park.  It  has  been 
consolidated  with  the  Yellowstone  and  Teton  reserves  by  Presi- 
dential proclamation. 

9.  Irrigation:  Montana  is  third  in  irrigation,  950,000  acres 
being  irrigated.  Irrigation  practicable  only  near  the  mountains 
at  the  present  moment.  Irrigation  necessary  for  the  cultivation 
of  crops,  notably  barley. 

The  canal  of  the  Minnesota  and  Montana  Irrigation  Com- 
pany in  Yellowstone  County  is  40  miles  long,  with  an  average  width 
of  35  feet  and  a  depth  of  5  feet.  Another  canal  in  Chateau 
County  is  75  miles  long. 

The  great  eastern  plains,  with  very  rich  soil,  are  almost 
unsettled,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  irrigation.  The  best  farms 
are  found  in  the  Gallatin  Valley,  near  Bozeman,  and  along  the 
Yellowstone  River. 

Winter  forage  is  required  for  the  development  of  the  rap- 
idly increasing  livestock   interests. 

In  1889,  950,000  acres  of  irrigated  farm  land  producen 
$7,300,000  worth  of  crops  from  irrigation  works  constructed 
at  an  expense  of  $4,700,000. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  NEBRASKA: 

1.  Area:     2,300   square   miles,   or   3%    of  the   area   of   the 
State,    are    wooded. 

2.  Physiography:      Prairie    traversed    by   the    Platte    River 
midway  from  west  to  east.     The  Niobrara  flows  along  the  north- 

56 


FOREST     POLICY. 

ern    boundary    line;    the    Missouri    forms    the    eastern    boundary 
line  towards  Iowa. 

One  quarter  of  the  State  north  of  the  Platte  River  is  occu- 
pied by  the  ''Sand  Hills,"  which  are  not  sand  dunes,  but  give 
rise  to  springs  and  offer  pasture. 

3.  Distribution:  In  the  broad  Missouri  Valley  of  the 
extreme  east  were  once  found  splendid  groves  of  hardwoods, 
notably  of  burr  oak,  walnut,  ash,  box  elder,  honey  locust  and 
Kentucky  coffee  tree.  The  canyons  of  the  rivers  coming  from  the 
west  show  cottonwoods,  willows  and  red  cedar.  Further  west, 
some  yellow  pine,  quaking  aspen,  cottonwoods  and  birches  occur. 
Yellow  pine  covers  several  narrow  ridges  5,000  feet  high  near 
the  Wyoming  line.  Red  cedar  is  found  sparingly  everywhere, 
the  original  growth  being  cut  away  for  fence  posts. 

In  the  Sand  Hills,  logs  and  stumps  of  yellow  pine  are 
found  buried  in  the  sand.  After  Dr.  C.  E.  Bessey,  pine  groves 
(ponderosa)  were  found  50  years  ago  even  in  the  eastern  half 
of  the  State.  About  300.000  acres  (?)  of  forest  plantations  are 
now  in  existence.  Honey  locust,  cottonwood  and  green  ash  are 
said  to  do  best.     The  European  pines  are  reported  thrifty. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  The  federal  government  still  owns 
the  Sand  Hills.  321.000  acres  of  forest  along  the  rivers  are  at- 
tached to   farms. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  The  hardwoods  of  the  Missouri  bot- 
toms are  practical^  used  up.  In  1880  there  were  38  firms  pro- 
ducing annually  14,000.000  feet  of  cottonwood  and  burr  oak  lum- 
ber. In  1000.  23  mills,  of  $1,000  average  investment,  were  in 
existence.  Output  in  1900  is  not  given.  Stumpage  is  worth  $2.29 
per  thousand,  and  logs  at  mill  bring  $5.69. 

Firewood  and  fence  posts  are  the  leading  requisites. 
Leather  and  pulp  industry:     None. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  John  Sterling  Morton,  Cleveland's 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  was  the  soul  of  a  vigorous  movement 
in  favor  of  prairie  forest  planting.     He  introduced  Arbor  Day. 

A  State  agricultural  society  offers  three  premia  to  the 
largest  tree  planters. 

The  ''Nebraska  Park  and  Forest  Association,"  founded  in 
1899,  tries  to  influence  the  newspapers. 

Instruction  in  forestry  at  the  University  of  Nebraska  by 
Dr.  C.   E.  Bessey. 

57 


FOREST    POLICY. 

7.  Laws:  Tax  exemption  laws  of  1869  were  found  uncon- 
stitutional. Towns  are  required  by  law  to  plant  trees  and  au- 
thorized to  levy  taxes  for  that  purpose.  There  are  the  usual 
fire   laws. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Dismal  River  forest  reserve  (85,- 
123  acres)  and  the  Niobrara  forest  reserve  (123,779  acres)  are  to 
be  planted  up,  by  the  federal  government,  in  yellow  pine,  jack 
pine  and  red  cedar. 

9.  Irrigation:  148,000  acres  of  irrigated  farm  land  have 
produced,  in  the  census  year,  $983,000  worth  of  crops,  helped  by 
irrigation  works  costing  $1,000,000. 


FORESTRY   CONDITIONS   OF  NEVADA: 

1.  Area:  Under  forest  is  200,000  acres,  or  0.3%  of  the 
State.  Wooded  area,  after  census  of  1900,  is  3,904.000  acres,  or 
6%  of  the  State. 

2.  Physiography:  In  the  western  part,  the  east  slope  of 
the  Sierras,  with  Virginia  City  and  Carson  City.  Scarcely  any 
water  leaves  the  State.  In  the  central  part,  narrow  mountain 
ranges  run  north  and  south,  and  rise  to  over  8,000  feet  altitude. 

3.  Distribution:  Stunted  junipers,  and  above  these  moun- 
tain mahogany  (Cercocarpus  ledifolius)  skirt  the  barren  land. 
Higher  up,  slopes  dotted  with  nut  pine,  and  still  higher  with 
yellow  pine  (Jeffreyi  and  ponderosa).  The  limber  white  pine  is 
said  to  form  extensive  forests  at  elevations  from  7,000  to  10,- 
000  feet. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  Mines  and  railroads  own  little.  The 
United  States  own  practically  all  of  Nevada.  The  State  obtained 
from  Congress  a  grant  of  2,000,000  acres,  to  be  located  as  the 
State  pleased,  in  place  of  the  usual  school  sections  16  and  36. 
The  State  sold  the  2.000,000  acres  rapidly  in  large  tracts  along 
all  water  courses  at  $1.25  per  acre  to  cattle  men. 

5.  Use:  Mining  timber  is  paramount.  Limber  pine,  yel- 
low pine  and  red  fir  (magnifica)  are  used  for  props.  The  tim- 
ber works  of  the  Comstock  mines  are  said  to  be  of  marvelous 
construction.  Since  1870,  $55,006,000  worth  of  timber  is  said  to 
have  been  buried  in  the  mines.  Nut  pines,  mountain  mahogany 
and  juniper  are  used  for  fuel  and  charcoal.  Lumber  is  worth  $23 
per  thousand;  mine  props,  $10  per  cord. 

SB 


FOREST    POLICY. 

6.  Forestry  movement:     Kill. 

7.  Laws:     None. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  A  State  irrigation  law  of  1903  declares  all 
water  courses  public  property  and  fixes  maximum  use  of  water 
per  acre  of  irrigated  land. 

The  development  of  the  State  depends  on  the  possibility 
of  constructing  reservoirs  (notably  on  Humboldt  River)  and 
on  the  chances  of  artesian  wells. 

The  existing  irrigation  works,  costing  $1,500,000,  irrigate 
500,000  acres  of  land  and  produced,  in  1899,  $2,800,000  worth  of 
products. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  NEW  HAMPSHIRE: 

1.  Area:  5,200  square  miles,  or  58%  of  the  State,  are 
wooded. 

2.  Physiography:  Northern  section  of  the  State  is  moun- 
tainous, containing  the  headwaters  of  the  Androscoggin,  Merri- 
mac  and  Connecticut  Rivers  ("the  Switzerland  of  America"). 
Mount  Washington,  in  the  Presidential  Range  of  the  White 
Mountains,  is  6,290  feet  high.  Southern  section  of  the  State  is 
hilly,  with  some  peaks  over  3,000  feet  high.  Many  summer  tour- 
ists attracted. 

3.  Distribution:  The  growing  stock  was  and  is  formed  of 
white  pine,  hemlock,  spruce,  balsam  and  cedar,  mixed  with  sugar 
maple,  birch,  beech;  further,  chestnut,  ash,  basswood  and  oak. 
After  Fernow,  hardwoods  with  spruce  prevail  in  the  northern 
section;  pine  and  hemlock  in  the  southern  section.  In  1900  the 
lumbermen  alone  owned  3,800,000,000  feet  b.  m.  of  stumpage, 
2,000.000,000  feet  of  which  are  spruce.  Large  areas  stock  them- 
selves with  white  pine  after  lumbering.  Since  1850,  1.750,000 
acres  of  improved  farm  land  have  reverted  to  unimproved  land, 
most  of  which  is  coming  up  in  white  pine. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  159  lumber  firms  own  664,000  acres 
of  forest,  43%  of  the  woodlands  are  attached  to  farms.  Paper 
companies  and  speculators  own  very  large  tracts. 

.  5.     Use  of  timber:    The  forest  has  been  culled  for  decades 
of  years — to   begin  with,   of  prime  white  pine  only.     Fires  used 

59 


FOREST    POLICY. 

to  be  severe.  The  stand  of  virgin  spruce  often  averages  20,000 
feet  b.  m.  per  acre  on  large  tracts.  Logging  by  water  or  by 
rail.  Some  firms  begin  to  survey  the  sleigh  roads  with  great 
care.  Stumpage  costs  $2.68;  logs  at  mill  cost  $6.96  per  1,000  feet 
b.  m.  The  State  contains  535  saw  mills,  of  $10,200  average 
investment. 

The  output  of  the  saw  mills  was  valued  in 

1850  $1,100,000 

i860  1.200,000 

1870  4.300,000 

1880  3,800,000 

1890  5,600,000 

1000  9,200,000 

The  cut  of  1900  consisted  of 

Spruce    188.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  pine    310.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hemlock   45,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  conifers    2,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hardwoods    23.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

The  miscellaneous  mill  stock  produced  in  1000  was  worth 
$875,000.  Hoop  poles,  excelsior,  shoe  pegs  and  maple  sugar  are 
produced  in  large   quantities. 

Leather  industry:  12  tanneries  report  an  annual  output  of 
$2,265,000  of  leather  and  a  consumption  of  5,700  cords  of  hem- 
lock bark,  worth  $25,400;  712  bales  of  gambier,  worth  $4,600;  40 
barrels  of  bark  extract,  worth  $480,  and  of  chemicals,  worth  $6,400. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry:  29  firms  produce  an  output 
worth  $7,200,000.  The  raw  material  consists  of  domestic  spruce, 
109,000  cords,  worth  $655,000;  Canadian  spruce,  87,000  cords,  worth 
$479,000;  other  wood,  720  cords,  worth  $3,430. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  A  Forest  Commission,  appointed 
in  1881,  submitted  a  good  report  in  1885.  Lectures  on  forestry 
are  offered  at  the  State  Agricultural  College.  The  inhabitants 
are  not  inclined  to  check  forest  fires. 

The  "White  Mountain  State  Park"  movement,  in  1892, 
failed  to  be  successful. 

A  bill  of  1901,  intended  to  limit  the  cutting  of  conifers  to 
trees  of  over  10  inches  stump  diameter,   failed  to  become  a  law. 

60 


FOREST    POLICY. 

The  "Society  for  the  Protection  of  the  New  Hampshire 
Forests''  employs  a  forester  (Philip  W.  Ayres)  and  intends  to 
work  the  park  scheme  through  Congress.  Its  propaganda,  based 
on  merely  economic  grounds,  is  most  commendable. 

7.  Laws:  A  law  of  1893  establishes  a  forestry  commission, 
consisting  of  the  governor  and  four  members  appointed  by  him. 
The  member  acting  as  secretary  draws  a  salary  of  $1,000.  Duties 
of  commission  are: — 

(a)  Gathering  forest,  lumber  and  fire  statistics. 

(b)  Forestry  propaganda  at  public  meetings. 

(c)  Suggesting  legislation  in  annual  reports. 

(d)  Appointment  (since  1895)  of  special  fire  wardens  upon 

application  by  forest  owners,  applicant  and  county  equally  shar- 
ing the  expense  of  the  service. 

In  organized  towns,  the  selectmen  are  fire  wardens  ex 
officio,  paid  by  the  town. 

Where  no  town  organization  exists,  the  county  commis- 
sioners are  empowered  to  appoint  fire  wardens  serving  at  the 
county's  expense. 

Fire  laws  are  uninforced. 

A  law  of  1903  provides  $5,000  for  the  examination,  by  the 
National  Bureau  of  Forestry,  of  the  White  Mountain  forests.  A 
joint  resolution  of  the  Legislature  authorizes  the  federal  govern- 
ment to  establish,  by  expropriation  or  otherwise,  a  national  for- 
est reserve  in  the  White  Mountains. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:      None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  NEW  JERSEY: 

1.  Area:  The  woodlands  cover  3,234  square  miles,  or  43% 
of  State.     The  forest  area  is  said  to  be  increasing. 

2.  Physiography:  The  Delaware  River  and  the  Delaware 
Bay  on  the  west  side:  Hudson  River,  Raritan  Bay  and  Ocean 
on  the  east  side.  Shipping  facilities  and  sea  climate  supply  New 
Jersey  with  economic  and  forestal  conditions  similar  to  those  of 
England.     A  belt   12  miles  wide,  stretching  along  a  line  running 

61 


FOREST     POLICY. 

from  Wilmington,  Del.,  to  Hoboken,  is  covered  by  cretaceous  clays 
and  marls.  North  of  this  belt  lies  the  mountain  zone  of  New 
Jersey,  formed  of  red  sandstone  with  trap  outcrops,  replaced 
further  north  by  gneiss  and  granite  highlands  and  yielding,  in 
the  extreme  north,  to  the  limestone  and  slate  formations  of  the 
Kittatinney   Mountains. 

South  of  the  cretaceous  belt  lie  "The  Pines,"  a  slightly 
rolling  plain,  with  gravelly  and  sandy  soil  of  post-tertiary  origin. 

3.  Distribution:  All  timber  is  second  or  third  growth. 
In  the  clay  and  marl  belt,  chestnut  coppice  prevails  in  small 
wood  lots  attached  to  farms;  growth  thrifty,  protected  by  farm- 
ers.    Pinus  virginiana  and  echinata  are  found,  with  little  rigida. 

In  the  highlands  and  mountains  of  the  north,  the  farm  lots 
in  the  valleys  are  well  stocked  with  hardwoods,  especially  chest- 
nut. In  the  Kittatinney  Mountains,  conifers,  especially  Pinus 
rigida,  are  mixed  with  hardwoods.  Slopes  and  ridges  are  in- 
variably in  woods.  In  the  mountains,  tracts  are  large  and  hence 
more  frequented  by  fires  and  trespassers. 

In  "The  Pines,"  pure  pitch  pine  forests  of  a  stunted  growth 
prevail  on  pure  sand,  the  trees  formed  by  stool-shoots  after  fires. 
On  better  soil,  black  oak  and  black  jack  oak  are  mixed  with 
pitch  pine.  On  wet  soil  dense  stands  of  white  cedar  occur,  or 
hardwood  swamps,  stocked  with  sweet  and  black  gum,  maple  and 
yellow  poplar. 

The  trap  rock  ridges,  breaking  through  the  red  sandstone, 
show  a  stunted  coppice  growth  of  poor  oak,  chestnut  and  red 
cedar. 

The  woodlands  of  the  northern  highlands  and  those  of 
"The  Pines"  may  be  of  indirect  importance  by  shielding  the  water 
supply  for  a  growing  population. 

A  colony  of  Russian  Jews  practice  osier  culture  for  basket- 
making. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  47  mill  firms  own  7.576  acres  of 
forest,  reported  to  contain  3.600  feet  b.  m.  average  stumpage. 
The  balance  of  woodlands  belongs  to  farmers  and  to  owners  of 
small   private   reserves. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  The  iron  industry  in  "The  Pines." 
during  the  18th  century,  drew  heavily  upon  the  virgin  forest  for 
charcoal.     In  1850  the  whole  State  was  already  cut  over. 

62 


FOREST     POLICY. 

The  output  of  the  saw  mills  was  valued  in 

1850    $1,123,000 

i860    1 .608,000 

1870    2.745,000 

1880   1 .627,000 

1890    1 ,225.000 

1900    1.859.000 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

Yellow    pine    27.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

White   cedar    10.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other    conifers    4.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Chestnut    10,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Oak    19.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Other    hardwoods    ...     3.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Total    73.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Logs  on  stump  are  worth  $3.93;  at  mill,  $7.56.  197  saw 
mills  exist,  of  $4,357  average  investment.  The  miscellaneous 
wood  industries  furnish  only  $157,000  worth  of  stock.  The  con- 
sumption of  forest  products,  other  than  lumber,  is  said  to  con- 
sist of  800,000  cords  of  wood  for  fuel.  1,250,000  railroad  ties; 
14,000  telegraph  and  trolley  poles  and  $365,000  worth  of  fencing. 
The  usual  rotation  in  coppice  woods  and  pineries  is  from  35  to 
50  years. 

Leather  industry:  77  tanneries  produce  $13,700,000  worth 
of  leather  and  consume  4.016  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth 
$39,600;  15,150  cords  of  oak  bark,  worth  $170,830.  In  addition, 
large  amounts  of  gambier,  quebracho,  sumac  and  chemicals  are 
used   for  tanning. 

The  paper  and  pulp  industry  works  in  34  plants,  produ- 
cing $3,200,000  worth  of  paper.  No  cord  wood,  however,  is 
used.  The  raw  material  consists  of  rags,  straw,  pulp  and  fiber 
obtained   from    outside   the    State. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Public  opinion  is  well  aware  of 
the  benefits  derivable  from  a  sound  forest  policy.  Forestry  bills 
are    continuously    introduced    and    continuously    fail    of    passage. 

The  Geological  Survey  of  New  Jersey,  since  1885,  deals 
with  the  forest  problem,  and,  under  a  law  of  1894,  has  issued,  in 
1899.  a  very  good  report  on  the  forests  of  the  State.     No  action 

63 


FOREST     POLICY. 

was  taken  upon  it.  A  State  Forestry  Association  seems  to  have 
died.  The  splendid  public  road  law  of  New  Jersey  should  greatly 
facilitate  conservative  forestry.  What  New  Jersey  needs  is  an 
enthusiastic  and  unselfish  leader  of  propaganda  for   forestry. 

7  Laws:  Since  1792,  county  officials  act  as  fire  wardens 
and  are  privileged  to  summon  help.  Railroads  are  responsible 
for  damages  caused  by  spark  fires,  and  locomotives  must  be  sup- 
plied with  spark  arrestors.  The  "Minch  bill,"  of  1902,  providing 
salaried  fire  marshals,  seems  to  have  failed.  Arbor  Day  since 
1884. 

8.  Reservations:     None,  except   small  private   reserves. 

9.  Irrigation:  Only  on  73  acres  producing  hay,  vegetables 
and  corn. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  NEW  MEXICO: 

1.  Area:  2.3,700  square  miles,  equal  to  19%  of  total  area 
of  Territory,  are  wooded. 

2.  Physiography:  Rocky  Mountains  traverse  Territory 
from  north  to  south.  Average  elevation  of  Rockies,  north  of 
Santa  Fe,  10,500  feet.  Drainage  chiefly  towards  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, via  the  Rio  Grande  from  the  west  slope  of  the  Rockies,  and 
via  Pecos  and  Canadian  River  from  the  east  slope  of  the  Rockies. 
River  beds  sunken  200  feet  into  the  table  lands.  Rainfall  averages 
less  than  one  inch  per  month,  except  in  the  higher  altitudes.  Mean 
altitude  of  the  whole  territory  is  about  5,600  feet.  . 

3.  Distribution:  Arid  plains  east  of  the  Pecos  River 
(Llano  Estacado),  with  some  mesquit.  In  the  southwest,  nar- 
row mountain  ranges  separate  wide  plains  on  which  Madrona, 
Spanish  Bayonet  and  Palo  Verde  grow.  ''Journanda  del  Morte," 
along  the  Mexican  frontier,  is  said  to  be  the  worst  of  all  des- 
erts. The  mesas  show  scattering  scrub  oak  with  groups  of  red 
cedar,  western  juniper  and  pinon.  In  the  depressions  of  the 
mesas  occur  fine  groves  of  mesquit.  Splendid  grazing  on  the 
mesas.  Along  the  rivers  appear  fringes  of  box  elders,  willows 
and  cottonwoods.  The  mountain  ranges  show,  at  the  highest 
elevations,  a  cupressus  species  forming  dense  forests  (probably 
Arizonica);  lower  down,  on  the  north  slopes,  white  pine  (flexilis), 
Douglas  fir  and  Engelmann's  spruce,  which  are  replaced,  after 
heavy  cuttings  and  burnings,  by  quaking  aspen.     On  south  slopes 

64 


FOREST    POLICY. 

yellow  pine  preponderates  in  open  forests  (ponderosa).  The  foot- 
hills show  juniper,  cedar,  pinon,  scrub  oak.  The  best  forests 
are  in  the  central  north  and  in  the  southwest,  where  the  diagonal 
mountain  chain  traversing  Arizona  enters  the  territory. 

4-  Forest  ownership:  Lumbermen  own  i. 518.000  acres.  At- 
tached to  farms  are  10%  of  the  forests.  The  railroads  and  mines 
are  said  to  control  large  tracts.  Reservations  cover  3.258.080 
acres,  equal  to  4%  of  the  territorial  area. 

5-  Use:  Forests  are  mostly  used  for  pasture,  especially 
in  the  yellow  pine  region.  In  the  foothills'  forests,  yellow  pine 
is  the  most  valuable  timber.  Cedar  and  juniper  are  used  for 
fence  posts.  Scrub  oaks  and  pinion  are  used  for  fuel.  In  the 
census  year  the  cut  was  203.000  feet  b.  m.  of  Engelmann's  spruce 
and  Douglas  spruce,  and  31,637,000  feet.  b.  m.  of  yellow  pine, 
averaging  1,700  feet  b.  m.  to  the  acre.  Merchantable  timber  is 
found  only  on  the  higher  mountains.  Mill  investments  average 
$5,200.  Lumbermen  control  1.000,000,000  feet  b.  m.  of  spruce  and 
1,300,000.000  feet  of  yellow  pine.  No  pulp  or  leather  industries. 
Stock  raising  stands  paramount.  Fires  are  said  to  do  little  dam- 
age,  excepting  north  of  Santa   Fe. 

6.     Forestry  movement:     None. 

7-  Laws:  Usual  fire  laws.  Liability  for  all  damages. 
Denver  and  Rio  Grande  railroad  is  the  only  road  privileged  to 
cut  timber  for  repairs  from  government  land. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Pecos  River  reserve,  of  431.000 
acres,  lies  northeast  of  Santa  Fe  and  comprises  the  sources  of 
the  Canadian  and  Pecos  Rivers. 

The  Gila  River  forest  reserve  is  large  (2,327.040  acres)  and 
compact  and  drains,  through  the  Rio  Grande,  westward  into  the 
Pacific.  In  July.  1902.  the  Lincoln  forest  reserve  of  500.000  acres 
was  created  in  the  central  south  of  the  Territory. 

9-  Irrigation:  88.900  acres.  Agriculture  possible  only  in 
the  canons  of  the  main  rivers,  depending  on  irrigation. 

The  Aborigines  have  irrigated  their  farms  from  time  im- 
memorial on.  Agricultural  chances  are  best  along  the  southern 
broad-bottomed  course  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Ditches,  roughly 
constructed,  are  usually  held  in  common  by  the  Mexican  inhab- 
itants. The  farms  have  the  form  of  oblongs,  the  narrow  side 
joining  the   river. 

65 


FOREST    POLICY. 

The  largest  reservoir  is  on  the  Pecos  River,  in  the  south- 
east of  the   State  near  Carlsbad. 

The  irrigation  works  existing  in  1889  were  constructed  at 
an  outlay  of  $4,100,000  and  irrigate  -'04.000  acres  of  farm  land, 
producing  $2,800,000  worth  of  crops. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  NEW  YORK: 

1.  Area:  18,700  square  miles,  or  39%  of  the  State,  are 
classed  as  woodlands. 

2.  Physiography:  Whole  State  slightly  mountainous. 
Western  section  more  level.  Catskills  on  west  bank  of  Hud- 
son; Adirondacks  in  extreme  north,  rising  in  Mount  Marcy  to 
an  elevation  of  5,345  feet  (with  gneiss  and  granite  for  underly- 
ing rock).  A  large  number  of  inland  lakes  in  north  and  west 
facilitate    transportation. 

3.  Distribution:  The  western  section  is  the  farming  sec- 
tion of  the  State.  Originally  the  broad-leafed  forest  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Basin  covered  the  entire  State,  excepting: — 

(a)  The  Adirondacks,  where  maple,  birch  and  beech  pre- 
vail in  irregular  mixture  with  spruce,  hemlock,  white  pine  and  • 
red  pine,  the  spruce  forming  pure  stands  on  the  poorest  soil, 
whilst  wet  depressions  are  occupied  by  balsam,  tamarack  and 
white  cedar. 

(b)  The  low  hills  bordering  the  Hudson  and  extending 
westward  along  the  Pennsylvania  line,  in  which  the  coniferous 
species  of  the  northern  pine  belt  preponderate. 

In  1900.  the  forests,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  parts 
of  the  Adirondacks.  consist  of  second  growth.  Many  a  so- 
called  "virgin  forest''  of  the  Adirondacks  has  lost  its  stand  of 
white  pine  for  many  a  year. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  276  firms  own  648.000  acres,  stocked 
with  5.600  feet  b.  m.  per  acre.  The  State  reserves  comprise  1,325." 
000  acres  in  the  Adirondacks  and  82.000  acres  in  the  Catskills. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  The  stand  of  conifers  in  New  York  was 
estimated,  by  Sargent,  in  1880,  at  ^.3  billion  feet  b.  m.,  and  by 
Fernow,  in   1896,  at  5.3  billion   feet  b.  m. 

66 


FOREST     POLICY. 

The  value  of  the  output  of  the  saw  mills,  since  1850,  shows 

unexplainable  fluctuations.     It  was  in 

1850    $13,100,000 

i860    9.700.000 

1870    21,200.000 

1880   14,300.000 

1890    17.100.000 

1900    15.800.000 

New  York  stepped  down  gradually,  as  a  lumber  producing 

State,  from  first  rank  in  1850  to  12th  rank  in  1900. 

The  cut  in   1900  consisted  of: — 

Hemlock    314.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Spruce    256,000,000  feet  b.  m 

White    pine    122.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Other    conifers    6,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Maple   51,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Oak    43,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Basswood    30.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Elm    16.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Chestnut    14.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Birch    13.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Ash    9,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hickory   1,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Stumpage  is  worth  $3.12,  and  logs  at  mill  are  bought  at 
$7.75  on  an  average.  1.742  mills  report  an  average  investment 
of  $6,163.  The  shingle  production  is  valued  at  $342,000;  the  pro- 
duction of  miscellaneous  stock  at  $1,101,000.  In  barrel  and  box 
manufacture,  further,  in  the  manufacture  of  baskets  and  wooden- 
ware,  New  York  occupies  first  place  amongst  the  States.  159 
box  factories  turn  out  $7,900,000;  413  barrel  factories,  $6,500,000; 
180  basket  and  woodenware  factories,  $1,000,000. 

The  expense  of  logging  in  the  Adirondacks  averages  $-(.50 
per  1. 000  feet  b.  in.  Horses  only  are  used  in  skidding  and  sleigh- 
ing. Logs  are  driven  down  the  rivers,  frequently  with  the  help 
of  splash   dams. 

The  average  growing  stock  in  primeval  parts  of  the  Adi- 
rondacks shows,  per  acre.  31.5  spruces.  4.5  hemlocks,  4  balsams, 
0.2  white  pines.  0.1  cedar.  14  birches,  10  beeches,  6  hard  maples, 
2.5  soft  maples  and  a  few  ash  and  cherry,  making  a  total  stand 
of  73.4  trees  of  over  10-inch  diameter  per  acre. 

67 


FOREST    POLICY. 

Leather  industry:  147  tanneries  yield  annually  $23,200,000 
worth  of  products  and  consume  179,000  cords  of  hemlock  bark, 
worth  $1,200,000;  4,000  cords  oak  bark,  worth  $33,000;  19,000 
bales  of  gambier,  worth  $123,000,  2,100  barrels  of  hemlock  bark 
extract,  worth  $25,000;  526  barrels  of  oak  bark  extract,  worth 
$5,500;  615  barrels  of  quebracho,  worth  $9,500;  2,150  tons  of 
sumac,  worth  $104,000;  and  chemicals,  worth  $330,000. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry:  New  York  leads  the  United 
States,  in  the  12th  census  year,  by  producing  $26,700,000  worth 
of  pulp  and  paper."  179  firms  consume:  Home-grown  spruce, 
363,000  cords,  worth  $1,985,000:  Canadian  Spruce,  141,000  cords, 
worth  $945,000;  domestic  poplar  32,000  cords,  worth  $181,000; 
Canadian  poplar,  9,600  cords,  worth  $57,000;  other  pulp  wood, 
9,500  cords,  worth  $40,000.  After  Fernow,  more  spruce  is  now 
consumed  for  pulp  than  for  lumber. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  New  York,  as  late  as  1884,  was 
still  the  owner  of  some  woodlands  in  the  Adirondacks,  and  Cats- 
kills.  The  Adirondack  Park  Association  stimulated  further  ac- 
quisitions by  the  State.  The  New  York  State  college  of  forestry 
was  expected  to  demonstrate  the  feasibility  of  practical  forestry 
on  30,000  acres  of  experimental  forest  and  to  supply  the  State 
with  scientific  foresters. 

7.  Laws:  Law  of  1886  allows  the  State  to  pay  taxes  on 
her  own  land. 

Law  of  1889  provides  penalty  of  $25  for  every  tree  cut  or 
stolen  from  the  State's  land. 

In  1897,  the  Adirondack  Park  law  was  enacted. 

Since  1893,  forest  utilization  in  the  Adirondack  forest  pre- 
serve is  forbidden  by  a  constitutional  clause. 

In  1895,  the  Forest  Commission  was  combined  with  the 
Fish  and  Game  Commission  (See  XXXI.). 

In  1900,  the  office  of  chief  fire  warden  was  created  and 
the  Commission  authorized  to  employ  three  expert  foresters  to 
act  as  deputy  fire  wardens,  attend  reforestation,  etc. 

In  1901,  the  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission  was  con- 
solidated with  the  Forest  Preserve  Board.  D.  C.  Middleton, 
of  Watertown,  is  the  forestry  member  of  the  Commission.  Col. 
Wm.  F.  Fox  is  Forest  Superintendent.  The  law  makes  it  the 
duty  of  the  Commission 

(a)  To  take  care  of  the  State  forest  preserves. 

(b)  To  promote  "further  growth"   in  the  preserves. 

68 


FOREST     POLICY. 

(c)  To  husband  the  people's  interests  in  forestry  and  tree 
planting,  and  especially  with  reference  to  forest  fires.  The  law 
authorizes  the  Commission  to  employ  a  superintendent,  an  assist- 
ant superintendent,  a  land  clerk.  12  "foresters  and  game  pro- 
tectors" and  35  "forest  rangers,"  the  latter  drawing  a  salary  of 
$500  per  annum. 

Outside  the  State  preserves  the  town  supervisors  act  ex 
officio  as  "fire  wardens,"  empowered  to  summon  help  (at  $2  per 
diem)  and  instructed  to  annually  report  to  the  Commission  on 
the  number,  extent  and  cause  of  forest  fires  occurring  in  their 
respective  precincts;  further,  on  the  remedial  measures  taken  to 
fight  fires.  The  town  pays  half  of  the  fire  warden's  wages  ($2.50 
per  diem). 

If  the  fire  wardens  neglect  proper  discharge  of  their  duties, 
then  the  Justices  of  the  Peace  or  the  Commissioners  of  High- 
ways shall  act  as  fire  wardens  in  their  stead. 

Aside  of  these  fire  wardens  ex  officio,  the  Commission  may 
rely,  "in  forest  towns,"  on  the  vigilance  of  fire  wardens  specially 
appointed  by  the  Commission.  A  forest  town  may  be  subdivided 
into   two  or  more  fire  warden  districts. 

In  1901,  the  chief  fire  warden  had  a  force  of  617  fire  war- 
dens at  his  command,  with  whom  he  kept  in  contact  by  contin- 
uous visits.  A  booklet.  "Instructions  to  Fire  Wardens,"  was 
issued  in   1901. 

The  negligent  or  wilful  firing  of  woodlands  is  punishable 
by  a  fine  ranging  between  $50  and  $500. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Adirondack  Park  exists  only  on 
the  map  and  comprises  that  land  which  eventually  should  become 
the  property  of  the  State.  It  covers  3.226,144  acres,  including 
over  2,000.000  acres  of  private  holdings.  The  Adirondack  forest 
preserve  (the  majority  of),  which  lies  inside  the  park,  comprises 
1.163,414  acres.  It  is  entirely  (excepting  a  few  cases  of  divided 
rights)  owned  by  the  State,  and  contains  450.000  acres  of  forest 
proper,  590.000  acres  of  woodlands  heavily  lumbered,  40,000  acres 
of  deforested  land,  60,000  acres  of  water  surface,  4.600  acres  in 
farms.  The  spruce  stumpage  on  the  preserve  is  estimated  to  be 
1.5  billion  feet  b.   m. 

The   Catskills  forest   preserve   comprises   only  82,330  acres. 

Both  preserves  are  gradually  increased  by  purchase,  the 
prices  ranging  from  $1  to  $9  per  acre.  Tree  planting  on  waste 
land,  within  the  preserve,  was  begun  in   1902. 

69 


FOREST     POLICY. 

0.     Irrigation:     123  acres  on  11  farms  producing  vegetables 
ind  tobacco. 


FORESTRY   CONDITIONS   OF  NORTH   CAROLINA: 

1.  Area:  35,300  square  miles  of  woodlands,  or  73%  of 
the    State,    are    reported    as    "mostly   timbered." 

2.  Physiography:  The  western  mountain  region  occupies 
6,000  square  miles.  It  is  formed  by  the  Blue  Ridge  on  the  South 
Carolina  line  and  the  Great  Smokies  on  the  Tennessee  line. 
Cross  ridges  connecting  these  chains  show  the  highest  elevations. 
Mount  Mitchell,  of  6,711  feet  elevation,  is  the  highest  mountain 
east    of   the    Rockies.      Normal   precipitation.    57   inches   annually. 

Normal  average  temperature,  50  degrees  F.  Rivers  running 
northward,    breaking   independently   through   the    Great    Smokies. 

The  Piedmont  plateau,  400  to  1.500  feet  high,  occupies 
22.000  square  miles.  Its  configuration  is  rolling,  in  the  west 
hilly.  This  fertile  plateau  is  drained  by  the  Catawba  and  Yadkin 
Rivers;  further,  by  the  headwaters  of  the  Cape  Fear,  Neuse  and 
Roanoke  Rivers.  Its  elevation  averages  about  900  feet  above 
sea  level;  its  precipitations,  50  inches;  its  annual  temperature, 
59  degrees  F. 

The  coastal  plain  of  North  Carolina,  an  area  of  24.000 
square  miles,  falls  from  400  feet  elevation  down  to  sea  level. 
North  of  the  Neuse  River  the  soil  is  loamy;  south  of  it  more 
sandy.  Normal  precipitations,  55  inches.  Normal  temperature, 
61  degrees  F.     Large  swamps  along  coast. 

3.     Distribution: 

(a)     Mountain  region: 

(1)  Lower  mountains.  There  are  6  species  of  oaks,  4  of 
hickories,  chestnut,  dogwood,  black  gum,  sourwood  and  chin- 
quapin. Post  and  Spanish  oak  are  said  (by  W.  W.  Ashe)  to  be 
rather  local.  Pinus  echinata.  rigida,  virginiana.  strobus  and 
(after  Ashe)  pungens  prevail.  White  pine  is  said  to  cover  200,- 
000  acres,  notably  in  counties  close  to  the  Virginia  line,  reaching 
its  finest  development  at  altitudes  ranging  between  2,800  and 
3,800  feet  elevation.  The  .lower  mountains  are  practically  deprived 
of  virgin  growth. 

(2)  Higher  mountains.  (3.000  feet  to  5.000  feet  elevation.) 
On  the  north  slopes,  hemlock,  birches  (lutea  and  lenta),  red  oak, 

70 


FOREST     POLICY. 

beech,  basswood,  cherry,  yellow  poplar,  white  ash.  cucumber, 
chestnut  and  buckeye  occur,  frequently  with  a  dense  undergrowth 
of  rhododendron. 

On  the  south  slopes,  white,  scarlet  and  chestnut  oaks; 
chestnut,  locust  and  hickory  prevail.  Table  mountain  pine  on 
dry  ridges.  North  Carolina  hemlock  on  eastern  slopes.  Woods 
virgin 

(3)  Mountain  summits  (over  5,000  feet  elevation).  Black 
spruce  (Picea  rubens)  and  balsam  (Abies  fraseri)  cover  the  moun- 
tain sides,  protected  from  storms.  Buckeye,  beech  and  sweet 
birch;  further,  mountain  ash  are  mixed  with  the  soft  woods,  the 
two  first  named  often  in  groups. 

The  undergrowth  is  a  tangle  of  laurels  standing  on  a  dense 
matting  of  mosses.  On  the  wind-swept  side  of  the  mountains 
"balds"  occur,  fit  only  for  pasture,  covered  with  Ericaceae,  dotted 
with   stunted   red   oaks,   chestnut-   and   a   locust   here   and  there 

(b)  Piedmont  plateau.  Uplands  show  an  irregular  mix- 
ture of  broad-leafed  species  (notably  black  oak)  with  pines 
(echinata  and  taeda).  On  red  sandstone  a  pure  growth  of  taeda 
and  echinata  is  frequently  found  without  admixture  of  hardwoods. 
On  fertile  red  clay  (tobacco  land),  hardwoods  (black,  white  and 
red  oak:  white,  shagbark  and  small  nut  hickory:  yellow  poplar; 
white  ash)  occur  without  pines.  The  virgin  forest  is  practically 
removed.  Along  the  large  streams,  sweet  and  black  gum.  over- 
cup  and  swamp  (cow)  oak,  sycamore  and  hackberry  occur.  Along 
the  smaller  streams  are  found  red  and  white  oak.  yellow  poplar, 
beech,  maples  and  hop  hornbeam. 

(c)  Coastal  plain.  Maritime  forests  along  seashore  are 
broad-ley  fed  and  evergreen,  composed  of  water  (nigra),  laurel 
(laurifolia)  and  live  (virens)  oak,  devilwood  (Osmanthus  amer- 
icana).  mock  orange  (Primus  caroliniana),  sweet  bay,  yaupon 
(Ilex  vomitoria)  and  palmetto.  The  pine  belt  uplands,  adjoin- 
ing the  maritime  forests,  show  long  leaf  pine  or  taeda  or  both, 
according  to  fertility  of  soil.  The  lowlands  in  the  pine  belt  ex- 
hibit so-called  "Oak  Flats,"  with  cow,  overcup,  white,  water  and 
Spanish  oaks,  in  company  with  ash,  elm,  gum.  Cottonwood  and 
red  maple;  or  swamps  stocked  with  gum  and  cypress;  or  so- 
called  "Bays."  where  white  cedar  prevails:  or  "Pond  pine 
swamps,"  formed  by  Pinus  serotina.  mixed  with  oaks  and 
taeda  pine. 

71 


FOREST     POLICY. 


4.  Forest  ownership:  629  lumber  firms  control  1,714.000 
acres.     Balance  of  woodlands  is  owned  by  farmers  and  speculators. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  There  are  altogether  1.751  saw  mills. 
The  average  mill  investment  is  $3,572.  The  mill  output  in  North 
Carolina   amounted   in   the   year 

1850  to   

i860  to    


1870  to 
1880  to 
1890  to 
1900  to 


;  900.000 
1. 100.000 
2.000,000 
2,700,000 
5.900,000 

14.900,000 


The  cut  of  1900  consisted  of 

Yellow  pine    ] 

Cypress    

Other  conifers    

Poplar    

White    oak    

Other  hardwoods    


,228,000,000  feet  b.  m. 
31,000,000  feet  b.  m. 
11,000,000  feet  b.  m. 
51,000.000  feet  b.  m. 
86,000.000  feet  b.  m. 
8,000.000  feet  b.  m. 


The  naval  store  products,  in  1885,  were  $1,320,000.  Then, 
already,  the  industry  was  on  the  decline,  the  output  having  de- 
creased (after  Fernow)  since  1880  by  30%.  The  main  shipping 
points  for  naval  stores  are  Wilmington  and  Norfolk.  After  Sar- 
gent, the  stand  of  yellow  pine,  in  1880,  was  5,200,000.000  feet 
b.  m.  Since  1880.  however,  at  least  15  billion  feet  of  yellow  pine 
have  been  cut.  The  stumpage  in  the  mountain  section  after 
IT  B.  Ayres  and  W.  W.  Ashe,  in  1901.  amounts  to  10.650.000000 
feet  b.  m.  or  2,640  feet  b.  m.  to  the  acre.  In  addition,  the  stand 
of  firewood  in  the  mountain  section  is  estimated  to  be  16.83  cords 
per  acre.  The  various  species  participate  in  said  stumpage  as 
follows: — 


Oaks   41.41% 

White  pine 2.68% 

Spruce   0.80% 

Ash i.43% 

Basswood    2.69% 

Beech   1.06% 

Maple   2.67% 

Pitch  pine    1-34% 

Locust 0.67% 


Chestnut    17.20% 

Hemlock    5-30% 

Poplar  1.85% 

Buckeye   2.00% 

Black  gum  1.64% 

Cucumber    0.84% 

Birch   3.03% 

Hickory    3. 16% 

Echinata  0.43% 

Miscellaneous  9.80% 


72 


FOREST     POLICY. 

The  miscellaneous  industries  (producing  stock  for  furni- 
ture, wagons,  agricultural  implements,  lath,  bobbins  and  spools), 
in   1900.   show  an   output   of  $644,000. 

Little  cooperage  stock  (value  $30,000)  and  boxes  (value 
$76,000)    were    produced.      Log<    on    stump    are    worth    $1.34:    at 

mill,  $4-45- 

The  leather  industry  consumes,  in  the  census  year,  in  75 
tanneries,  1.808  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth  $8,524:  20,467 
cords  of  oak  bark,  worth  $107,242:  270  barrels  of  oak  bark 
extract,  worth  $3,294.  The  value  of  the  leather  produced  is 
$1,502,000. 

The  paper  and  pulp  industry  is  nill.  The  spruce  forests 
of  the  high  mountains  are  still  inaccessible;  in  addition,  freight 
rates  are  too  high  for  good  prospects  of  paper  mill  investments. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  The  "North  Carolina  Forestry 
Society"  is  inactive.  A  forester,  attached  to  the  North  Carolina 
Geological   Survey,  draws  $1,000  per  year  salary   (W.  W.  Ashe). 

7.  Laws:  Good  fire  laws,  on  the  statute  book,  are  a  dead 
letter,  since  there  is  no  staff  charged  with  their  enforcement. 
A  recent  law,  practically  prohibiting  the  export  of  logs  for 
manufacture,  is,  probably,  unconstitutional. 

8.  Reservations:  The  "Appalachian  National  Park"  (or 
Reserve?),  now  planned,  is  located,  largely,  in  the  Great  Smokies 
of  Western  North  Carolina.  Congress  is  asked  to  appropriate 
$10,000,000  for  the  establishment  of  such  a  park  covering  4,000,- 
000  acres.  North  Carolina  and  the  adjoining  States  have  passed 
laws  authorizing  the  United  States  to  establish  and  manage 
such  a  park.  Main  difficulty  to  be  met  is  the  problem  of  local 
taxation. 

9.  Irrigation:  101  rice  plantations,  covering  3.283  acres, 
or  15%  of  the  total  area  in  rice,  were  irrigated  in  1899.  pro- 
ducing 30%   of  the  total   rice  yield   of  the   State. 

Tide  water  is  utilized  for  irrigation.  The  cost  of  the  sys- 
tem averages  $34-35  per  acre. 


FORESTRY    CONDITIONS    OF   NORTH    DAKOTA: 

1.  Area:  600  square  miles  are  wooded,  an  area  equal  to 
1%  of  the  entire  State.  No  State  of  the  Union  has  a  smaller 
percentage  of  wooded  area. 

73 


FOREST     POLICY. 

2.  Physiography:  Plains  are  unsheltered  from  the  north. 
There  are  low  hill  ranges  near  the  Canadian  line.  i.  e..  Turtle 
Mountains.  The  Missouri,  after  taking  in  the  Yellowstone 
River,  runs  eastward  and  then  southward  through  the  State. 
The  Red  River  of  the  North  forms  the  boundary  towards 
Minnesota. 

3.  Distribution:  All  river  bottoms  show  disconnected 
groups  of  burr  oak  (macrocarpa).  sycamore,  cottonwood,  box 
elder  and  green  ash.  The  low  northern  mountains  contain  cot- 
tonwoods  mainly. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  Several  thousand  acres  (40.000?)  of 
artificial  forest  planted  under  the  timber  culture  act. 

5.  Use:  Hardwoods  used  for  firewood.  Xear  Canadian 
line,  wood  is  worth  $1.50  per  cord.  Building  timber  obtained 
from  Minnesota.  Twelfth  census  reports  4  saw  mills  of  $2,000 
average  capital.  Logs  worth  $1  on  stump  and  $5  at  mill.  No 
pulp  and  no  leather  industry. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  An  association  formed  in  1887 
seems  to  have  died  since.  The  .timber  culture  act  gave  rise  to 
enthusiastic  but  mostly  unsuccessful  planting.  Arbor  Day  move- 
ment since  1884.  Much  interest  in  forest  planting  maintained  by 
the  press. 

7.  Laws:  A  bounty  of  $2  annually  to  everyone  planting 
one  acre  or  more  in  trees.  A  plantation  of  five  acres  exempts 
a  quarter  section,  plus  $1,000  worth  of  improvements,  from  taxa- 
tion for  ten  years.  Usual  prairie  fire  laws.  Owner  must  fire  his 
land  in  March.  April  or  May.  and  give  24  hours'  notice  of  his 
intention  to  do  so  to  all  people  living  within  one  mile. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  Possibility  of  reclamation  along  main  Mis- 
souri  River   is   limited. 

The  irrigated  area,  in  1899.  aggregated  less  than  5.000  acres, 
yielding  crops   worth  $28,000. 

Only  $18,000  has  been  spent  for  irrigation  systems  up  to 
1899. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  OHIO: 

I.     Area:      Originally    entire    State    was    wooded.      Forest 
area   statistics   are   annually   derived    from    data    furnished    by   tax 

74 


FOREST     POLICY. 

assessors.  In  1853  forest  area  was  55%;  in  1870.  38%;  in  1886, 
22%;  in  1896,  17.4%.  After  the  12th  census,  however,  the  area 
of  woodlands  was  23%  of  area  of  State,  or  9.300  square  miles. 

2.  Physiography:  No  mountains,  no  dry  or  rocky  soil. 
Undulating,  rich  table  land,  every  square  foot  fit  for  agricultural 
purposes.  Lake  Erie  in  the  north  and  Ohio  River  in  the  South 
facilitate  transportation. 

3.  Distribution:  Scattering  groves  of  long  boled  hard- 
woods appear  everywhere  (hickory,  sycamore,  oaks,  chestnut, 
ash.  maple,  yellow  poplar,  walnuts,  elm,  beech,  etc.).  Original 
forest  is,  probably,  left  in  swamps  only.  White  pine  along  the 
Pennsylvania  line  in  a  narrow  belt. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  All  woodlands  are  attached  to  farms, 
except  80,700  acres,  of  4,100  feet  b.  m.  average  stumpage,  con- 
trolled by  lumber  mills. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Ohio  occupies  seventh  rank  as  a  lumber 
producing  State  of  the  Union,  having  maintained  its  position 
admirably  in  spite  of  reports  of  declining  supplies.  Ohio  leads 
in  the  production  of  furniture  stock.  Logs  are  worth  at  mill 
$9.47,  and  on  stump,  $4.92.  There  are  2.023  mills,  of  $4,638 
average  investment.  Value  of  products  of  lumber  industry 
averaged,  in  1870,  1880,  1890  and  1900  respectively,  $10,000,000, 
$14,000,000.  $15,000,000  and  $21,000,000. 

The   cut  in   1900  consisted  of: — 

White   oak    593,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods    325.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Conifers    42.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Leather  industry:  58  tanneries  use  5.500  cords  of  hemlock 
bark,  23,800  cords  of  oak  bark,  10,000  barrels  of  bark  extracts 
and  a  little  gambier,  quebracho  and  sumac.  Total  product  of 
tanneries  equals  $5,200,000. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry  has  51  plants  using  rags,  waste 
paper,  straw  and  manila  grass  preferably,  in  addition  to  5,000 
cords  of  home-grown  (?)  spruce,  2,000  cords  of  Canadian  spruce, 
10,000  cords  of  home-grown  poplar.  2.000  cords  of  Canadian 
poplar  and   12.000  cords  of  miscellaneous  woods. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  State  Forestry  Association  inac- 
tive. Woodland  is  considered  only  as  farmland  bearing  the  wrong 
crop.     A  bill  for  forestry  school  defeated   in   1897. 

75 


FOREST     POLICY. 

Forestry  lectures  by  Wm.  R.  Lazenby,  at  State  University. 
Cincinnati    Forestry  and   Improvement   Association   formed 
in  190.3. 

7.  Laws:      Fire    laws    since    1805.      State    forestry    bureau 
created  in    1885.     Officers  unsalaried  and  now  inactive. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY       CONDITIONS       OF       OKLAHOMA       AND 
INDIAN     TERRITORY: 

1.  Area:  In  Indian  Territory.  65%  of  the  total  area  or 
20,000  square  miles  are  wooded. 

In  Oklahoma,  11%  of  total  area  or  4.400  square  miles  are 
wooded. 

2.  Physiography:  Undulating  plateau,  drained  by  rivers 
flowing  west  to  east,  notably  the  Canadian  River  and  Cimarron 
River.  The  Red  River  of  the  south  forms  the  southern 
boundary. 

The  highest  mountain  ranges  in  the  Ozark  plateau  are  the 
Arbuckle  and  the  Boston  Mountains.  The  Cross  timbers  enter 
from  Texas. 

The  Wichita  Mountains,  in  the  southwest,  are  over  2,000 
feet  high. 

3.  Distribution:  Western  section  is  prairie,  with  green 
ash,  hackberry  and  cottonwood  along  the  rivers.  Red  cedar  is 
said  to  have  been  found  20  years  ago  on  the  edges  of  all  canyons. 

Middle  section  has  woodlands  of  blackjack  oak  and  post 
oak,  notably  in  the  Cross  Timbers.  Further,  some  burr  oak, 
hackberry,  white  oak,  shittim  wood  and  wild  china  berry  tree 
occur.  These  species  are  said  to  be  gradually  extending  towards 
the  west.  After  W.  L.  Hall,  black  walnut,  catalpa  and  locust 
can  be  planted  successfully  within  the  original  oak  forests. 

In  the  eastern  section  (Indian  Territory),  south  of  the 
Canadian  River,  Pinus  echinata  and  taeda  are  found  in  large, 
valuable  bodies  on  the  ridges.  The  lowlands  in  the  east  are 
splendidly  timbered  with  the  hardwoods  of  the  Mississippi  bot- 
toms. Here  the  best  black  walnut  of  the  United  States  is  said 
to  exist.     Further,  red  oak,  cow  oak,  hickories,  white  ash,  gums, 

76 


FOREST     POLICY. 

cottonwood,     sycamore,     mulberry,     maple,     osage,     orange     and 
pecan. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  In  Indian  Territory,  32,347  acres 
are  owned  by  lumbermen,  with  stumpage  averaging  3,800  feet 
per  acre. 

In  Oklahoma,  lumbermen  own  10,940  acres,  of  1,300  feet 
average  stumpage. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  In  Indian  Territory,  the  sawn  products 
of  1900  were  valued  at  $200,000,  consisting  of  16,000,000  feet 
b.  m.  Logs  on  stump  worth  $1.21  and  logs  at  mill  worth  $4.61. 
There  were  48  mills,  representing  an  average  investment  of 
$1,911. 

In  Oklahoma  there  were  33  mills,  of  $1,423  average  in- 
vestment, which  have  turned  out,  in  the  census  year,  $63,000 
worth  of  lumber.  Logs  on  the  stump  are  worth  $2.54  and  at 
mill  $5.82. 

Leather,  paper  and  pulp  industries:     None. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Some  forest  planting  in  Oklahoma. 

7.  Laws:   Unknown. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Wichita  forest  reserve,  of  57.120 
acres,   in   the  Wichita   Mountains  of   Oklahoma. 

9.  Irrigation:  Irrigation  is  unimportant,  being  practiced, 
in  1899,  on  2,300  acres  only. 

The  systems  of  irrigation  cost  $22,000. 
The  irrigated  crops  are  valued  at  $16,000. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  OREGON: 

1.  Area:  The  forests  occupy  34.750,000  acres,  equal  to 
57%  of  total  area  of  State.  Fernow  gives  only  20,000,000  acres 
and  the  vice-president  of  the  defunct  Oregon  Forest  Association 
only  16,000,000  acres  of  forest.  Reason  for  difference  is  the  dif- 
ference of  definition  of  forest.  The  great  commercial  forests 
cover   about    10,000.000   acres. 

2.  Physiography:  Coast  Range  separated  from  the  Cas- 
cade Range  by  the  Willamette,  Umpqua  and  Rogue  Rivers.  The 
heavy  rainfall  in  the  Coast  Range  is  due  to  the  Japan  current 
(Kuroshivo).  In  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State  the  Blue 
Mountains  extend  into  Washington.  The  southeastern  third  of 
the  State  is  without  forests,  exhibiting  deserts  close  to  Nevada. 

77 


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^ 

FOREST    POLICY. 

3.  Distribution:     Similar  to  that  in  Washington. 

(a)  Coast  Range.  Tideland  spruce  close  to  the  ocean. 
The  bulk  of  the  forests  consist  of  Douglas  fir  and  red  cedar. 
Lawson's  cypress  forms  a  forest  of  great  commercial  value  in 
the  southern  third  of  the  Coast  Range,  where  it  exhibits  splendid 
silvicultural  qualities,  i.  e.,  abundant  regeneration.  In  the  ex- 
treme south  of  the  Coast  Range,  sugar  pine,  winter  bald  white 
oak  and  also  California  chestnut  oak  are  met  with. 

(b)  Cascade  Range.  On  west  slope,  most  important  tree 
is  Douglas  fir,  forming  pure  forests  below  2,000  feet  elevation 
and  reproducing  splendidly  on  clearings.  Red  cedar,  hemlock 
and,  higher  up,  white  pine  (monticola)  are  next  in  importance 
to  Douglas  fir.  The  firs  (noble,  amiable  and  grand)  run  high 
up  on  the  mountains,  fringing  Crater  Lake  (10,000  feet  eleva- 
tion).    In  southern  extension  of  cascades,  sugar  pine  occurs. 

On  east  slope:  Below  5.000  feet  an  open  forest  of  yellow 
pine  is  found;  above  5.000  feet,  Douglas  fir.  lodgepole  pine  and 
lowland  fir  are  mixed  with  yellow  pine.  In  addition,  Engel- 
mann's  spruce,  western  larch  and  white  pine  occur.  At  timber 
line  white  bark  pine  and  hemlock  are  found  in  open  forests. 

The  river  bottoms  between  Coast  Range  and  Cascade 
Range  exhibit  heavy,  broad-leaved  groves  composed  of  cotton- 
woods,  alders,  ashes,  willows  and  white  maples;  also  the  ever- 
green California  laurel. 

•  (c)  The  Blue  Mountains  (in  northeast  corner  of  State) 
show  open  stunted  forests  of  yellow  pine.  Douglas  fir  and  larch, 
and,  above  4,000  feet  elevation,  a  heavy  growth  of  lodgepole 
pine. 

4.  Ownership:      Farmers   own    1.5   million   acres. 

Lumbermen,  mostly  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  men,  com- 
posing 212  firms,  control  825,000  acres,  of  25.000  feet  b.  m.  per 
acre  average. 

United  States  reserves  cover  close  to  4.5  million  acres  on 
the  Cascade  Range.     None  exist  on  the  Coast  Range, 

The  Warm  Springs  and  Klamath  River  Indian  reserva- 
tions cover  about  1,000,000  acres  each,  but  are  not  heavily 
forested. 

5.  Use:     The  hardwoods  are  largely  used  for  woodenware,        ^  <=■ 

cooperage  and  furniture.     The  California  laurel  is  the  finest  wood  . 

for    cabinet    work    and    ship    building   on    the    coast.      The    center         ^ 

of  the   hardwood   industries   is   Portland.     The   cut   in   the   census         ^ 

78 


"3 


FOREST    POLICY. 

year  was  740  million  feet  b.  m.  only,  which  is  equal  to  0.3%  of 
the  growing  stock  of  225  billion  feet  b.  m.  This  growing  stock 
is  composed  as  follows: — 

Red  fir    150  billion  feet  b.  m. 

Yellow  pine    40  billion  feet  b.  m. 

Hemlock,  spruce  and  cedar  35  billion  feet  b.  m. 

Mills  smaller  than  in  Washington,  the  average  investment 
being  $12,300.  Stumpage  prices  lower  than  in  any  other  State, 
being  66c.  per  1.000  feet  b.  m.  Saw  logs  at  the  mill  cost  $4.46 
per  1,000  feet  b.   m. 

The  paper  and  pulp  industry  used  in  1000.  150.000  cords  of 
spruce  in  5  establishments.  The  leather  industry  had  16  tan- 
neries, worth  $11,000  on  an  average,  reporting  to  be  annually 
using  altogether  936  cords  of  hemlock  bark  and  1.247  cords  of 
oak  bark  ( ?). 

Very    important    for    Oregon    is    the    live    stock    industry. 

The  stock  consists  of 

14.000.000   cattle. 

24.000.000  sheep. 
2,000.000  horses, 
500,000  mules. 

Sheep  are  driven  to  the  summer  range  in  the  high  cascades, 
so  as  to  leave  all  pasture  in  the  lowlands  to  the  heavier  stock. 

Annual  value  of  the  wool  product  is  over  $1,500,000.  In 
the  reserves,  only  60  owners  with   188.000  sheep  in  86  bands. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  In  1888- 1889  Legislature  petitions 
Congress  to  establish  reserves.  In  1897  outbreak  of  antagonism 
against  "Reserve  Policy."  backed  by  the  Wool  Growers'  Asso- 
ciation   (John   Minto). 

In  1898  forest  reserves  were  opened  to  limited  sheep  pas- 
ture, and  the  antagonism  to  reserves  has  since  subsided. 

7.  Laws :  State  fire  laws  of  1893  impose  fines  on  malicious 
or  careless  firing  of  woods,  but  are  ineffective.  The  public  do- 
main is  protected  under  special  fire  laws.  New  fire  law  of  1903 
was  passed  by  both  houses,  but  vetoed  by  governor. 

8.  Reservations:  Reserves  cover  13%  of  wooded  area  and 
7.2%  of  total  area  of  State. 

The  Ashland  forest  reserve  (18,560  acres)  in  the  extreme 
south  and  the  Bull  Run  timber  land  reserve  (142.080  acres)  in 
the   extreme   north   of   the    Cascade    Range   are   small   and   unim- 

79 


FOREST     POLICY. 

portant.  The  Bull  Run  reserve  includes  Mount  Hood.  Between 
the  two  reserves  stretches  the  Cascade  Range  forest  reserve,  a 
reserve  of  4,436,120  acres  enclosing  the  Crater  Lake  National 
Park  of  150,000  acres.  The  reserves  extend,  practically,  from  the 
Washington  line  to  the  California  line,  are  50  to  100  miles  wide, 
lie  largely  above  7,500  feet  above  sea  level  and  include  many 
summits  above  timber  line. 

9.  Irrigation.  The  agricultural  development  of  central 
Oregon  depends  on  the  possibility  of  utilizing  for  irrigation  the 
scanty  and  intermittent  streams  of  the  region. 

The  success  of  a  deep  well  system  would  allow  of  an  enor- 
mous increase  of  the  cattle  and  sheep  industry. 

In  1899,  388,000  acres  of  farm  land,  producing  $3,100,000 
worth  of  crops,  were  irrigated  from  works  constructed  at  an  out- 
lay of  $1,800,000. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  PENNSYLVANIA: 

1.  Area:  The  woodlands  comprise  23,000  square  miles,  or 
51%  of  total  area.  The  forest  is  said  to  be,  in  a  great  part,  de- 
pleted of  its  merchantable  timber. 

2.  Physiography:  A  belt  of  mountains  50  miles  wide  and 
240  miles  long  traverses  the  State  diagonally  from  southwest  to 
northeast.  The  mountain  ranges  are  from  1,000  to  2,000  feet  high, 
Negro  Mountain  forming  the  highest  peak,  at  an  altitude  of  2,826 
feet. 

Northwest  of  the  mountain  belt  are  the  broad  Allegheny 
Uplands,  rolling  high  plateaux  covering  over  one-third  of  the  State. 
Southeast  of  the  mountain  belt  appears  the  northern  extension 
of  the  Coastal  Plains  at  an  average  elevation  of  500  feet.  The 
Susquehana  drains  the  eastern  half  of  the  State,  together  with  the 
Delaware  on  the  New  Jersey  line. 

3.  Distribution:  Pennsylvania  was  originally  covered  from 
end  to  end  with  heavy  forests.  White  pine  and  hemlock  formed 
vast  forests  on  both  flanks  of  the  Alleghanies.  East  and  west 
of  the  mountains  the  conifers  gave  way  gradually  to  a  heavy 
growth  of  broad-leaved  species. 

In  the  southeastern  section,  white  oak  was  and  is  the  most 
valuable  species.     The  second  growth  of  hardwoods  is  otherwise 

80 


FOREST    POLICY. 

composed  of  hickories  and  birches;  further,  chestnut,  locust,  maple, 
walnut  and  cherry. 

In  the  Allegheny  Uplands  the  hardwoods  of  the  Missis- 
sippi are  found,  notably,  red  and  white  oak,  beech  and  sugar 
maple.  In  the  southwest  of  this  region  occur  the  Kentucky  cof- 
fee tree,  honey  locust,  chestnut  and  yellow  poplar.  West  of  the 
Allegheny  River  no  white  pine,  but  some  hemlock  occurs.  East 
of  this  river,  hemlock;  then  white  pine  increases  in  proportion 
on  the  way  toward  the  mountains. 

In  the  mountain  belt  prevail,  below  1,800  feet,  white  pine, 
hemlock,  pitch  pine,  sugar  maple,  black  and  yellow  birch,  beech 
and  cherry.  On  rocky  soil,  especially  in  the  southern  part,  occur 
chestnut  oak,  chestnut  and  locust.  Above  1,800  feet  the  Canadian 
tree  flora  sets  in,  consisting  of  "spruce  (Picea  rubens),  balsam 
and  larch,  with  some  white  pine,  Norway  (red)  pine  and  hemlock. 
White  pine  stands  averaging  25,000  feet  b.  m.  per  acre  on  tracts 
comprising  several  hundred  acres  are  no  longer  found. 

In  1880  white  pine  virgin  forests  occurred  only  island-like 
on  their  original  domain,  whilst  hemlock  was  then  scarcely 
touched. 

In  1900,  on  burned  white  pine  slashes,  yellow  and  black 
birch,  bird  and  black  cherry,  maple,  chestnut  and  beeches  come 
up  in  profusion. 

Regeneration  of  hemlock  is  nill;  that  of  white  pine  very 
poor. 

In  1896,  Dr.  Rothrock  and  Dr.  Fernow  estimated  the  stand 
of  conifers  as  follows: — 

White  pine 500,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Spruce  70,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Hemlock 5,000,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  In  1894,  over  1,500,000  acres,  i.  e., 
over  5%  of  State's  area,  were  advertised  for  sale  by  the  counties 
for  tax  forfeiture. 

614  lumber  firms  own  645,000  acres  of  forest,  said  to  be 
stocked  with  9,300  feet  b.  m.  on  an  average. 

83%  of  the  woodlands  are  said  to  be  attached  to  farms. 

The  State  reserves  now  aggregate  several  hundred  thousand 
acres. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Logs  on  stump  are  worth  $2.94;  at  mill, 
$6.71.    2,280  mills  report  an  average  investment  of  $10,083.     Penn- 

81 


FOREST    POLICY. 

sylvania,  leading  the  United  States  lumber  industry  in  i860,  has 
dropped  to  fourth  rank  in  1900,  although  she  succeeded  in  vastly 
increasing  the  value  of  her  output  within  these  40  years. 

The  output  was  in: — 

i860 $11,000,000 

1870 29,000,000 

1880 22,000,000 

1890 29,000,000 

1900 36,000,000 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

Hemlock 1,608,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  pine 238,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  conifers  ....        19,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Chestnut 51,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Oak 342,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods  .  .      140,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Total 2,398,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

The  shingle  mills  turned  out,  in  the  census  year,  $370,000 
worth  of  shingles,  largely  using  the  old  remnants  of  white  pine 
and  hemlock,  also  a  little  oak  and  chestnut. 

Cooperage  stock  produced  in  1900  was  valued  at  $762,000 
(notably  for  sugar  barrels);  the  miscellaneous  industries  furnished 
$1,443,000  worth  of  home-grown  stock.  Very  little  wagon  and 
furniture  stock. 

In  forest  utilization,  the  rivers,  notably  the  Susquehana, 
are  made  use  of.  Skidways  and  sleds  are  little  used.  The  logs 
are  moved  over  so-called  "slides,"  V  shaped  troughs,  consisting 
of  hemlock  poles  placed  on  hemlock  ties,  with  an  ice  crust  formed 
by  sprinkling.  Six  to  forty  peeled  logs  form  a  log  train,  pulled 
by  horses  in  a  tow  path. 

At  the  Williamsport  boom,  the  proportion  of  hemlock  and 
pine  logs  was,  in  1875,  1  to  10;  and  in  1893,  slA  to  1. 

Leather  industry:  Pennsylvania  excels  amongst  the  States 
of  the  Union  in  the  output  of  the  leather  industry,  which  output 
is  valued  at  $55,615,000.  254  tanneries  consumed,  in  the  census 
year,  565,062  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth  $3,460,000;  64,392  cords 
of  oak  bark,  worth  $437,000;  2,800  bales  of  gambier,  worth  $17,000; 
304  barrels  of  hemlock  bark  extract  worth  $3,368;  5.615  barrels  of 

82 


FOREST    POLICY. 

oak  bark  extract,  worth  $56,700;  3,775  barrels  of  quebracho,  worth 
$50,700;  206  tons  of  sumac,  worth  $10,000.  The  chemicals  used 
were  worth  $919,600. 

The  output  of  Pennsylvania's  tanneries  is  mostly  sole  leather. 

In  paper  and  pulp  industry,  Pennsylvania  has  4th  rank, 
producing  $12,268,000  worth  of  paper  in  73  mills  and  consuming: 
Home-grown  spruce,  16,697  cords,  valued  at  $85,504;  Canadian 
spruce,  25,442  cords,  valued  at  $167,200;  other  pulp  wood,  2,26a 
cords,  valued  at  $11,000. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Pennsylvania  is  more  awake  to 
the  necessity  of  forest  preservation  than  any  other  State,  thanks 
to  the  energy  of  Dr.  Rothrock.  A  Forest  Association  backs  his 
work  and  publishes  "Forest  Leaves,"  since  1885.  Forestry  lectures 
are  occasionally  given  at  the  universities.     Arbor  Day  since  1886. 

7.  Laws:  Since  1887,  forest  plantations  of  at  least  1,200 
seedlings  enjoy  a  tax  reduction  of  90%  to  their  tenth  year;  of 
80%  to  their  twentieth  year,  and  of  50%  to  their  thirtieth  year. 
From  10th  year  on,  600  saplings  per  acre  are  considered  a  suffi- 
cient growing  stock.  Similar  inducements  are  granted  to  owners 
of  second  growth,  consisting  of  sound  tree  seedlings,  covering 
not  to  exceed  50  acres. 

In  1897,  the  Forest  Commissioner  was  authorized  to  pur- 
chase forfeited  land  at  a  price  not  to  exceed  back  taxes  and  other 
"unseated"  land  at  a  price  of  not  over  $5  per  acre,  such  lands 
to  become  part  of  a  forest  reservation  system. 

The  constables  of  townships  are  ex  officio  fire,  fish  and 
game  wardens,  entitled  to  a  premium  of  $10  for  each  offense  (fire) 
reported.  They  are  privileged  to  summon  help,  and  obliged  to 
report  to  the  court  of  quarter  sessions  any  case  of  violation  of 
fire,  fish  and  game  laws. 

The  expense  of  the  fire  warden  system  is  equally  divided 
between  county  and  State.  The  county,  however,  is  not  required 
to  incur  an  outlay  exceeding  $500  per  annum. 

The  law  of  1897  authorizes  the  acquisition  of  three  tracts 
at  the  head  waters  of  the  Delaware,  Susquehana  and  Ohio  Rivers 
by  expropriation  for  the  forest  reserve.  Each  tract  is  to  comprise 
40,000  acres  in  a  solid  body. 

In  1901  the  Division  of  Forestry  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  a  department. 

The  revenue  from  the  reserves  is  to  be  divided  between 
township  and  State,   to   reimburse  the  former  for  the  inevitable 

83 


FOREST    POLICY. 

loss  of  taxes.  The  forest  commissioner,  as  superintendent  of  the 
reserves,  is  empowered  to  enact  rules  for  management  and  pro- 
tection of  the  reserves;  may  employ  detective  service  and  lawyers 
in  case  of  forest  fires;  must  publish  forest  statistics,  and  may 
spend  $25  annually  per  mile  for  improvement  of  public  roads 
in  the  reserves,  $12.50  per  mile  for  improvements  outside  the 
reserves. 

The  reserve  policy  is  handicapped  by  a  constitutional  clause 
forbidding  the  State  to  take  up  loans  for  such  purposes  of  in- 
vestment as  a  forest  reserve  represents. 

8.  Reservations:  575,000  acres  of  State  forest  reserves 
have  been  created  within  four  years,  during  the  administration  of 
Governor  Stone.  The  reserves  are  scattered  over  22  counties. 
Only  two  reserves  cover  an  acreage  exceeding  100,000  acres. 

9.  Irrigation:  758  acres  are  irrigated;  93%  of  this  land 
yields  hay  crops  valued  at  $23.64  per  acre. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF   PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS: 

1.  Area:  After  Capt.  Geo.  P.  Ahem,  25%  to  50%  of  the 
islands  (or  an  area  of  20,000,000  to  40,000,000  acres)  are  public 
forest  lands.  Mindoro  and  Paragua  contain  5,000,000  acres  of 
virgin  forest.  Mindanao  is  almost  entirely  covered  with  virgin 
timber  (20,000,000  acres). 

2.  Physiography:  The  Philippines,  consisting  of  more  than 
1,000  islands,  separate  the  Pacific  from  the  Chinese  Ocean.  The 
configuration  is  mountainous,  with  active  volcanos  in  the  south. 
Mount  Apo,  on  Mindanao,  is  over  10,000  feet  high.  The  climate 
is  tropical;  rainy  period  from  June  to  November;  dry  spell  from 
December  to  May 

3.  Distribution:  The  number  of  native  tree  species  ap- 
proximates 700. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  The  federal  government  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  religious  orders,  own  all  forest  land. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Forest  utilization  suffers  from  the  dif- 
ficulty of  transportation,  the  lack  of  efficient  labor  and  the  vari- 
ety of  growing  stock,  containing  a  large  number  of  commercially 
untested  species. 

84 


FOREST    POLICY. 

Gum,  rubber  and  gutta  percha  trees,  dye  woods,  ylang- 
ylang,  cocoanut  palms  (in  Romblon),  etc.,  have  been  utilized 
under  Spanish  rule. 

The  occurrence  of  a  pine  (Pinus  insularis)  in  a  tropical  cli- 
mate is  geographically  interesting. 

The  price  of  logs  in  Manila  ranges  from  6oc.  to  $3  (Mexi- 
can) per  cubic  foot.  Carabao  oxen  are  used  in  log  transporta- 
tion. Lumber  is  hand  sawed  by  the  natives.  The  white  ant  is 
the  enemy  destroying  all  lumber  and  timber  used  and  utilized, 
excepting  three  or  four  species. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  A  Bureau  of  Forestry,  established 
under  G.  P.  Ahern,  succeeded  the  Spanish  forest  administration 
(since  1S63)  after  American  occupancy  in  1898.  The  administra- 
tive staff  is  now  supplied  by  American  foresters  passing  the  civil 
service  examinations. 

The  forestry  movement  centered  in  the  bureau  is,  nat- 
urally, in  the  direction  of  forest  exploitation  only.  The  botan- 
ical and  technical  characteristics  of  the  timber  species  are  studied 
and  tested.  All  timber  cut  on  public  land  is  cut  by  license.  For- 
estry officials,  stationed  at  all  important  logging  centers,  inspect, 
stamp,  classify  and  appraise  all  shipments  of  timber  cut  under 
license.  The  cutting  of  certain  species  and  of  certain  sizes  of 
trees  is  prohibited  on  public  land. 

The  licensee  pays  from  ic.  to  14c.  (Mexican)  per  cubic  foot 
of  timber  removed  from  public  land. 

A  forestry  school,  after  the  pattern  of  Dehra  Dun,  India, 
should  be  organized. 

7.  Laws:  The  Spanish  forestry  laws  and  regulations  have 
been  adopted  with  slight  alterations — a  course  highly  com- 
mendable. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:     Not  applicable. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  PORTO  RICO: 

1.  Area:  The  island  area  totals  2,304,000  acres.  It  is  dotted 
with  many  trees,  park-like;  but  deforested  as  a  whole,  with  the 
exception  of  eight  square  miles  of  inaccessible  primeval  forest 
on  Mount  El  Yunque. 

85 


FOREST    POLICY. 

2.  Physiography:  The  climate  is  tropical.  The  south  is 
drier  than  the  north.  The  mountains  (volcanic)  are  continuously 
bathed  in  moisture. 

3.  Distribution:  The  mountain  tree  flora  is  composed  of 
a  large  number  of  species,  including  palms  and  tree  ferns,  none 
of  commercial  importance. 

The  coastal  forest  is  said  to  be  often  chaparal-like. 

Fruit  trees  (orange,  lime,  lemon,  banana)  are  common  all 
over  the  island. 

The  coffee  plantations  often  appear  as  dense  forest 
thickets. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  No  information  available.  The  fed- 
eral government  owns  but  little  land. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Fruit  trees  are  most  valuable.  There 
is  not  one  saw  mill  in  the  island.  Natives  drag  logs  cut  and 
roughly  squared  to  the  nearest  oxe-trail.  Logs  are  often  whip- 
sawed  into  planks  or  boards.  About  $300,000  worth  of  timber 
and  timber  products  are  annually  exported. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  None.  Avenues  of  shade  trees 
frame  the  Spanish  highways.  Reforestation  of  denuded  slopes 
seems  advisable. 

7.  Laws:   No  information  available. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Luquillo  forest  reserve,  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  island,  was  established  on  January  17,  1903. 

g.  Irrigation:  For  the  cultivation  of  the  staple  crops  of 
the  south  coast,  irrigation  is  practiced  with  great  skill  and  at 
considerable  expense. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  RHODE  ISLAND: 

1.  Area:  Area  of  woodlands,  400  square  miles  or  40%  of 
the  State. 

2.  Physiography:      Flat  and   sandy.      Maritime  climate. 

3.  Distribution:  Originally  all  the  island  was  covered  with 
forest.  Now,  coppice  of  chestnut,  oak,  hickory,  ash  and  birch, 
with  some  stray  white  and  pitch  pine,  are  found  to  form  a  meager 
second  growth.     Trees  along  the  coast  are  stunted  and  scarce. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  13  lumber  firms  own  1,673  acres. 
Balance  of  woodland  is  attached  to  farms. 


FOREST    POLICY. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Firewood  commands  a  high  price,  owing 
to  density  of  population  (250  pro  square  mile).  Stumpage  costs 
$3.02;  logs  at  mill  cost  $7-15  per  1,000  feet  b.  m.  33  saw  mills 
report  an  average  investment  of  $3,131.  The  census  gives  the 
value  of  the  output  of  the  lumber  mills,  since  1870,  at  about 
$250,000  annually. 

The  cut  in  1900  is  reported  to  consist  of  18,000,000  feet 
b.  m.,  including  14,000,000  (?)  feet  b.  m.  of  white  pine. 

Leather  industry:  5  tanneries,  of  $293,000  output,  consume 
26  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth  $260,  and  $5,000  worth  of 
chemicals. 

There  is  no  paper  or  pulp  mill. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  None.  Some  private  plantations 
on  sand  land. 

7.  Laws:     Fire  laws.     No  case  was  ever  prosecuted. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  2  farms  produce  on  40  acres  $32,000  worth 
of  vegetables  (?). 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  SOUTH  CAROLINA: 

1.  Area:  20,500  square  miles,  or  68%  of  total  area,  are 
said  to  be  stocked,  generally,  with  merchantable  forest.  Sargent's 
estimate  of  yellow  pine  supplies,  existing  in  1880.  was  5.3  billion 
feet  b.  m. 

2.  Physiography:  On  the  North  Carolina  line,  in  the  ex- 
treme northwest,  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains.  The  Piedmont 
plateau  lies  to  the  east  and  south  of  these  mountains  and  extends 
to  a  line  150  miles  from  the  coast,  where  the  lowlands  of  the 
coastal  plain  set  in. 

3.  Distribution:  In  the  tier  of  mountain  counties  occur 
the  species  typical  for  the  southern  Appalachians  (see  Georgia). 
In  the  Piedmont  section,  the  hardwoods  (especially  white,  chest- 
nut and  red  oaks,  poplar,  hickory,  ash,  chestnut  and  Cottonwood) 
occur  with  Pinus  taeda  and  (less)  echinata.  The  coastal  plain  has 
long  leaf  pine  for  the  main  timber  tree.  Cubensis  gives  out  near 
Charleston.  On  moist  ground,  Pinus  taeda  of  splendid  growth, 
often  mixed  with  red  oak  and  white  cedar.  Huge  swamps  are 
occupied  by  cypress  and  gums,  the  hummocks  showing  elm,  hick- 


FOREST     POLICY. 

ory,  yellow  poplar  and  red  oak.  The  coast  swamps  are  lined  with 
live  oak,  magnolia  and  bays,  often  with  palmetto  for  an  under- 
growth. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  251  lumber  firms  own  454,000  acres 
of  4,400  feet  b.  m.  average  stumpage.  Vacant  State  lands  were 
sold  at  auction  for  a  song,  about  1895. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  South  Carolina  seems  backward  in  the 
lumber  industry.  The  activity  was  never  great.  The  rivers  are 
not  as  good  for  rafting  as  those  in  adjoining  States,  being  bor- 
dered by  broad  swamps.  Logs  are  worth  $1.23  on  stump  and 
$4.16  at  mill.  Mill  investments  average  $4,097,  with  716  firms. 
The  output  was  valued  in 

1880 $2,000,000 

1890 2,100,000 

1900 5,200,000 

The  cut  of  1900  consisted  of: — 

Cypress   32,000,000  feet  b.  m 

Yellow  pine 433,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  oak 11,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods  . . .       6,500,000  feet  b.  m. 

In  1880,  South  Carolina  lead  in  the  production  of  tar  and 
turpentine.     Since  then,  the  industry  was  forced  westward. 

The  miscellaneous  forest  industries  (furniture,  wagon,  coop- 
erage stock,  etc.)  produced  $168,000  in  the  12th  census  year. 

The  leather  industry  is  very  small,  using  305  cords  of  oak 
bark  and  producing  $18,000  worth  of  goods. 

The  paper  industry  is  nill. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Nill. 

7.  Laws:  Stock  law  prevails  over  entire  State.  Fire  law 
provides  heavy  fines  for  firing  turpentine  orchards. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  648  planters  irrigate,  in  1899,  30,000  acres  of 
rice  fields.  Rice  irrigation  has  been  practiced  in  South  Carolina 
since  1700. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  SOUTH  DAKOTA: 

1.  Area:    2,500  square  miles,  equal  to  3%  of  the  area  of  the 
State,  are  wooded. 

2.  Physiography:     Missouri   River  running  from   north  to 


FOREST     POLICY. 

south  to  the  center  of  the  State  and  thence  towards  the  southeast 
corner.  Mountains  appear  only  in  the  southwest,  i.  e.,  the  Black 
Hills  on  the  Wyoming  line,  drained  by  the  Cheyenne  River.  A 
strangely  large  number  of  rivulets  have  their  sources  in  South 
Dakota. 

3.  Distribution:  South  Dakota,  like  all  other  prairie 
States,  is  the  meeting  ground  of  the  eastern  and  western  tree 
flora,  the  former  represented  by  the  hardwood  groves  in  the 
river  bottoms  (burr  oak  predominating,  in  addition,  sycamore, 
cottonwood,  willow,  box  elder,  green  ash);  the  latter  (western 
flora)  occurring  on  hillsides  and  represented  by  western  yellow 
pine.  This  species  shows  in  the  Black  Hills  splendid  natural  re- 
generation and  better  trunks  than  in  the  Rockies.  White  spruce 
(canadensis)  occurs  in  the  Black  Hills  near  streams,  on  high 
northern  slopes.  Aspen  and  canoe  birch  appear  on  moist  slopes 
in  dense  thickets  after  fires. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  Farmers  own  little  aside  from  prairie 
plantations.  Six  lumber  firms  control  6.000  acres.  The  federal 
government  has  reserved  76%  of  the  wooded  area  in  the  "Black 
Hills  reserve." 

5.  Use:  Yellow  pine  only  used  for  timber  and  for  the 
lead  mining  interests  centering  at  Deadwood.  The  cut  of  timber 
in  census  year  equals  30,000,000  feet  b.  m.,  drawn  from  a  growing 
stock  of  1,500,000,000  feet  b.  m.  Logs  are  worth,  on  stump,  $1.80 
per  thousand;  at  mill  $5.25.  There  are  28  saw-mills  of  $5,000  aver- 
age investment.  5,000  head  of  stock  find  pasturage  in  the  hills. 
A  plague  of  bark  beetles  occurred  in  1900.  Hardwoods  largely 
used  for  firewood  and  fences.  Planted  forests  have  perished, 
usually  through  fire  or  neglect,  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Arbor  Day  for  ornamental  plant- 
ing. South  Dakota  Agricultural  College  makes  tree  planting  ex- 
periments and  issues  bulletins  bearing  on  forestry  questions. 

7.  Laws:     As  in  North  Dakota. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Black  Hills  forest  reserve  comprises 
1.211,680  acres,  one-third  of  which  lies  in  Wyoming.  The  opportu- 
nity for  forest  management  in  this  reserve  is  unrivalled.  The 
financial  problem  is  easy,  since  stumpage  values  are  high  and  the 
demand  good.  The  silvicultural  problem  is  easy,  since  regenera- 
tion is  excellent,  and  since  only  one  species  has  to  be  dealt  with. 
There  are  no  "weed  trees."     Finally,  utilization  is  easy,  the  moun- 

89 


FOREST    POLICY. 

tains  having  gentle  slopes.  Even  firewood  can  be  disposed  of  to 
a  certain  extent.  Fires  and  insects,  however,  handicap  the  forest- 
er's work. 

The  Wind  Cove  national  park,  in  the  southern  Black  Hills, 
created  in  1902,  is  said  to  be  a  Yellowstone  without  geysers. 

9.  Irrigation:  During  the  census  year,  44,000  acres  of  farm- 
land, irrigated  from  works  (notably  deep  artesian  wells)  costing 
$285,000,  produced  crops  valued  at  $208,000. 


FORESTRY   CONDITIONS   OF  TENNESSEE: 

1.  Area:  27,300  square  miles,  or  65%  of  the  State,  are 
under  forest. 

2.  Physiography:  Vast  bottom  lands  along  the  Missis- 
sippi, subject  to  inundation.  Cumberland  River  in  the  north  and 
Tennessee  River  in  the  south.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany 
Mountains  in  the  east,  the  latter  with  summits  over  6,000  feet 
high.     Low  mountain  ranges  in  central  part. 

3.  Distribution:  The  Mississippi  bottom  lands  show  gi- 
gantic hardwood  forests  without  undergrowth  and  a  sprinkling 
of  swamps  stocked  with  cypress,  red  and  black  gums.  Cypress 
is  said  to  be  of  poor  quality.  Amongst  the  hardwoods  are  found 
cottonwoods.  gums,  red  and  cow  oaks,  hickories,  elms,  beeches 
and  white  oaks  of  huge  proportions. 

In  the  middle  division  of  Tennessee  (Blue  Grass  region) 
agriculture  has  entirely  superceded  the  forest.  Here  have  grown, 
originally,  the  finest  red  cedar,  black  walnut  and  yellow  poplar. 
Now  farm  wood-lots  even  are  strangely  absent.  In  the  original 
forest  there  were  further  found  white,  red,  green  and  blue  ash; 
white,  chestnut,  burr,  cow,  yellow,  chinquapin  and  Texan  oak; 
red,  black,  sugar  and  ash-leaved  maple;  white  linden,  hackberry, 
honey  locust;  winged  and  American  elm.  On  dry  hills,  fire  has 
played  havoc  with  the  forest.  Here  white  and  post  oak  are  rap- 
idly removed  for  cooperage,  whilst  black,  Spanish  and  scarlet 
oak,  chestnut  and  black  hickories  are  badly  handicapped  by  fires. 
Chestnut  is  usually  dying  or  dead. 

The  "Black  Jack  Lands"  (marilandica)  are  large  stretches 
of  strongly  calcareous  soil,  stocked  with  a  stunted  growth  of 
black  jack,  extremely  monotonous  and  much  less  productive  than 

90 


FOREST    POLICE. 

the  "Kentucky  Barrens."  Pinus  echinata  occurs  in  island-like 
groups  all  over  middle  Tennessee.  Pinus  taeda  forms  a  narrow 
belt  along  the  Alabama  line. 

In  the  Cumberland  Mountains  the  limestone  coves  show, 
or  used  to  show,  a  splendid  growth  of  all  valuable  hardwoods 
(white,  red  and  chestnut  oak;  hickory,  notably  shag  bark;  black 
walnut  and  black  cherry;  yellow  poplar,  cucumber,  ash  and  bass- 
wood;  red  cedar  on  dry  cliffs),  whilst  the  sandstone  plateaus 
overlying  them  exhibit  a  poor  growth,  badly  burned,  of  black, 
Spanish,  post  and  white  oaks;  further,  sourwood,  black  gum, 
chestnut  and  red  maple,  with  occasional  tracts  of  Pinus  echin- 
ata, virginiana  and  rigida.  Pinus  pungens  occurs  at  an  altitude 
of  about  3,000  feet  and  upwards.  Good  white  pine  tracts,  heavily 
stocked,  are  hidden  in  the  backwood  coves  of  the  Great  Smokies, 
accompanied  on  moist  and  sheltered  land  by  hemlock,  or  else 
occur  on  long,  sharp  ridges.  Spruce  and  balsams  at  elevations 
from  5.000  to  6,000  feet.  The  hardwoods  of  the  Great  Smokies 
are  those  of  Pisgah  forest. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  1,138,000  acres  of  land  are  owned  by 
lumber  firms.     Average  stumpage,  3,900  feet  b.  m.  per  acre. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Logs  are  worth  $2.18  on  stump  and  $6.58 
at  mill.  Logs  frequently  measured  in  midst  of  log.  Cedar  logs 
bought  by  the  pound.  Lumber  centers  are  Memphis  and  Nash- 
ville. The  product  of  the  lumber  industry  in  Tennessee  was 
valued  in 

1870  $  3,400,000 

1880  3,700,000 

1890  9,100,000 

1900  18,100,000 

The  cut  consisted  of: — 

Conifers    82.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Ash   18,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Poplar    275,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Red  gum   52.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  oak    408,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods    114,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Total 949,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

In  1900  Tennessee  leads  all  States  in  the  produced  value 
of  staves  (181,000,000  staves,  worth  $2,500,000)  and  furnishes  17,- 

91 


FOREST    POLICY. 

000.000  sets  of  heading,  worth  $441,000.  Furniture,  agricultural 
and  wagon  stock  are  worth  $1,245,000. 

Leather  industry:  Value  of  output,  $2,800,000.  The  tan- 
neries consume  846  cords  of  hemlock  bark  and  37,050  cords  of 
oak  bark,  worth  $210,000;  further,  58  barrels  extract. 

Pulp  and  paper  industry:     None. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  The  "Tennessee  Forestry  Asso- 
ciation" was  formed  two  years  ago.  The  Bureau  of  Forestry  has 
made  and  published  a  working  plan  for  a  7,000  acre  tract  at 
Sewanee. 

7.  Laws:      Fire    laws    absolutely    ineffective.      Arbor    Day. 

8.  Reservations:   None. 

9.  Irrigation:  None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  TEXAS: 

1.  Area:  Woodlands  cover  64,000  square  miles  or  24% 
of  the  total  area  of  State. 

2.  Physiography:  The  Rio  Grande  River  on  the  Mexican 
line,  the  Red  River  along  Indian  Territory  and  the  Pecos  River 
traversing  the  extreme  western  section  are  the  principal  streams. 

The  western  prairies  arc  underlaid  with  limestone;  the  east 
is  diluvial  and  alluvial,  taversed  by  the  Ozarks  and  Cross 
Timbers. 

3.  Distribution:  Deserts  in  the  extreme  west  (Staked 
Plains).  Undulating  prairies  destitute  of  timber  in  the  middle 
west.  Western  red  cedar  found  along  the  canyons.  Western 
high  hill  ranges,  between  Pecos  and  Rio  Grande  Rivers,  show 
New  Mexican  flora.  Mesquit  extends  to  the  desert  borders. 
East  of  the  06th  degree  of  longitude,  the  maritime  pine  belt  ex- 
hibits splendid  forests  of  long  leaf  pine,  loblolly  pine  and  short 
leaf  pine  (echinata).  Stumpage  of  long  leaf  pine  averages  heavier 
than   anywhere  else,  on  2,900,000  acres. 

The  low  flats  between  the  pine  hills  show  impenetrable 
thickets  of  hawthorn,  holly  and  magnolia.  Bald  cypress  forms 
extensive  forests  in  the  river  bottoms.  Pecan,  live  oak,  holly 
and  Carolina  poplar  show  their  finest  development  along  the 
rivers  of  the  east.  Osage  orange  is  a  common  tree  in  the  east. 
The   Cross  Timbers   are   covered  with  poor  post  oak  and  black 

92 


FOREST    POLICY. 

jack  oak  woods.  These  same  species  extend  westward  in  open 
groves,  ending  abruptly  where  limestone  appears.  Hackberry 
said  to  be  found  everywhere. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  All  deserts  and  outskirts  of  the 
Rockies  and  large  forest  tracts  in  the  eastern  part  belong  to  the 
State,  which,  when  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1845,  was  allowed 
to  retain  its  lands  and  land  laws.  Federal  government  owns 
but  a  few  military  reservations. 

Lumber  companies,  in  1900,  own  10  billion  feet  stumpage 
on  1.671,000  acres.  Under  the  State's  general  land  act  of  1895, 
amended  in  1897,  the  purchase,  by  individuals,  of  large  tracts  be- 
longing to  the  State  is  not  prohibited. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Mesquit  and  red  cedar  used  for  fuel 
and  posts.  Cypress  said  to  be  of  poor  quality.  Cottonwoods 
unused  so  far.  The  pine  belt  has  been  developed  rapidly  and  re- 
cently at  rising  stumpage  prices.  The  output  in  1900  was  1,250,- 
000  feet  b.  m.,  valued  at  $16,300,000. 

There  are  601    saw  mills,   of  $14,000  average   investment. 

Logs  are  worth  $1.17  on  stump  and  $4.47  at  mill. 

The  eastern  pine  forests  are  most  valuable  for  Texas, 
since  they  have  to  supply  the  constantly  growing  population  of 
the  treeless  three-quarters  of  the  State. 

The  most  important   industry  of  Texas  is  cotton  growing. 

Stock  raising  is  a  close  second. 

The  naval  stores  industry  gradually  adopts  dangerous  pro- 
portions, since  it  injures  the  prospects  for  a  second  growth. 

Paper  industry  attempts  to  use  pinewood  in  the  soda 
process. 

There  are  nine  tanneries,  producing  about  $60,000  worth  of 
leather  and  using  about  390  cords  of  oak  and  hemlock  bark  and  137 
barrels  of  bark  extract;  balance  of  material  used  is  gambier. 

6  Forestry  movement:  A  State  "Forestry  and  Water  Sup- 
ply Association,"  formed  in  1886,  seems  inactive. 

A  forestry  commissioner  cannot  be  obtained  from  the  leg- 
islature. Remarkable  is  the  necessity  for  the  large  Kirby  Lum- 
ber Co.  to  practice  conservative  lumbering,  owing  to  stipulations 
contained    in   its    mortgage   bonds. 

7.  Laws:     No  information  available. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:  Irrigation  on  the  enormous  cattle  ranches 
of  central  Texas  is  practically  unknown. 

93 


FOREST    POLICY. 

The  Mexicans  along  the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos  have  irri- 
gated small  farms  for  centuries. 

In  the  east  the  flooding  of  rice  fields  by  pumping  has  re- 
cently gained  favor. 

In  1899,  50,000  acres  of  farmland  were  irrigated,  yielding 
crops   worth  $539,000  from   irrigation   systems   costing  $1,028,000. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  UTAH: 

1.  Area:  13%  of  the  State,  or  10,000  square  miles,  are 
wooded. 

2.  Physiography:  The  western  and  eastern  thirds  of  the 
State  are  barren.  The  central  third  is  traversed  by  the  Wahsatch 
Range,  which  drains  eastward  into  the  Colorado  River  and  west- 
ward into  Salt  Lake,  Utah  Lake  and  Sevier  Lake. 

3.  Distribution  is  little  known.  In  the  foothills  scrub  oaks, 
nut  pine,  cedar  and  juniper  occur.  Best  timber  (very  poor)  ob- 
tained from  the  limber  white  pine.  Higher  up  in  the  mountains 
occur  blue  spruce  (Picea  pungens).  white  spruce  (Engelmann) 
and  Douglas  fir.  Yellow  pine  seems  rare,  except  in  the  San  Pete 
and  San  Pitch  Ranges.  Near  Salt  Lake  the  mines  have  con- 
sumed all  accessible  timber.  Canons  are  lined  with  cottonwoods 
and  box  elder. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  Reserves  contain  1,029,760  acres. 
Large  Indian  reservation  in  the  northeast  called  the  Uintah  Indian 
reservation.  Railroads  own  alternating  sections  as  usual.  Lum- 
ber firms  own  very  little. 

5.  Use:  Mine  props  and  fence  posts  are  in  chief  demand. 
Coal  is  cheap.  All  timber  is  practically  cull;  still,  log  run  limber 
white  pine  sells  at  $40  a  thousand.  Value  of  timber  output,  in 
1900,  only  $214,000,  less  than  the  figures  given  in  the  last  three 
census.  Stumpage  is  reported  worth  $1.32;  logs  at  mill,  $53T- 
Eighty-one  mills  of  $1,224  average  investment.  Two  very  small 
tanneries,  but  no  pulp  industry. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  People  and  legislature  are  appre- 
hensive of  the  necessity  of  forest  protection,  as  shown  by  peti- 
tions to  Congress  and  the  Governor's  messages.  Shade  trees 
planted  in  cities  and  on  farms,  especially  box  elder,  sycamore, 
cottonwood  and  lombardy  poplar. 

94 


FOREST    POLICY. 

7.  Laws:  Usual  fire  laws  since  1876.  Tax  exemption  of 
$500  worth  of  property  for  five  years  for  every  acre  planted  in 
trees,  and  of  $50  for  every  100  trees  planted  on  streets  or  streams. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Fish  Lake  forest  reserve  (67,840 
acres)  in  the  San  Pete  and  San  Pitch  Range  of  the  Wahsatch 
Mountains.  The  Uintah  forest  reserve  (875.520  acres)  along  the 
Wyoming  line  at  the  head  waters  of  the  Green  River. 

The  Payson  forest  reserve  of  86,400  acres  lies  south  of 
Utah  Lake. 

The  Manti  forest  reserve  of  584,640  acres  has  been  estab- 
lished recently  in  central  Utah;  the  Logan  forest  reserve  of  182,080 
acres  in  northern  Utah. 

9.  Irrigation:  The  communal  organization  of  the  Mormons 
has  admirably  subserved  the  mutualistic  cause  of  irrigation. 

Dry  farming,  for  wheat  and  barley,  is  possible  only  on 
some  high  bench  lands.  Generally  speaking,  however,  irrigation 
is  essential  for  the  raising  of  forage,  grain  and  fruit  crops. 

The  waters  of  the  northeast,  emerging  from  deep  canyons, 
cut  into  the  mountain  sides,  are  diverted  into  canals,  watering 
the  bench  land  at  the  foot  of  the  canyons.  Large  reservoirs  are 
rare. 

The  value  of  products  raised  on  630,000  acres  of  irrigated 
land  with  the  help  of  irrigation  works  costing  $5,000,000  amounted 
to  $7,500,000  in  the  census  year. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  VERMONT: 

1.  Area:  3.900  square  miles,  or  43%  of  the  State,  are  under 
forest. 

2.  Physiography:  The  Green  Mountains,  running  north 
and  south  through  the  heart  of  the  State,  rise  to  peaks  over  4,000 
feet  high.  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Connecticut  River  are  the 
most  important  water  ways. 

3.  Distribution:  Originally,  white  pine,  hemlock  and  spruce 
were  imbedded  in  a  forest  of  hardwoods  (beech,  maple,  yellow 
birch  and  some  little  basswood,  butternut,  ashes,  red,  white  and 
burr  oak  and  chestnut  oak  on  red  sandstone).     Spruce,  with  bal- 

95 


FOREST    POLICY. 

sam,    prevails    on   the   ridges.     Great   bodies   of   white   pine   were 
found  on  the    Connecticut   River  and   in   the   northwest. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  330  firms  own  372.000  acres.  80%  of 
woodlands  are  attached  to  farms. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  White  pine  is  practically  exhausted. 
Quantities  of  spruce  and  hemlock  are  still  left.  The  lumber  in- 
dustry begins  to  decline  slightly.  The  value  of  the  output  of  the 
saw   mill*    was    in 

1850 $    600,000 

i860 900,000 

1870 3,500,000 

1880 3,200,000 

1890 6,900,000 

1900 6,100,000 

The  cut  in  1900  consists  of  376,000,000  feet  b.  m.,  comprising 
261,000,000  feet  b.  m.  spruce;  43,000,000  feet  b.  m.  hemlock;  21,- 
000,000  feet  b.  m.  white  pine;  51,000,000  feet  b.  m.  hardwoods. 

657  mills  report  $6,304  as  the  average  investment.  Stump- 
age  is  worth  $2.09;  logs  at  mill  cost  $5.80. 

The  maple  sugar  industry  produced,  in  1880,  11,000,000  lbs. 
of  sugar. 

The  leather  industry  has  consumed,  in  1900,  4,990  cords  of 
hemlock  bark,  worth  $30,000;  163  bales  of  gambier,  worth  $1,200; 
100  barrels  of  extract,  worth  $1,200.  Eight  plants  produce  $186,000 
worth  of  leather. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry:  27  plants  produce,  in  1900,  $3,400.- 
000  worth  of  paper  and  pulp.  There  were  consumed  3i>5°o  cords 
of  home-grown  spruce,  worth  $172,000;  25,500  cords  of  Canadian 
spruce,  worth  $167,000;  2,262  cords  of  miscellaneous  wood,  worth 
$11,000. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  A  Forest  Commission,  appointed 
in  1882,  produced  a  good  report  in.  1884.  No  action  was  taken 
upon  it. 

7.  Laws:  The  State  pays  a  premium  on  forest  destruction 
by  exempting  the  wood  lands  of  saw  mill  owners  for  five  years 
from  forest  taxes.     Malicious  firing  only  is  punishable. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 

96 


FOREST    POLICY. 

FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  VIRGINIA: 

i.  Area:  23,400  square  miles,  or  58%  of  State,  are 
woodland. 

2.  Physiography: — 

(a)  Mountain  section,  a  belt  60  miles  wide  along  the  West 
Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  lines,  covering  two  or  three 
tiers  of  counties  and  forming  25%  of  State. 

(b)  Piedmont  plateau,  drained  in  the  main  by  the  James 
River,  lying  southeast  of  "a"  and  forming  50%  of  State. 

(c)  Coastal  plains,  a  belt  up  to  100  miles  wide,  extending 
as  far  as  tidewater  in  the  streams.  Swamps  near  the  coast. 
notably  the  Dismal  Swamp.  Soil  sandy.  The  plains  cover  25% 
of  the  State. 

3.  Distribution:  On  Virginia  soil  the  northern  tree  llora 
meets  the  southern.  The  long  leaf  and  taeda  pines  do  not  ex- 
tend further  north  than  Virginia. 

Mountain  section:  The  hardwoods  of  the  southern  Appa- 
lachians (see  under  North  Carolina)  prevail  here,  with  some 
hemlock  and  white  pine.  Spruce  at  high  altitudes.  The  moun- 
tain forests  were  practically  untouched  in  1880.  It  is  now  claimed 
that  certain  species,  notably  chestnut  oak,  are  exhausted. 

Piedmont  plateau:  In  the  virgin  woods,  black  oak  was  the 
prevailing  timber;  further,  white  oak,  hickories  and  black  gum. 
Now  no  virgin  forest  is  left.  Vast  areas  of  fields,  exhausted  by 
tobacco  growing,  come  up  in  Jersey  pine  (virginiana),  rigid  pine. 
echinata  pine,  sumac  and  sassafras:  further,  hardwood  brush  of 
chestnut,  gum  and  oaks.     Little  taeda  pine. 

Coastal  plains:  The  original  growing  stock,  alter 
Michaux,  consisted  of  belts  of  taeda  pine,  alternating  with  belts 
ni  echinata.  Now  a  second  growth  of  taeda  forms  75%  of  the 
growing  stock  from  the  seashore  to  the  meridian  of  Richmond, 
whilst  echinata  appears  scatteringly.  Long  leaf  pine  is  commer- 
cially unimportant,  reaching  its  northern  limit  in  stunted  speci- 
mens near  Norfolk.  The  swamps  near  the  coast  show  cypress, 
gums  and.  after  Fernow,  red  cedar. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  418  lumber  firms  control  402.000 
acres  of  forest,  stocked  with  4-3°o  feet  b.  m.  on  an  average. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Main  source  of  lumber  is  2d  and  3d 
growth  of  loblolly  pine,  sold  under  the  trade  name  "Virginia 
pine,"    which    is    said    to    reproduce    exceedingly    well.     Trees    50 

97 


FOREST     POLICY. 

years  old  are  said  to  yield  three  logs.  Large  quantities  of 
loblolly  firewood  and  kindling  are  shipped  to  New  York.  Sumac 
leaves  are  gathered  for  tanning  purposes  on  such  a  scale  that  the 
railroads  reported,  in  1885,  shipments  amounting  to  10,300  tons — 
a  good  indication  of  the  enormous  extent  of  abandoned  fields. 

Mill  investments  average  $3,934.  the  number  of  mills  being 
1,234.  Logs  on  stump  are  worth  $179;  at  mill,  $8.35.  The  value 
of  the  lumber  product  was  in 

1850  $  1.000,000 

i860  2,200,000 

1870  2,100,000 

1880  3.400,000 

1890  5,600.000 

1900  12.100,000 

The  figures  prove  a  rapidly  increasing  production,  although 
the  virgin  woods  have  gone  for  many  a  decade. 

The  output  in   1900  consisted  of: — 

Hemlock    1,400.000  feet  b.  m. 

Yellow  pine    710,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Yellow  poplar  86,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White    oak    143.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods    13.000,000  feet  b.  m. 


Total 953,400.000  feet  b.  m. 

The  miscellaneous  industries  report  a  product  worth  $436,- 
000;  the  cooperage  firms,  $587,000;  the  box  concerns.  $900,000. 

The  leather  industry  is  developed  on  a  large  scale.  65 
tanneries  produce  $4,717,000  worth  of  leather  and  consume  73.646 
cords  of  oak  bark,  worth  $468,000;  420  tons  of  quebracho,  worth 
$5,400;  6  tons  of  sumac,  worth  $233.  Little  extract  is  locally 
used,   but    large   amounts   are   manufactured   for   exportation. 

The  paper  and  pulp  industry  works  in  seven  plants  and  con- 
sumes 2.917  cords  of  spruce,  worth  $6  per  cord;  8,513  cords  of 
poplar,  worth  $4.50  per  cord,  and  3,200  cords  of  miscellaneous 
wood,  worth  $2.30  per  cord. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Nill.  The  system  of  forestry  actu- 
ally practiced  on  abandoned  fields  may  be  classed  as  "intermit- 
tent forestry." 


FOREST    POLICE. 

7.  Laws:    Stock    law    in    many    counties.      The 
laws,  existing  since  1802.  are  unobserved. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  WASHINGTON: 

1.  Area:  71%  of  the  State  is  classed  as  forests  (H.  Gan- 
nett). Of  this  area,  however,  much  is  burned  and  cut  over.  Of 
the  original  timber,  55%  stands  intact,  22%  is  burned  and  23'.  is 
cut  over. 

2.  Physiography:  The  southeastern  part  of  the  State  is 
practically  destitute  of  timber,  excepting  the  region  south  of  the 
bend  of  the  Snake  River,  owing  to  insufficient  rainfall.  The 
Coast  Range  extends  northward  into  the  Olympic  Mountains 
where  there  is  the  heaviest  rainfall  in  the  United  States.  The 
valleys  of  the  Chehalis  and  Cowlitz  Rivers,  separating  the  Coast 
Range  from  the  Cascade  Range,  are  not  densely  wooded.  Mt. 
Tacoma  (Rainier)  has  highest  elevation  in  the  Cascade  Range. 
Irregular  mountain  chains,  sparsely  timbered,  running  north  and 
south  are  found  in  the  northeastern  part,  mostly  covered  by  Col- 
ville  Indian  Reservation. 

3.  Distribution:  The  Cascade  and  Coast  Ranges  bear  the 
heaviest  continuous  forest  belt  in  the  United  States. 

The  Coast  Range  is  timbered  down  to  seashore,  a  strip  of 
dunes  excepted.  Predominating  species  are  red  fir  (Douglas  fir) 
and  red  cedar  (Thuja  plicata).  Tideland  spruce  (Sitka)  is  sai  1 
to  run  only  50  miles  inland.  Black  hemlock  forms  an  almost 
tropical  undergrowth  and  is  the  smallest  among  the  giants.  Sar- 
gent denies  fires  ever  having  swept  the  virgin  forest.  Pinchot 
finds  cinders  below  the  vegetable  litter  all  over  the  Olympics. 

On  the  Cascade  Range,  we  must  strictly  distinguish  be- 
tween west  and  east  slope,  owing  to  great  difference  in  rain  all. 

The  west  slope  has  at  its  highest  altitudes  alpine  fir,  hem- 
lock, alpine  larch  (Lyalli)  and  white  bark  pine.  Descending  from 
the  crest  we  meet  Engelmann's  spruce,  white  pine  (monticcla), 
lowland  fir.  amiable  fir  and  noble  fir. 

Lower  down,  Alaska  cedar  (Ch.  nootkatensis).  western  hem- 
lock and  western   red   cedar  are   met   with,   and   Douglas   fir    in- 

99 


FOREST     POLICY. 

creases  in  proportion  until  it  forms  the  prevailing  species  at  lower 
altitudes.     Near  the  Gulf,  tideland  spruce  occurs. 

On  the  east  slope,  below  the  timber  line  fringed  by  white 
bark  pine  and  alpine  hemlock,  we  strike  Engelmann's  spruce  and 
Douglas  fir.  Lower  down,  we  enter  upon  forests  of  yellow  pine 
(Pinus  ponderosa)  and  groves  of  lodge  pole  pine. 

The  Blue  Mountains  in  the  southeast  contain  yellow  pine, 
Douglas  spruce,  Engelmann's  spruce  and  lodge  pole  pine. 

The  irregular  mountain  chains  in  the  northeast  are  said  to 
show  timber  in  the  valleys  only  (?).  Yellow  pine  predominates; 
in  addition,  lodge  pole  pine,  Douglas  fir  and  tamarack  larch  are 
found;  further,  Engelmann's  spruce,  lowland  fir,  western  white 
pine  and  red  cedar.  A  tree  alder  (Alnus  Oregona)  is  remarkable 
for  its  size. 

The  Columbia  River  and  its  tributaries  are  fringed  by  gigan- 
tic broad-leaved  species,  notably  cottonwoods,  maples,  ashes  and 
willows. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  The  United  States  reservations  ag- 
gregate 7.0  million  acres;  0.4  million  acres  are  owned  by  farmers; 
lumbermen  control  the  Coast  Range  and  own  one-tenth  of  entire 
stumpage. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Lumber  industry  is  modern.  Invest- 
ment in  a  saw  mill  averages  $23,500.  24  million  staves  of  cotton- 
wood  were  manufactured  in  1898.  In  the  coniferous  forests  a 
yield  of  200,000  feet  b.  m.  per  acre  is  not  exceptional.  20,000 
square  miles  in  one  plot  are  said  to  average  25,000  feet  b.  m.  p<  r 
acre.  Mining  is  undeveloped  and  requires  little  timber.  Clear- 
ing of  heavy  timbered  land  costs  $100  to  $200  per  acre.  Timber 
claims  in  1898  were  sold  at  $10  per  acre.  The  stumpage  price 
after  12th  census  is  80  cents  per  1,000  board  feet;  logs  at  the  mill 
are  worth  $5.14    making  logging  expenses  $4.34. 

Washington  employs  three-fourths  of  all  steam  power  used 
in  logging  in  the  United  States  (railroads  and  donkey  engines). 
The  waste  in  logging  is  from  two-thirds  to  three-quarters  of 
entire  tree.  Fires  destroy  enormous  amounts  of  timber  and  in- 
variably  the   hemlock   left   after   lumbering. 

During  the  census  year  (1900)  Washington  produced  2.3  bil- 
lion feet  b.  m..  worth  $30,000,000.  holding  5th  rank  among  States. 
There  is  no  paper,  pulp  and  leather  industry.  (The  latter  industry 
consumes  only  400  cords  of  bark,  though  red  fir  bark  and  hem- 
lock bark  are  rich  in  tannin.) 


FOREST     POLICY. 

Tideland  spruce  is  used  mainly  for  car  linings  and  interior 
finish;  cedar  mainly  for  shingles;  hemlock  is  only  beginning  to 
be  used  at  all.  Douglas  fir  is  used  for  all  building  purposes, 
trestle  bridges  and  ship  building. 

The  growing  stock  of  timber  in  Washington  consists  of 

Red  fir    90,000.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Spruce    8,000,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Cedar    23,000,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Hemlock    42,000.000,000  feet  b.  m.     - 

Yellow  pine    13,000.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Miscellaneous    20,000.000,000  feet  b.  m. 


Total 196,000.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

As  we  are  cutting  2.3  billion  feet  b.  m..  we  are  cutting  1.17% 
of  the  growing  stock  per  annum. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  State  association  in  1898,  comp  >se<l 
of  lumbermen,  securing  more  stringent  fire  laws. 

7.  Laws:  Fire  laws  of  1877  comprehensive  and  stringent, 
but  uninforced.  Law  of  1903  makes  the  land  commissioner  ex 
officio  "forest  firewarden,"  the  county  commissioners  "deputy  fire- 
wardens." road  supervisors  and  State  land  cruisers  "forest  pa- 
trolmen." The  firewardens  may  appoint  the  cruisers  and  foremen 
of  lumber  firms  as  "patrolmen  at  large."  Fire  laws  to  be  posted; 
firing  of  slashings  forbidden  during  dry  months.  Carelessness 
in  camp  fires  punishable  only  if  it  results  in  damage  to  private 
interests. 

8.  Reservations:  Total  area  reserved  7,036,000  acres,  equal 
to  15.5%  of  State.  In  1898  there  were  employed  one  superintend- 
ent, three  supervisors  and  twenty-three  rangers. 

(a)  Olympic  forest  reserve,  1,466.880  acres.  Douglas  fir 
prevails,  with  hemlock  and  cedar.  Very  deep  humus.  No  lum- 
bering, owing  to  difficulty  of  transportation.  Little  chance  for 
farming,  grazing,  mining. 

(b)  Washington  forest  reserve,  3,426,400  acres.  Two-thirds 
of  the  growing  stock  (20  billion  feet)  is  formed  by  hemlock.  Lit- 
tle grazing.  Timber  still  inaccessible.  Mines  beginning  to  be  de- 
veloped. Reserve  is  said  to  include  150,000  acres  of  agricultural 
land. 

(c)  Mt.  Rainier  forest  reserve,  2,027,520  acres,  embracing 

101 


FOREST     POLICY. 

the  Mt.  Rainier  National  Park  of  207.360  acres,  with  its  unrivalled 
combination  of  ice  and  woodland  scenery. 

(d)  Part  (about  104.000  acres)  of  the  Priest  River  forest 
reserve. 

(e)  Blue  Mountain  forest  reserve. 

9.  Irrigation:  Irrigation  is  profitable  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Cascades. 

Small  farms,  along  the  narrow  strips  of  land  left  between 
the  river  and  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  framing  the  canyons,  are  found 
along  the  Columbia  and  Snake  Rivers.  Here,  the  irrigation  of 
fruit  orchards  is  particularly  remunerative,  the  water  being  lifted 
from  the  river  by  bucket  wheels. 

In  the  Great  Bend  country  it  will  be  necessary  to  construct 
reservoirs,  storing  away  the  supply  furnished  by  intermittent 
and  uncertain  streams. 

Washington  hops  are  famous.  The  seemingly  arid  soil  of 
the  rolling  uplands  in  the  east  has  been  found  to  produce  splen- 
did wheat,  without  irrigation,  owing  to  its  remarkable  hygro- 
scopic qualities. 

The  irrigated  farms,  covering  135,000  acres,  produced  anno 
1809,  from  irrigation  works  costing  $1,700,000.  a  crop  valued  at 
$2,400,000. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  WEST  VIRGINIA: 

1.  Area:  18,400  square  miles,  or  73%  of  State,  are  stocked 
mostly  with  merchantable  timber. 

2.  Physiography:  West  Virginia  has  the  poorest  shipping 
facilities  of  any  State  in  the  east.  The  main  rivers  (the  Big 
Sandy,  Guyandotte,  Kanawha  and  Cheat) — which  are  not  naviga- 
ble— rapidly  traverse  a  plateau  sloping  from  the  crest  of  the  Alie- 
ghanies  westward  to  the  Ohio  River.  The  Potomac  alone,  rising 
in  the  extreme  northeast,  finds  its  way  to  the  east  along  the 
Maryland  line. 

3.  Distribution:  The  hardwoods  prevail  by  far.  Echinata 
pine  is  found  scatteringly  on  a  narrow  belt  lying  half  way  between 
the  mountains  and  the  Ohio  River.  Pinus  virginiana,  rigida  and 
pungens  occur  on  the  east  slopes  and  on  the  poorer  soil  of  the 
plateau.  A  few  Pinus  resinosa,  found  in  the  high  mountains,  are 
the  southernmost  representatives  of  that  species. 

102 


FOREST     POLICY. 

In  the  western  and  northern  section  the  virgin  hardwoods 
have  been  removed. 

Along  the  upper  course  of  the  rivers  the  primeval  forest 
is  frequently  intact.  Prime  walnut,  cherry,  yellow  poplar  and 
white  oak  occur  here  in  large  quantities.  At  the  headwaters  of 
the  Green  Briar  and  Cheat  Rivers  a  large  and  commercially  im- 
portant belt  of  white  pine  is  found,  and.  adjoining  it  to  the  north, 
a  long  belt  of  splendid  spruce.  (Spruce  stumpage  said  to  aver- 
age 25,000  feet  b.  m.  to  the  acre.) 

4.  Forest  ownership:  221  lumber  firms  own  506.000  acres, 
of  5.200  feet  b.  m.  average  stumpage. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  Logging  and  log  transportation  in  the 
primeval  woods  of  the  mountains  is  extremely  difficult,  owing  to 
the  character  of  the  rivers,  the  lack  of  snow  and  the  high  ex- 
pense of  railroading  in  a  broken  country.  929  mills  represent 
an  average  investment  of  $5,700.  Logs  on  stump  are  worth  $2.36; 
at  mill,  $6.59.     The  output  of  the  mills  was  valued  in 

^70    $  1.500.000 

J88o   2.400.000 


5.500.000 


IQoo   10.600,000 

The  cut  in  1900  consisted  of: — 

Hemlock    91.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Spruce    94.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Yellow  pine    18,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

White  pine   5.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Walnut   150.000  feet  b.  m. 

Poplar    193.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

White   oak    353.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Ash.  birch,  chestnut    25.000.000  feet  b.  m. 

The  cooperage  materials  produced  were  worth  $400,000.  and 
ihe  furniture,  wagon,  etc.,  stock,  $580,000. 

Leather  industry:  46  tanneries  produce  annually  $3,200,000 
worth  of  leather  and  consume  8.445  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth 
$50,000:  69.286  cords  of  chestnut  oak  bark,  worth  $305,000;  in  ad- 
dition to  394  barrels  of  bark  extract. 

Paper  and  pulp  industry:  There  are  6  mills  yielding  an  out- 
put  worth   $527,000.     They  consume   5.729   cords  of  home-grow:i 

103 


FOREST    POLICY. 

spruce,  for  pulp,  valued  at  $30,500;  11,286  cords  of  home-grown 
spruce,  for  sulphite  and  soda  fibre,  valued  at  only  $39,100;  1.519 
cords  of  miscellaneous  wood,  valued  at  $4,200. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  None.  Arbor  Day  failed  to  be 
legalized.  The  West  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
at  Morgantown  issues  valuable  bulletins  on  insect  plagues  in  the 
forest,  written  by  A.  D.  Hopkins,  the  forest  insectologist  of  the 
United  States. 

7.  Laws:  Laws  under  which  unlawful  firing  is  punished 
are  uninforced,  although  existing  on  the  statute  book. 

8.  Reservations:     None. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  WISCONSIN: 

1.  Area  under  forest,  31,750  square  miles,  or  58%  of  the 
State. 

2.  Physiography:  Undulating  land.  Splendid  shipping  fa- 
cilities on  the  shore  line  of  Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan,  and 
on  the  Mississippi  River,  helped  by  a  multitude  of  lakes  and  float- 
able rivers.  The  Wisconsin,  Menomonee  and  St.  Croix  Rivers  are 
famous  for  the  output  of  white  pine. 

3.  Distribution:  The  southwestern  section  is  prairie,  in- 
truded by  the  black  oaks  and  paper  birch. 

The  southeastern  section  shows  the  hardwoods  (maple, 
basswoo'd,  elm,  white  and  red  oak)  prevailing,  the  overtowering 
white  pines  having  been  removed. 

The  northeast  is  characterized  by  hemlock  and  birch, 
whilst  white  and  red  oak  are  scarce. 

The  north  shows  pineries  stocked  with  white,  jack  and 
Norway  pines.  A  large  number  of  swamps  produce  spruce,  bal- 
sam, white  cedar,  tamarack  or  nothing. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  The  northern  half  of  the  State — the 
coniferous  region  proper — is  owned  in  the  following  proportion: — 

United  States  5% 

State  and  counties   2% 

Railroads    5% 

Resident  settlers   24% 

Lumbermen    50% 

Outsiders   14% 

104 


FOREST     POLICY. 

The  last  census  credits  the  lumbermen  with  a  total  forest 
property  of  1.020,000  acres. 

5.  Use  of  timber:  The  growing  stock  of  white  pine  was 
estimated  in  1880  (by  Sargent)  at  41  billion  feet  b.  m.,  and  in 
1897  (by  Roth)  at  17  billion  feet.  Both  estimates  were  found 
too  small.  47  billion  feet  white  pine  are  still  owned  by  lumber- 
men alone,  whilst  the  annual  cut  has  been  from  2  to  3  billion 
feet  since  the  estimates  were  made. 

The  cut  of  the  census  year  was: — 

Hemlock    402,000.000  feet  b.  m. 

Norway  pine    94.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  pine   2,479,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  conifers   66,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

White  oak   127,000,000  feet  b.  m. 

Other  hardwoods   392.000,000  feet  b.  m. 

The  cutting  of  pines  is  very  close,  logs  of  4  inches  diam- 
eter  at  small  end  being  used.  Log  drives  are  said  to  average 
frequently  only  100  feet  b.  m.  per  log.  The  average  investment, 
in  1,033  saw  mills,  is  $35,959,  a  figure  exceeded  only  by  the  Min- 
nesota mills. 

Value  of  products  of  lumber  industry  was: — 

In  i860   $4,400,000 

In  1S70   15.100.000 

In  1880   17.900,000 

In  1890   61,000.000 

In  1000   57,600.000 

which    latter  figure   places  Wisconsin   in  the  lead  of  all   Si 

The  leather  industry  is  important,  the  value  of  its  products 
being  $20,000,000  per  annum.  35  plants  use,  in  the  census  year. 
177,628  cords  of  hemlock  bark,  worth  $1,070,000;  770  cords  of  oak 
bark,  worth  $8,000:  56  barrels  of  hemlock  bark  extract  and  1.602 
barrels  of  quebracho  extract;  41.726  bales  of  gambier  and  247  tons 
of  sumac. 

The  paper  and  pulp  industry  produces  in  47  mills  products 
worth  $io,8q5,ooo  and  consumes  66,300  cords  of  native  spruce  for 
pulp  worth  $308,000;  58.659  cords  of  native  spruce  for  fibre,  worth 
$350000;  24,754  cords  of  Canadian  spruce,  worth  $164,000;  1.400 
cords  of  native  poplar,  worth  $12,000.  and  60.000  cords  of  miscel- 
laneous wood  (the  majority  of  which  is  hemlock),  worth  $210,000. 

105 


FOREST    POLICY. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  Forestry  commission  reports  to 
legislature  in  1898.  Ernest  Bruncken,  secretary.  (See  also 
XXXI.) 

7.  Laws:  Forest  fire  warden  law  of  1898,  creating  certain 
county  officials  ex  officio  fire  wardens. 

A  law  of  June  2,  1903,  provides  for  an  unpaid  "board  of 
forest  commissioners"  or  a  "department  of  forestry."  Paid  su- 
perintendent of  State  forests  acts  as  secretary  of  board  for  records, 
publications,  maps,  etc.;  acts  as  "trespass  agent"  on  State  forest 
reserve;  acts  as  chief  fire  warden  of  the  State;  appoints  fire  war- 
dens in  certain  counties.  Fire  wardens  and  helpers  are  paid  by 
the  towns;  but  the  annual  fire  expense  per  township  must  not  ex- 
ceed $100.  Fire  notices.  Fire  reports.  Duty  of  district  attor- 
neys to  prosecute  incendiarism,  upon  complaint  of  fire  wardens. 

All  State  lands  are  withdrawn  from  sale  (excepting  swamps, 
farm  wood  lots,  agricultural  land  and  small  tracts)  and  consti- 
tute a  "State  forest  reserve."  Here  possibility  of  forestry  is  to  be 
studied  by  the  superintendent;  dead  and  down  timber  to  be  dis- 
posed of;  experiment  stations  to  be  formed. 

The  State  may  accept  unencumbered  forest  land  donated  by 
private  persons  for  reserve  purposes.     Insufficient  appropriation. 

Any  40  acres  planted  with  1,000  pine  trees  obtain  a  tax  re- 
lease for  fifteen  years. 

8.  Reservations:     No  federal  forest  reserves. 

The  State  forest  reserves  created  in  1903  consist  of  hold- 
ings so  scattering  that  protection  from  fire  will  be  difficult. 

9.  Irrigation:     None. 


FORESTRY  CONDITIONS  OF  WYOMING: 

1.  Area:  13%  of  area  of  State  or  12.500  square  miles  are 
said  to  be  wooded.     (Underestimate??), 

2.  Physiography:  A  broad,  high,  bare  plateau,  stretching 
from  the  northeast  to  the  southwest  into  the  Uintah  Range,  oc- 
cupies one-half  the  State.  Deserts  in  the  southwest  (Colorado 
and  Red  Deserts).  The  Yellowstone  Rockies  occupy  the  north- 
western quarter;  the  Big  Horn  Mountains,  drained  by  the  Yellow- 
stone River,  the  central  north;  the  Uintah  Mountains  come  from 
Utah;  the  Laramie  and  Medicine  Bow  Mountains  from  Colo- 
rado; the  Black  Hills  from  South  Dakota.     The  northern  mono- 

106 


FOREST    POLICY. 

tains  are  drained  by  the  Yellowstone  and  Missouri  Rivers;  the 
western  mountains  by  the  Snake  and  Colorado  Rivers;  the  south- 
ern mountains  (Laramie  and  Medicine  Bow  Mountains)  by  the 
North  Platte  River. 

3.  Distribution:  Wyoming  is  the  lodgepole  pine  State. 
Yellow  pine,  limber  white  pine  and  Engelmann's  spruce  occupy 
the  moister  sections.  In  the  Black  Hills,  yellow  pine  prevails, 
forming  valuable  forests.  Fire  has  run  over  all  forests.  In  the 
Yellowstone  Park,  lodgepole  pine  is  the  prevailing  species,  of  a 
quality  unfit  for  good  timber.  Douglas  fir  and  Engelmann's 
spruce  occur  at  elevations  from  7,000  to   10,000  feet. 

4.  Forest  ownership:  The  United  States  reserves  and 
parks  (aggregating  about  10,000,000  acres)  cover  over  two-thirds 
of  the  area  of  woodlands.  Only  510  acres  of  forest  are  attached 
to  farms,  and  only  57,000  acres  owned  by  lumbermen. 

5.  Use:  Yellow  pine  is  used  for  ties  and  mining  timber; 
lodgepole  pine  for  fencing,  fuel,  telegraph  poles  and  ties.  The 
other  coniferous  species  are  scarcely  ever  used.  From  the  Big 
Horn  Range  and  the  Laramie  Mountains  the  mining  timber  is 
conveyed  to  the  railroads  by  chutes. 

6.  Forestry  movement:  None.  Inhabitants  are  rather  op- 
posed to  reserves  for  fear  of  injury  to  the  growing  mining  in- 
terests. The  people  outside  Wyoming,  on  the  other  hand,  realize 
the  importance  of  reserving  forested  mountain  tracts  which  sup- 
ply water  to  the  three  greatest  rivers  of  the  country. 

7.  Laws:     Usual  fire  laws,  but  not  enforced. 

8.  Reservations:  The  Yellowstone  National  Park  contains 
over  3,000  square  miles.  It  is  poorly  timbered.  Heavy  fires  pre- 
vail in  spite  of  military  supervision. 

The  Yellowstone  Park  forest  reserve  contains  1,809.280 
acres  and  lies  east  of  the  park. 

The  Teton  forest  reserve,  of  4,127,360  acres,  lies  south  of 
the  Yellowstone  National  Park. 

The  Big  Horn  forest  reserve  occupies  1,216,960  acres. 

Of  the  Black  Hills  forest  reserve,  the  majority  of  which 
lies  in  South  Dakota,  429.000  acres  are  in  Wyoming. 

The  Medicine  Bow  forest  reserve  has  420,584  acres. 

Features  of  these  reserves  are  high  mountain  parks.  These 
parks  are  very  well  adapted  to  stock  pasture,  notably  to  sheep 
grazing.    They  are,  probably,  the  beds  of  former  lakes. 

107 


FOREST    POLICY. 

9.  Irrigation:  The  climate,  owing  to  high  altitude,  and  the 
soil  of  Wyoming  do  not  predestine  the  State  favorably  for  agri- 
cultural pursuits.  Grazing  and  mining  must  remain  its  staple 
industries. 

In  the  north,  near  Sheridan,  at  an  altitude  of  only  3,700 
feet,  irrigation  has  been  most  successful. 

The  irrigated  farms — mostly  hay  farms — are  of  large  size. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  irrigation  systems  tunnels  the 
Laramie  Mountains,  so  as  to  deliver  the  waters  of  the  Laramie 
River  to  a  number  of  canals  on  the  east  side  of  the  mountains. 

The  irrigation  works  constructed  previous  to  1899  cost 
$4,000,000  and  supply  610,000  acres  of  farm  land,  which  produce 
$2,900,000  worth  of  crops. 


108 


FOREST    MANAGEMENT 

(Forest  Working  Plans) 


Guide  to  Lectures 

Delivered  at  the  Biltmore  Forest  School 

By  C.  A.  SCHENCK,  Ph.  D. 

Forester  to  the  Biltmore  Estate 


1907 


HACKNEY  &  MOALE   COMPANY 
ASHEVILLE,  NORTH  CAROLINA 


CONTENTS 

Par.  I.     Definitions  and  Introduction. 

Chapter  I. — The  Ideal  Forest. 

Par.  II.  Normal  gradation  of  age  classes. 

Par.  III.  Normal  growing  stock. 

Par.  IV.  Normal  increment. 

Par.  V.  Financial  considerations. 

Par.  VI.  Sustained  yield  ("possibility"). 

Par.  VII.  Utilization-percentage. 

Chapter  II. — Subdivisions  of  a  Forest. 

Par.  VIII.     Working  circle. 

Par.  IX.     Working  sections. 

Par.  X.     Compartments  and  blocks. 

Chapter  III. — Working  Plan  Reports. 

Par.  XL  The  chief  working  plan. 

Par.  XII.  Forest  survey. 

Par.  XIII.  Description  of  locality. 

Par.  XIV.  Yield  tables  and  volume  tables. 

Par.  XV.  Silvicultural  and  protectional  problems. 

Par.  XVI.  Forest  utilization. 

Par.  XVII.  Forestal  investments. 

Chapter  IV. — Methods  Regulating  the  Yield  in  Wood  and  Timber. 

Par.  XVIII.  General  remarks. 

Par.  XIX.  Regulation  of  yield  by  area. 

Par.  XX.  Regulation  of  yield  by  volume. 

Par.  XXI.  Charles  Heyer's  method. 

Par.  XXII.  Hundeshagen's  method. 

Par.  XXIII.  Increment  method. 

Par.  XXIV.  Brandis  method. 

Par.  XXV.  Pinchot  method. 

Chapter  V. — Methods  Regulating  the  Investments  and  the 
Returns. 

Par.         XXVI.    Judeich's  method. 
Par.        XXVII.     Raess's  method. 
Par.     XXVIII,     Schenck's  method, 


FOREST  MANAGEMENT 

(Forest  Working  Plans.)  y 


PARAGRAPH   I. 
Definitions  and  Introduction. 

The  term  "forest  management,"  used  in  a  broad  sense,  comprises 
collectively  the  branches  of  forestry  known  as  forest  survey,  forest 
mensuration,  forest  finance  and  forest  working  plans.  Used  in  a  nar- 
row sense,  the  term  "forest  management"  deals  with  forest  working 
plans  only  and  is  usually  defined  as  that  branch  of  forestry  which  deter- 
mines upon  and  regulates  the  sustained  yield  (la  possibilite)  of  forests;  .  • 
or,  by  others,  as  a  systematic  arrangement  of  the  rules  by  which  abnor- 
mal woodlands  are  transformed  into  normal  forests. 

American  forest  management  will  do  well  to  rest  on  a  broader  foun- 
dation. It  should  determine,  in  science,  as  well  as  in  practice,  upon 
the  ways  and  means  by  which  the  desire  of  the  owner,  relative  to  the 
use  of  a  forest  (for  revenue,  timber  supply,  shelter,  pasture,  ornament 
water  protection,  game  preserves,  etc.)  can  be  best  accomplished, 
the  majority  of  cases  the  owner  desires  to  draw  from  the  forest 
largest  possible  revenue.  As  a  consequence  American  forest  manage- 
ment will  have  to  deal  usually  with  the  various  means  by  which  given 
forestal  investments  can  be  developed  in  a  manner  producing  the  high- 
est dividends  in  the  long  run. 

In  Europe  financial  considerations  are  rarely  applied  to  forest  man- 
agement. Since  1871,  however,  the  adherents  of  John  Frederic  Judeich 
insist  that  forest  management  (like  farm  management,  railroad  man- 
agement and  any  other  business  management)  should  see  its  goal  in 
a  strife  for  the  highest  rate  of  interest  obtainable  from  all  productive 
capital  engaged  in  the  forest. 

The  owners  of  forests  (like  the  owners  of  farms,  mines,  hotels,  rail- 
road stocks)  cannot  be  expected  to  seek  any  other  managerial  end  in 
the  administration  of  their  property. 

The  rapidity  of  any  development  depends  (in  forests,  farms,  mines, 
perhaps  in  all  investments),  pre-eminently  on  the  owner's  financial 
ability  to  make  desirable  moves  at  the  most  desirable  time. 

In  many  instances  development  is  possibly  only  with  the  help  of 
money  borrowed  by  the  owner.  Borrowed  money  (mortgages,  bonds) 
usually  proves  a  curse  to  the  owner  of  forests  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
years.  His  policy  of  development  is  handcuffed  by  the  necessity  of 
meeting  the  indebtedness,  year  in  and  year  out,  irrespective  of  market 
conditions  and  labor  conditions.  Forestry,  in  such  cases,  must  be  de- 
structive. It  must  pay  the  bonds  as  they  mature  out  of  the  substance 
of  the  forest. 


6  Forest  Management 

Frequently  forest  destruction  promises  better  dividends  than  forest 
maintenance.  In  such  cases  a  forest  working  plan  resolves  itself  into  a 
plan  covering  the  various  operations  commonly  known  as  destructive 
lumbering.  The  soil  may  be  cleared  because  it  is  thought  to  be  valua- 
ble as  farm  soil,  pasture  soil,  orchard  soil;  or  the  land  may  be  aban- 
doned after  lumbering  as  worthless  when  the  owner  believes  that  the 
taxes  due  on  the  cleared  land  (taken  together  with  the  expenses  of  pro- 
tecting a  second  growth  expectable  on  the  cleared  land)  form  a  new 
investment  of  an  unpromising  nature. 

Forests  cannot  be  well  developed  where  the  development  of  the 
whole  country  is  in  arrears.  Here  the  owner  is  compelled  to  adopt  a 
policy  of  waiting — waiting  for  that  general  development  of  the  country 
which  is  sure  permanently  to  improve  the  value  of  stumpage.  In  such 
cases  a  working  plan  resolves  itself  into  a  plan  for  forest  protection 
(against  squatters,  fires,  etc.) 

In  the  prairies  and  also  in  the  East,  the  land  owner  is  frequently 
inclined — on  a  small  scale,  usually — to  improve  the  condition  of  his 
property  sylviculturally,  making  investments  for  afforestation,  clean- 
ing, weeding,  etc.  In  such  cases  a  forest  working  plan  resolves  itself, 
essentially,  into  a  plan  covering  various  sylvicultural  operations  (con- 
structive  forestry). 

In  Germany  and  France,  at  the  time  being,  conservative  forestry 
produces  invariably  financial  results  superior  to  those  of  de-forestation 
and  of  abandonment  of  cut  over  woodland.  In  these  countries  cut  over 
woodland  unfit  for  the  plow  (known  as  absolute  forest  land),  has  a 
value  usually  exceeding  $10  per  acre. 

Modern  European  foresters  are  in  the  habit  of  identifying  the  term 
"management"  with  the  term  "conservative  management"  of  forests; 
and  all  European  forest  working  plans  provide  for  conservative  work- 
ing of  the  forest. 

CHAPTER  I— THE  IDEAL  FOREST 

In  an  ideal  forest  continuously  supplying  certain  mills  or  certain 
markets  with  an  equal  annual  amount  of  timber  or  wood  there  should 
be  at  hand: 

A  normal  gradation  of  the  age  classes  (fl  II); 

A  normal  growing  stock  (ff  III); 

A  normal  increment  (ff  IV). 
No  forest  ever  has  been,  is,  or  ever  will  be  "ideal."    The  ideal  forest  de- 
serves attention  only  in  theory.     Its  theory  deals  with  volumes  instead 
of  dealing  with  values. 

PARAGRAPH  II. 

NORMAL  GRADATION  OF  AGE  CLASSES. 

A  normal  gradation  of  age  classes  is  literally  at  hand  in  the  forest 
when  there  are  found  as  many  age  classes  as  the  rotation  comprises 


Forest  Management  7 

years.  Each  class  has  an  age  differing  from  that  of  any  other  class. 
The  youngest  class  is  one  year  old;  the  next  class  is  two  years  old; 
the  third  class  is  three  years  old,  and  so  on  to  the  oldest  class  the  age 
of  which  equals  the  rotation. 

In  the  case  of  natural  seed  regeneration,  the  normal  number  of  age 
classes  at  hand  is  expressed  by  the  fraction 


wherein  r  stands  for  rotation,  and  wherein  s  stands  for  the  number  of 
years  normally  elapsing  between  successive  seed  years.  Since  a  single 
seed  year  is  rarely  sufficient  to  secure  a  complete  stand  of  seedlings,  a 
wood  raised  by  natural  seed  regeneration  is  usually  composed  of  two, 
three  or  more  age  classes  appearing  in  mixture  and  forming  distinct 
aggregates. 

Where  the  rotation  comprises  ioo  years,  and  where  the  period  of 
regeneration  comprises  20  years,  and  where  seed  years  occur  every  5 
years,  there  a  "normal  gradation  of  age  classes"  contains,  in  the  fall 
succeeding  a  seed  year,  the  following  aggregate  of  age  classes: 


Youngest  aggregate 

21 

41 
61 
81 

6 
26 
46 
t6 

86 

11 
9« 

and  16  years  old 

Third                  "           

..      ^                ., 

Oldest                "          

..      ^      ..        .. 

OR   THE    FOLLOWING   AGGREGATES: 

Youngest  aggregate 

6 
26 
46 
66 
86 

11 
31 

7i 

16 

36 
56 
76 
96 

and  21  years  old 

Third                 "          

OR   THE   FOLLOWING   AGGREGATES  : 

Youngest   aggregate 

Second               "          

11 
31 
51 
71 
91 

16 

*l 
56 

76 

96 

21 
41 
61 
81 

and  26  years  old 
'•      46      » 

'•      86      " 

Oldest                "          

"     106      " 

OR   THE    FOLLOWING   AGGREGATES 


Youngest  aggregate. 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Oldest 


and  31  years  old 
"      51      " 

"      71       " 

..        9I         .. 

"    lacking 


Amongst  all  age  classes  under  21  years  old,  some  mother  trees  are 
still  at  hand  up  to  no  years  old;  and  beneath  all  age  classes  over  90 
years  old,  some  seedlings  are  found  up  to  20  years  old. 

In  the  ideal  selection  forest,  all  age  classes  are  represented  on  every 
acre  of  ground. 

The  separation  of  the  age  classes  (allotting  to  each  age  class  separ- 
ate areas)  facilitates  logging  and  transportation;  it  increases,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  dangers  threatening  the  forests. 

If  a  proper  gradation  of  age  classes  exists  in  a  forest  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  the  age  classes  are  properly  grouped  and  ar- 


8  Forest   Management 

ranged  in  "cutting  series."  By  "proper  cutting  series"  is  understood  a 
number  of  adjoining  age  classes,  sloping  roof-like  from  the  older  to  the 
younger,  toward  the  windward  side.  If  the  cutting  series  are  improper, 
then  sacrifices  must  be  made,  hypermature  wood  must  be  left,  and  im- 
mature wood  must  be  cut  unless  the  mistake  originally  at  hand  is 
allowed  to  be  perpetuated.  In  the  latter  case,  the  losses  of  the  future 
are  apt  to  be  greater  than  the  sacrifices  voluntarily  made  with  a  view 
to  the  establishment  of  proper  cutting  series.  Cutting  series  must  be 
isolated  one  from  the  other,  if  need  be,  by  "severance  cuttings." 

PARAGRAPH  III. 

NORMAL  GROWING  STOCK. 

The  normal  growing  stock  is  at  hand  where  the  age  gradation  of  the 
various  woods  composing  the  forest  and  their  respective  volumes  are 
normal.  A  forest,  however,  might  have  the  normal  volume  without 
having  the  normal  age  gradation,  when  a  deficiency  of  one  age  class  is 
offset  by  a  surplus  in  another  age  class.  The  normal  growing  stock, 
during  summer,  has  the  volume 

r2Xi 

2 

wherein  r  represents  the  rotation,  and  i  the  average  annual  increment 
of  a  mature  age  class. 

Illustration:  A  spruce  forest  covers  2,000  acres.  The  rotation  is  100 
years.  The  mature  wood,  100  years  old,  contains  normally  120  cords 
per  acre.  Under  these  conditions,  the  area  of  an  age  class  is  20  acres; 
the  average  annual  increment  of  the  mature  age  class  is  24  cords;  and 
the  normal  growing  stock  is 

100  X  100  X  24 

=  120,000  cords. 

2 

The  volume  of  poles  and  trees  predestined  to  be  cut  and  removed  prior 
to  maturity  (by  way  of  thinnings)  is  not  included  in  the  volume  given 
by  the  formula. 

Whilst  one  normal  growing  stock  is  removed,  in  the  course  of  a  ro- 
tation, another  normal  growing  stock — its  exact  counterpart — is  raised 
on  the  very  same  area. 

If  the  original  growing  stock  is  abnormally  deficient,  the  foresters, 
by  cutting  less  than  the  increment  of  the  forest  and  thus  adding  to  the 
original  volume,  may  succeed  in  gradually  establishing  the  "normal 
growing  stock." 

Normality  of  the  growing  stock  is  that  condition  required  in  an 
"ideal  forest,"  which  the  foresters  would  find  it  rather  easy  to  pro- 
vide. In  the  virgin  woods,  frequently  the  actual  growing  stock  is 
larger  than  the  normal  growing  stock,  owing  to  the  preponderance  of 
mature  and  hypermature  age  classes. 


Forest  Management  9 

PARAGRAPH   IV.  7 

NORMAL  INCREMENT^ 

The  normal  wood  at  the  age  of  maturity  has  imbedded  in  itself  the 
increments  of  a  wood,  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  years  old;  consequently,  it 
represents  all  of  the  increments  taking  place  annually  over  the  entire 
area  of  a  normal  forest  containing  the  age  classes,  one,  two,  three,  etc. 
Since  only  a  few  trees,  however,  reach  maturity  a  rule  fails  to  be  en- 
tirely correct  which  reads:  "The  normal  increment  of  a  forest  equals 
the  normal  volume  of  its  oldest  age  class." 

Generally  speaking,  since  the  same  causes  must  have  the  same  ef- 
fect, the  actual  increment,  in  tons  of  wood  fibre,  normally  formed  on 
an  acre  of  ground,  fully  stocked,  depends  solely  on  climate  and  soil, 
wood  fibre  being  "solidified  atmosphere."  The  forester's  aim  should 
be  to  concentrate  the  increment  into  the  smallest  number  of  trees, 
without  losing  any  increment,  so  as  to  grow  the  biggest  logs  in  the 
shortest  rotation. 

In  America,  soil  is  cheap;  hence  there  seems  to  be  no  need  to  force 
every  square  inch  of  soil  into  the  harness  of  tree  production.  We 
should  keep  in  mind,  however, — 

i.    That  woods  poorly  stocked  are  apt  to  yield  knotty  timber; 

2.  That  the  outlay  for  taxes,  protection  and  administration  de- 

pends more  on  area  than  on  density  of  stand; 

3.  That   the    logging   expenses   per    1,000   feet   b.   m.    are   small 

where  the  stumpage  is  heavy; 

4.  That   investments  for  roads   and   other   permanent  improve- 

ments, per   1,000  feet  b.   m.,  are   relatively  small   in   well 
stocked  forests; 

5.  That  the  fertility  of  forest  soil  suffers  under  a  loose  canopy 

overhead. 

The  main  sylvicultural  measures  leading  to  a  normal  increment  are: 
Weeding. 

Improvement  cutting. 
Thinning. 
Afforestation. 
Reinforcing. 

PARAGRAPH   V. 

FINANCIAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

Three  kinds  of  increment  compose  the  latent  gross  revenue  obtain- 
able from  any  wood  which  is  left  to  itself  or  which  is  placed  under 
forestal  care: 

1.  The  quantity  increment,  depending  solely  on  the  amount  of  wood 
fibre  formed. 


10  Forest  Management 

2.  The  quality  increment,  depending  solely  on  the  difference  of 
price  shown  in  the  same  year  by  logs  of  different  diameters,  per  unit 
of  contents. 

3.  The  price  increment,  depending  solely  on  the  difference  of  value 
which  the  same  log  will  exhibit  in  different  years.  This  latter  incre- 
ment is  influenced  by  increase  nf  population  and  wealth,  cheapened  fa- 
cilities of  transportation,  exhaustion  of  the  virgin  woods,  and  declining 
purchasing  power  of  gold. 

As  an  illustration  of  price  increment,  the  following  figures  may  be 
of  interest: 

Wholesale  Prices  of  Yellow  Poplar,  4-4  Lumber, 
at  Biltmore,  N.  C. 

Quality.                            In  1896.  In  1907. 

fas.                                  $21.00  $43.00  to  $52.00 

saps                                  16.00  33-00 

C.  1                                   12.00  28.00 

C.  2                                    6.50  16.00 

The  expense  of  production,  with  modern  mills  and  improved  trans- 
portation, is  as  high  in  1907  as  it  was  in  1896,  viz.:  $9  per  1,000  feet  b.  m. 
Assuming  that  certain  trees  have  turned  out  25  per  cent,  of  fas,  25  per 
cent,  saps,  25  per  cent.  C.  1  and  25  per  cent.  C.  2,  the  stumpage  values 
of  such  trees  was  per  1,000  feet  b.  m. 

in  1896  $  500 

in  1907  $22.00 

and  has  increased,  consequently,  at  the  rate  of  30  per  cent,  (simple  in- 
terest, equalling  14  per  cent,  of  compound  interest)  per  annum. 

The  increase  in  the  value  of  many  other  forest  products  has  been 
similarly  phenomenal;  and  the  question  arises:  Why  is  the  owner  of 
forests  unwise  enough  to  reduce  this  stumpage  as  long  as  the  rise  con- 
tinues to  be  phenomenal, — in  excess  of  any  dividend  derivable  from 
other  investments?    The  answer  frequently  lies  in  three  words: 

Poverty; 

Impatience; 

Ignorance. 

The  enormous  increase  of  gold  production  during  the  last  20  years 
promises  to  continue  and  to  become  more  phenomenal.  The  director 
of  the  U.  S.  Mint  reports  (in  1904,  p.  41)  that  the  rise  of  wages  does 
not  act  as  an  automatic  check  to  gold  production,  and  that  the  tendency 
of  the  expense  of  gold  production  continues  to  be  downward.  The 
effect  of  increasing  gold  supplies  on  commodity  prices,  wages,  land 
values,  mortgages,  bonds,  etc.,  is  easily  perceived: 

The  owner  of  bonds  and  mortgages  sinks  to  a  lower  level  of  rev- 
enue; whilst  the  owner  of  forests  and  farms  remains  (at  least)  equally 
wealthy. 

The  question  will  be  asked,  naturally:  Does  it  pay  to  strive  towards 
the  establishment  of  an  "ideal  forest"  ....  towards  the  establishment 
of  an  impossibility? 


Forest  Management  11 

European  foresters  are  apt  to  answer  the  question  by  an  emphatic 
"Yes." 

The  American  forester  might  consider,  before  answering,  four 
points: 

(i)  The  great  variety  of  conditions  existing  in  the  various  sections 
of  the  various  states  from  which  the  financial  prospects  of  conservative 
forestry  depend. 

(2)  The  fact  that  conservatism  in  the  forest  cannot  be  expected,  in 
the  long  run,  to  be  as  remunerative  in  this  country  as  it  is  abroad  un- 
less the  forest  is  rendered  as  safe  as  the  German  forests  from  fire,  taxes 
and  whimsical  legislation. 

(3)  The  fact  that  an  ideal  forest  represents  a  large  investment  yield- 
ing a  small  rate  of  surplus  revenue. 

(4)  The  possibility  that  a  forest  now  considered  "ideal"  as  to  rota- 
tion, composition,  species,  roads  and  so  on,  is  apt  to  be  considered  de- 
ficient when  the  lapse  of  years  has  caused  a  change  of  the  economical 
conditions  surrounding  the  forest. 

As  long  as  our  country  develops  by  leaps  and  bounds,  as  long  as  the 
immediate  future  of  our  forests  is  dark,  as  long  as  other  investments 
seem  safer,  simpler,  better  than  forestal  investments,  the  time  has  not 
arrived  to  strive  toward  "ideal  forests." 

The  American  forester  can  consider  the  forest  only  as  "so  much 
money  invested."  That  forest  is  ideal  which  can  Ibe  expected  to  yield, 
for  a  long  time  and  perhaps  forever,  a  safe,  steady  and  high  dividend 
on  every  dollar  invested.  In  such  a  forest,  the  various  items  of  value 
(as  trees,  soil,  roads,  sawmills)  appear  as  proper  shares  of  the  aggre- 
gate  value. 

The  following  may  serve  as  an  illustration: 

Value  of  stumpage,  per  acre $775,  or  yyl/2  per  cent. 

Value  of  soil,  "      "     1. 00,  or  10      percent. 

Value  of  roads,  "      "     50,  or    5      per  cent. 

Value  of  sawmills,      "      "     75,  or    "]V2  per  cent. 

Total  investment $10.00,  or  100  per  cent. 

The  form  of  the  ideal  revenue  depends  on  the  owner's  wish.  The 
owner  may  or  may  not  prefer  an  annual  revenue  lof  40  cents  per  acre, 
obtained  without  decreasing  the  value  of  the  stumpage,  to  a  revenue  of 
$2.00,  exhausting  the  forest  in  a  dozen  years.  The  owner  alone  can  de- 
cide whether  a  dividend  is  safe  enough,  steady  enough  and  high 
enough;  his  decision  is  based,  naturally,  on  a  comparison  between  for- 
est revenue  and  revenues  obtainable  from  other  investments. 

The  investor  stakes  his  money  on  that  enterprise  in  which  he  has 
the  greatest  confidence;  and  it  is  usual  that  the  farmer  puts  his  money 
in  farms;  the  miner  in  mines;  the  railroad  man  in  railroad  stock;  and 
the  lumberman  in  forests. 


12  Forest  Management 

The  American  lumberman  is  apt  to  consider  investments  in  forestry 
('be  it  destructive  or  conservative)  as  ideal  investments;  outsiders  are 
not  prone  to  share  his  view. 

As  long  as  this  country  abounds  in  merchantable  woods,  the  lumber- 
man has  an  easy  chance,  after  exhausting  the  stumpage  on  a  given  tract 
completely,  to  shift  his  capital  to  another  tract,  purchasing  the  stump- 
age  thereon  out  of  the  moneys  obtained  by  his  operations  conducted 
on  the  preceding  tract.  Usually,  he  prefers,  for  obvious  reasons,  the 
purchase  of  timber  to  the  purchase  of  the  forest  in  fee  simple.  Under 
such  conditions,  the  lumberman  cannot  be  interested  in  the  production 
of  second  growth,  nor  in  operations  merely  withdrawing  trees  working 
at  a  small  rate  of  revenue. 

The  owners  of  the  fee  simple — farmers,  townsfolks,  aliens — do  not 
command  any  knowledge  of  forest  investments;  having  paid  the  taxes 
on  the  land  for  a  number  of  years  without  any  returns,  they  embrace 
readily  the  first  chance  at  obtaining  "big  returns."  These  big  returns 
usually  exceed  the  price  by  far  at  which  the  land  was  bought.  Never- 
theless, and  just  as  usually,  such  "big  returns"  are  a  mere  pittance. 

The  Forest  Service  of  the  United  States  has  before  it  an  enormous 
task:  the  task  of  proving  to  the  owners  of  woodlands,  who  are  ignor- 
ant of  present  and  of  prospective  values  of  timber,  the  advisability  of 
conservative  lumbering. 

Unfortunately,  there  do  not  exist  anywhere  associations  of  forest 
owners  through  which  the  members  might  be  enlightened. 


PARAGRAPH   VI. 

SUSTAINED  YIELD   ("POSSIBILITY"). 

Normally,  the  "sustained  yield"  of  the  forest  is  that  number  of  cubic 
feet  of  wood  which  nature  produces  in  the  forest  annually;  the  annual 
removal  of  this  number  of  cubic  feet  does  not  decrease  the  original 
amount  of  stumpage.  The  normal  sustained  yield  equals  the  annual 
surplusage  of  production. 

The  cutting  of  a  sustained  yield — no  more,  no  less — is  indicated 
wherever  the  capacity  of  the  market  is  limited,  a  condition  which  we 
meet  almost  invariably  on  the  fuel  market.  In  Germany,  two-thirds  of 
the  annual  increment  of  all  forests  consists  of  fuel  wood.  In  America, 
the  requirements  of  expensive,  non-movable  plants  (tanneries,  pulp 
mills,  mines)  are  in  the  direction  of  a  sustained  yield. 

When  all  merchantable  trees  have  been  removed  from  a  forest,  a 
sustained  yield  can  not  be  obtained  any  more.  Before  touching  the 
primeval  forest,  the  owner  must  decide  whether  or  not  conservative 
forestry,  whether  or  not  a  sustained  yield  is  indicated. 

Primeval  woods  containing  a  large  number  of  .idling  and  decaying 
trees  should  not  be  worked  for  a  sustained  yield. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  there  is  a  vast  difference  between 


Forest  Management  13 

the  term  "merchantable  trees,"  and  the  term  "mature  trees."  Mer- 
chantable trees  are  very  often  far  from  being  mature;  and  mature  trees 
have  often  ceased  to  be — or  are  not — merchantable. 

An  equal  annual  yield  offers  to  the  lumberjack  the  advantage  of 
equal  and  steady  employment  in  one  and  the  same  forest  or  at  one  and 
the  same  mill. 

An  equal  annual  yield  offers  to  the  owner  approximately  equal  an- 
nual dividends. 

Where  no  yield  is  obtainable  for  a  long  series  of  years,  there  the 
outlay  for  taxes,  protection  and  administration  will  accumulate  at  a  rate 
deterring  the  owner  from  any  attempt  at  conservatism. 

The  disadvantages  of  a  sustained  yield  where  it  binds  the  forester 
in  iron  chains,  are: 

i.    It  is  impossible  to  take  advantage  of  boom  prices. 

2.  It  is  necessary  to  cut  in  years  of  panic. 

3.  Trees  without  increment  are  left  uncut;  trees  of  good  increment 
are  cut  where  the  yield  is  strictly  sustained.  Similarly,  needful  thin- 
nings are  often  postponed;  or  in  other  cases  conducted  with  excessive 
severity. 

4.  Valuable  young  growth  is  often  left  under  severe  pressure  over- 
head; or  in  other  cases  prematurely  exposed. 

5.  Seed  years  are  not  used  to  full  advantage. 

The  normal  possibility,  from  the  economic  standpoint,  cannot  be 
expressed  by  volume;  it  must  be  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  It  is 
that  sum  of  money  which  yields  annually  the  expected  or  desired  inter- 
est on  all  capitals  engaged  in  the  forestal  production.  In  other  words, 
it  is  the  yield  of  a  forest  when  in  financial  equilibrium.  In  that  case, 
no  wood  works  at  a  lesser  rate  than  at  the  proper  indicating  percentage 
adequate  to  its  age. 

PARAGRAPH   VII. 

UTILIZATION   PERCENTAGE. 

The  ratio  between  annual  cut  and  stumpage  at  hand  reads,  in  the 
normal  forest: — 

sustained  yield                r  i         2  2 
= = —  .          The   factor     — 


normal  growing  stock 


2 
is  called  the  utilization  percentage.  It  expresses  the  fact  that  a  short 
rotation  allows,  when  the  growing  stock  is  given,  of  a  larger  possi- 
bility than  a  long  rotation.  Short  rotations  are  handicapped  by  silvicul- 
tural  drawbacks  and  the  production  of  small  trees  only,  the  demand 
for  which  is  restricted  (firewood,  spokes,  axe-handles  and  railroad  ties). 
The  utilization  percentage,  since  it  is  the  ratio  of  volumes  only,  has 
little  economic  importance. 


Forest   Management 


CHAPTER  II— SUBDIVISIONS  OF  A  FOREST 

The  subdivision  of  a  forest  into  minor  units  of  management  is  based 
on  local  conditions  and  on  local  needs. 
A  large  forest  is  usually  subdivided  into 
Working  circles  (fl  VIII). 
Working  sections  (ft  IX). 
Compartments  and  blocks  (fl  X). 

PARAGRAPH   VIII. 

WORKING  CIRCLES. 

Under  "working  circles"  we  understand,  after  Schlich,  that  forest 
area  owned  by  one  person  or  company  which  is  much  under  the  pro- 
vision of  one  and  the  same  principal  working  plan. 

PARAGRAPH    IX. 

WORKING  SECTIONS. 

In  large  working  circles,  the  economic  conditions  are  frequently 
such  as  not  to  allow  of  uniting  all  woods  under  one  cutting  plan. 
Woods  growing  under  more  or  less  equal  conditions  and  exhibiting 
equal  silvics  are  allotted  to  distinct  working  sections,  to  be  dealt  with 
independently  from  all  others.  A  working  section  should  comprise 
woods  of  all  ages  and  classes,  and  should  consist  of  several  cutting 
series.  There  is  no  need  for  the  working  section  to  cover  a  coherent 
area.  For  each  working  section  in  Europe,  the  financial  possibility  is 
ascertained  separately.  The  following  moments  may  necessitate  the 
formation  of  a  working  section: — 

i.  Different  species. 

2.  Different  silvicultural  requirements. 

3.  Different  rotation. 

4.  Different   laws. 

5.  Different  means  of  transportation. 

6.  Different  locality. 

A  large  number  of  working  sections  complicates  forest  adminis- 
tration. 

PARAGRAPH    X. 

COMPARTMENTS   AND  BLOCKS. 

The  leading  foresters  do  not  agree  with  regard  to  a  proper  defini- 
tion of  the  term  "compartment."  For  the  majority  of  foresters,  a 
compartment  is  a  "unit  of  silvicultural  treatment."  The  compartment 
may  contain  sub-compartments  consisting  of  smaller  or  larger  groups 
which,  to  speak  with  the  advocates  of  that  definition,  should  be  elim- 


Forest  Management  15 

inated  by  purification  of  the  compartments.  Others  maintain  that  the 
compartment  should  designate  merely  a  geographical  unit  of  the  forest 
used  to  describe,  in  instructions,  reports  and  records,  the  exact  locality 
at  which  a  certain  act  is  to  be  or  has  been  performed. 

The  boundary  lines  of  geographic  compartments  should  be  natural 
lines  (ridges,  creeks  and  slopes)  as  much  as  possible,  and  not  artificial 
lines  (survey  lanes  and  roads).  The  size  of  the  compartment  depends 
entirely  on  local  economic  conditions.  High  timber  prices  and  inten- 
sive management  invite  the  formation  of  small  compartments. 

Several  adjoining  compartments  are  allotted  to  a  "block;"  for  in- 
stance, the  compartments  on  a  certain  mountain  or  beyond  a  certain 
creek.  In  some  cases,  each  block  has  a  separate  series  of  compartment 
numbers,  each  series  beginning  with  "one."  A  block  may  be  composed 
of  compartments  belonging  to  different  working  sections. 

Under  extensive  management,  a  block  might  be  formed  by  the  area 
drained  by  an  entire  river  system;  and  the  compartments  composing  it 
might  be  designated  by  the  names  of  the  creeks  traversing  them. 

CHAPTER   III— WORKING  PLAN    REPORTS 

The  term  "working  plan"  is  a  misnomer.  The  "working  plan"  is  a 
report  more  on  facts  than  on  proposed  schemes. 

The  meaning  of  the  term  is  somewhat  indistinct.  It  might  repre- 
sent one  or  the  other  of  the  three  following  statements: 

i.  The  chief  (principal)  working  plan,  extending  over  a  large  num- 
ber of  years  (a  whole  rotation,  or  the  time  of  installation). 

2.  The  periodic  working  plan,  extending  over  10,  20  or  24  years 
usually. 

3.  The  annual  working  plan,  forming  a  mere  annual  budget. 

In  many  cases,  the  principal  working  plan  is  simultaneously  used 
as  a  periodic  working  plan. 

PARAGRAPH   XI. 

THE  CHIEF  WORKING  PLAN. 

The  chief  working  plan  is  called  by  Schlich.  more  properly,  "chief 
working  plan  report,"  and  contains  the  following  three  parts: 

1.  A  statement  of  facts  based  on  stock  taking. 

2.  The  desire  of  the  owner  regarding  the  purpose  of  forest  man- 
agement. 

3.  The  plan  proper,  containing  the  forester's  advice  as  submitted 
to  the  owner,  discussed  with  the  owner  and  approved  by  the  owner. 

The  plan  proper  is,  usually,  a  compromise  between  owner  and  for- 
ester. 


16  Forest  Management 

The  chief  working  plan  requires  revision  and  is  invariably  re-drawn 
before  the  lapse  of  many  years  whenever  the  facts  are  altered  on  which 
the  plan  was  based. 

The  subheads  of  a  chief  working  plan  [under  the  chapters  "facts," 
"desire  of  the  owner,"  "plan"]  are: 
Forest  survey  (fl  XII). 
Description  of  locality  (Tf  XIII). 
Yield  tables  and  volume  tables  (If  XIV). 
Problems  of  silviculture  and  of  protection  (fl  XV). 
Forest  utilization   (ff  XVI). 
Forestal  investments  (ff  XVII). 
All  data  ascertained  and  all  changes  planned  should  be  shown,  if 
possible,  on  maps  allowing  of  rapid  reference. 

The  scale  and  the  detail  of  the  maps  depend  on  the  value  of  the  in- 
vestment per  acre. 

PARAGRAPH  XII. 

FOREST  SURVEY. 

The  objects  of  a  forest  survey  are: — 

1.  Outside  boundaries  and  those  of  interior  holdings. 

2.  Railroads,  rivers,  creeks,  bluffs  and  other  obstacles,  and  means 
of  transportation. 

3.  Lines  between  localities  having  different  laws,  inasmuch  as  they 
influence  forest  management. 

4.  Differences  in  ownership. 

5.  Boundaries  of  the  various  forest  ranges. 

6.  Configuration. 

7.  Differences  of  soil;  mineral  possibilities. 

8.  Dividing  lines  between  forest  soil,  farm  soil,  pasture  soil,  and 
mineral  soil. 

9.  Lines  of  working  circles,  if  there  are  any. 

10.  Roads,  trails,  and  fire-lanes. 

11.  Age,  species,  and  quality  of  growing  stock,  according  to  com- 
partments. 

It  is  not  necessary,  of  course,  that  all  of  these  points  should  be  ex- 
hibited in  all  working  plants. 

PARAGRAPH   XIII. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  LOCALITY. 

The  "locality"  is  usually  described  by  compartments.  The  "quality 
of  the  locality,"  which  means  to  say  its  productiveness,  is  a  function 
of  soil  and  climate. 

The  height  growth  of  the  trees  yields  the  best   indication  of  the 


Forest  Management  17 

quality  of  the  locality.  The  number  of  qualities  of  locality  distin- 
guished in  a  chief  working  plan  depends  on  local  conditions, — notably 
on  the  intensity  of  management. 

PARAGRAPH  XIV. 

YIELD  TABLES  AND  VOLUME  TABLES. 

Yield  tables  are  required  for  a  forecast  of  future  timber  crops.  In 
America,  tree  growth  tables  (volume  tables)  must  frequently  take  the 
place  of  yield  tables. 

Yield  tables  and  volume  tables  show  the  interdependence  between 
soil,  age,  diameter  and  volume.  It  is  wise  to  show  the  development  of 
the  value  of  a  tree  as  well,  with  a  view  of  determining  the  age  of  ma- 
turity. A  tree  is  mature  when  the  annual  quantity,  quality,  and  price 
increment  ceases  to  yield  a  sufficient  rate  of  interest  on  the  stumpage 
value  of  the  tree. 

PARAGRAPH   XV. 

PROBLEMS  OF  SILVICULTURE  AND  OF  PROTECTION. 

Wherever  local  conditions  allow  of  it,  the  chief  working  plan  dwells 
at  length  upon  the  silvicultural  system  to  be  adopted  for  the  various 
working  sections.  The  method  of  regeneration,  the  species  to  be  fa- 
vored, the  extent  of  improvement  cuttings,  the  method  of  weeding  and 
the  financial  effect  of  these  measures  must  be  shown.  The  extent  and 
advisability  of  forest  pasture,  turpentine  or  sugar  industry,  game  pres- 
ervation, landscape  considerations,  etc.,  must  be  touched. 

Silvicultural  investments  are  unwise  where  the  forest  can  not  be 
protected  from  fires.  The  financial  outlook  of  investments  in  first 
growth  is  better  than  the  financial  outlook  of  investments  in  second 
growth  wheresoever  the  restriction  and  the  control  of  fires  is  difficult. 

The  chief  working  plan  describes  the  existing  and  the  proposed 
means  of  protection  from  forest  fires,  detailing  the  outlay  to  be  in- 
curred on  that  score. 

Continuous  employment  of  workmen  in  all  parts  of  the  forest,  year 
in  and  year  out,  together  with  ready  access  to  all  parts  of  the  forest, 
are  the  surest  means  of  fire  protection. 

PARAGRAPH   XVI. 

FOREST  UTILIZATION. 

For  many  a  year  to  come,  the  major  part  of  the  work  to  be  planned 
and  to  be  done  by  the  American  forester  must  consist  in  the  utilization 
of  the  forest  (lumbering).     The  forester  is  essentially  a  lumberman. 

The  working  plan  considers  the  most  advisable  way  of  transforming 
into  money  the  various  raw  products  of  the  forest.     It  discusses  the 


18  Forest  Management 

financial  effect  of  the  various  methods  of  logging  (animal  power  versus 
steam  power),  of  the  various  mills  (portable,  circular,  band,  etc.) 

The  degree  in  which  the  owner  (through  the  forester)  attends  to 
the  removal  and  to  the  refinement  of  his  timber  products  is  controlled 
by  local  as  well  as  by  personal  conditions.  The  owner  might  offer  for 
sale  stumpage,  or  logs  yarded,  or  rough  lumber,  or  refined  lumber. 

As  long  as  there  are  more  owners  of  timber  land  than  manufactur- 
ers of  lumber,  the  stumpage  market  is  a  buyer's  market;  and  the  owner 
of  forests  does  well  to  engage  in  manufacturing  enterprises. 

Of  the  utmost  importance  is  a  careful  study  of  the  means  of  trans- 
portation (water,  rail,  flumes,  etc.)  The  forester  should  never  forget 
that  lumbering — and  consequently  forestry — is  essentially  a  problem  of 
transportation. 

The  expense  to  be  incurred  for  permanent  and  for  temporary  means 
of  transportation  requires  careful  discussion.  In  conservative  forestry, 
the  main  arteries  of  transportation,  necessarily,  have  a  permanent  char- 
acter. The  combination  of  the  means  of  transportation  to  be  adopted 
(railroads,  narrow  or  standard;  cables;  water-courses;  flumes;  wagon 
roads)  depends  on  local  circumstances.  Public  roads  and  railroads, 
advisable  alterations,  charters  to  be  secured  from  the  legislature  are 
topics  requiring  attention.  The  plan  of  transportation  is  explained 
by  a  map  showing  the  existing  and  the  proposed  lines  of  transporta- 
tion. 

PARAGRAPH   XVII. 

FORESTAL   INVESTMENTS. 

In  the  United  States,  no  private  activity  having  the  forest  for  its 
object  (id  est,  any  forestry  in  a  broad  sense),  is  conceivable  which 
does  not  mean  to  result  in  good  financial  returns.  Forestry  is  business, 
and  in  business  there  is  no  room  for  sentiment.  That  forestry  must 
be  considered  best,  which  pays  best. 

Compared  with  other  investments  in  realties  (e.  g.,  farms,  mines, 
houses),  forest  investments  show  several  undesirable  features.  They 
are  difficult  of  control;  they  fail  continuously  to  yield  annual  cash  divi- 
dends; they  are  endangered  by  fires  and  cannot  be  insured  against  de- 
struction; their  products  are  not  as  absolutely  indispensable  to  man- 
kind as  farm  products,  mine  products  or  the  shelter  of  a  house;  sub- 
division, joint  ownership,  sale  in  fee  are  difficult  to  arrange;  mortgages 
or  bonds  on  forests  are  hard  to  secure,  and  theft  of  timber  is  hard  to 
prevent. 

There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  many  factors  speaking  in  favor  of 
forest  investments:  Notably  the  phenomenal  increase  in  the  value  of 
timber  brought  about  by  an  increase  in  population  and  continuous 
prosperity;  the  certainty  of  wood  production,  year  in  and  year  out, 
with  which  fires  only  can  interfere;  the  strong  possibility  of  more  ex- 
tended use  of  wood  products  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  packages, 


Forest  Management  19 

yarns,  alcohol,  sugar  and  food  stuffs;  the  fact  that  the  forest  stores 
its  own  products  away,  free  of  charge,  until  it  may  please  the  owner 
to  place  them  on  the  market;  the  rapid  advance  in  the  value  of  soil, 
etc. 

According  to  the  location  of  the  forest  and  in  a  higher  degree,  ac- 
cording to  species  of  trees  and  age  of  trees,  the  disadvantages  con- 
nected with  forest  investments  vary  from  case  to  case.  They  seem 
to  weigh  heavily  on  a  second  growth  which  yields  no  dividend  what- 
ever, is  seriously  endangered  by  fire,  contains  assets  of  prospective 
value  only  and  offers  no  chance  at  extraordinary  results.  There  exist 
in  the  United  States  enormous  areas  covered  with  second  growth  for- 
ests: What  sense  can  there  be,  consequently,  in  investments  tending 
to  produce  still  more  second  growth? 

It  is  obvious  that  the  chances  of  first  growth  to  be  remunerative 
are,  generally  speaking,  very  good.  This  first  growth  does  not  in- 
crease in  volume,  the  death  rate  of  timber  offsetting  the  birth  rate;  its 
increase  in  value,  however,  is  certain;  heavy  logs  are  getting  scarce, — 
and  they  alone  furnish  lumber  commanding  the  highest  price;  the  de- 
gree to  which  the  trees  are  utilized  without  waste  increases  from  year 
to  year;  the  difficulties  of  transportation  are  declining  continuously. 
Is  it  to  be  wondered  at,  then,  that  many  investors — and  notably  all 
lumbermen — are  eager  to  invest  in  first  growth  whilst  utterly  unwilling 
to  stake  their  money  on  second  growth? 

The  question  might  be  asked:  Why  are  the  owners  reluctant  to 
practice  "conservative  lumbering,"  a  modus  of  logging  which  tends  to 
secure  the  maximum  sum  total  formed  of  net  present  returns  and  pro- 
spective values  left?  To  take  an  illustration  from  the  South:  Why 
does  the  owner  insist  on  cutting  every  pine  making  a  log  of  over  6 
inches  at  the  small  end?  Why  does  he  refuse  to  leave  all  trees  having 
a  diameter  under  20  inches  and  yielding  over  7  per  cent,  of  latent  an- 
nual interest? 

The  explanation  lies  in  the  following  points: 

1.  No  seer  can  actually  foretell  the  latent  annual  interest  which 
trees  of  various  diameters  will  yield  in  the  immediate  and  in  the  more 
distant  future.  The  forest  dividend  consists  largely  of  price  increment; 
the  price  increment  of  big  trees  is  (veneer  business!)  particularly  good. 
There  is  little  financial  advantage  in  the  utilization  of  big  trees  (if  they 
are  sound),  as  long  as  an  annual  price  increment  of  10  per  cent,  and 
more  can  be  counted  upon.  A  big  tree  having  a  stumpage  value  of 
$12.00  per  1,000  feet  b.  m.  is  not  mature  per  se.  The  fine  poplars,  oaks 
and  chestnuts  of  the  Southland  must  be  considered  immature,  since 
their  value  is  absolutely  sure  to  increase  at  an  annual  rate  of  over  10 
per  cent. 

The  assumption  of  the  principle  is  wrong,  it  seems,  that  conserva- 
tive lumbering  should  leave  the  smaller  trees  and  remove  the  big  trees; 
or  that  maturity  can  be  determined  by  diameter  limits. 


20  Forest  Management 

The  owner  of  woodlands  (and  the  forester)  can  only  venture  a 
forecast,  guessing  at  the  future  condition  of  the  lumber  market;  big 
trees  have — to  say  the  least — the  same  chance  with  small  trees  to  be 
money  makers.  And  it  is  natural  that  the  owner  is  inclined  to  either 
remove  or  to  leave  all  of  his  trees. 

2.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  owner  leaves  in  the  course  of  lumbering 
all  trees  having  under  18  inches  diameter  representing  a  stumpage  of 
1,500  feet  per  acre.  The  reduction  of  the  cut  by  1,500  feet  per  acre  has 
increased  the  logging  expense  per  1,000  feet  of  stumpage  removed, — 
an  increase  which  can  be  considered  only  as  a  new  investment  added 
to  the  value  of  1,500  feet  per  acre  left. 

For  a  number  of  years  to  come,  the  small  trees  are  non-removable, 
since  it  cannot  pay  in  the  near  future  to  remove  a  handful  of  inferior 
lumber  from  an  acre  of  ground.  In  the  meantime,  the  property  must 
be  watched  and  taxes  must  be  paid. 

The  owner  leaving  small  trees  embarks  in  a  new  venture  which 
cannot  be  countermanded  nor  altered,  for  years  to  come,  without  seri- 
ous loss;  and  which  is  subject  to  more  serious  dangers  than  the  old 
venture. 

Small  trees  form,  prior  to  the  removal  of  the  big  trees  mixed  with 
them,  a  tangible,  merchantable  asset.  After  the  removal  of  the  big 
trees,  however,  they  can  be  considered  only  as  an  intangible  asset,  an 
asset  of  merely  prospective  value,  an  asset  impossible  to  realize  on. 

3.  After  lumbering,  small  trees  left  are  much  more  endangered  by 
fire,  windfall,  insects,  fungi  than  before  lumbering.  Where  fires  cannot 
be  controlled  at  a  reasonable  expense,  conservative  lumbering  is,  under 
almost  any  circumstances,  absolutely  absurd. 

4.  The  soil  on  which  small  trees  are  left, — in  order  to  grow  into 
better  dimensions  and  in  order  to  act  as  seed  trees  for  a  third  growth, — 
cannot  be  used  for  pasture  without  interference  with  the  object  at 
stake. 

5.  Conditions  may  arise,  before  a  second  growth  of  small  trees 
becomes  merchantable,  rendering  the  soil  occupied  by  them  valuable 
for  farming  purposes.  In  that  case  the  small  trees  must  be  removed 
without  any  benefits  accruing  to  the  owner  from  such  removal. 

6.  The  taxes  on  land  completely  stripped  are  lower  than  the  taxes 
on  land  conservatively  lumbered.  When  a  long  number  of  years  is 
required  to  convert  a  second  growth  left  into  a  merchantable  stand,  the 
taxes  annually  paid  "ad  valorem"  and  increasing  at  a  compound  ratio, 
form  a  countercharge  against  the  slowly  increasing  value  of  the  second 
growth  difficult  to  countenance. 

Considering  these  various  points,  the  financier  cannot  be  called  un- 
wise when  he  prefers  investments  in  first  growth  forest  to  those  pos- 
sible in  second  growth. 

Many  a  man  in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada  has  made  a  fortune 
by  clever  investments  in  first  growth,  whilst  no  one,  practically,  has 


Forest  Management  21 

had  a  chance  to  show  dividends  obtained  from  second  growth  forest 
(exceptions:     farm  wood  lots;  second  growth  pine  in  Virginia). 

Under  what  conditions,  it  may  be  asked,  can  or  does  conservative 
lumbering  pay  in  primeval  woods? 

The  conditions  are  those  under  which  any  business  proves  to  be 
remunerative,  ....  be  it  a  livery  business  or  a  hotel,  a  railroad  or  a 
music  store:  that  business  alone  can  be  remunerative  in  which  the 
parts  composing  the  business  investments  are  at  hand  in  proper  pro- 
portions; that  business  alone  can  be  remunerative  which  is  established 
in  an  economically  proper  site;  that  business  alone  can  be  remuner- 
ative, which  is  safe  from  over-taxation  and — by  insurance  or  otherwise 
— safe  from  accidental  destruction  of  its  assets. 

Let  us  take  the  livery  business  for  an  illustration:  The  investment 
consists  of  several  components,  viz.:  horses,  carriages,  harness,  saddles, 
buildings,  feed.  These  components  must  be  at  hand  in  proper  propor- 
tion.   It  would  be  preposterous,  for  a  livery,  to  have  invested,  e.  g., 

in  horses   $  1,000 

in  carriages 25,000 

in  harness  100 

in  saddles    50 

in  buildings 350 

in  feed   15,000 

Again,  the  proper  economic  site  for  a  livery  business  is  in  the  city, 
the  village — not  in  the  back  woods  of  Maine:  not  in  the  wild  swamps 
of  Minnesota;  not  indeed  in  Chicago  one  hundred  years  ago;  which 
shows  the  dependence  of  economic  sites  on  economic  development. 
Finally,  a  livery  business  is  never  overtaxed,  and  all  of  its  investments 
allow  of  being  insured.  There  is,  probably,  many  a  livery  in  the  United 
States  whose  owner  is  "falling  behind," — usually  because  his  invest- 
ments are  wrongly  balanced  or  because  the  site  of  his  business  is 
wrongly  selected.  Still,  it  would  be  wrong  to  conclude  that  a  livery 
business  is  generally  a  poor  business. 

Properly  arranged  within,  properly  arranged  without;  properly  in- 
sured against  accidents  a  business  must  be  remunerative. 

Applying  this  logic  to  conservative  lumbering  as  a  business  it  is 
safe  to  state  that  it  must  be  remunerative 

A.  Where  its  components  are  properly  balanced. 

B.  Where  an  economic  site  is  obtainable  for  its  conduct. 

ad.  A:  The  components  of  a  business  investment  in  conservative  for- 
estry are  partly  derived  from  nature  (natural  gifts,  natural 
powers)  and  partly  made  by  man.  The  natural  components 
are  usually  at  hand  in  primeval  forests, — which  does  not 
mean  to  say  that  they  are  at  hand  in  proper  amounts.  The 
components  made  by  man  are  added  to  those  made  by  na- 
ture and  consist,  above  all,  in  investments  permanently  em- 
ployed for  forest  utilization. 
Thus  the  aggregate  investments  in  conservative  forestry  may  con- 


22  Forest  Management 

sist  of  all   of   the   following   components — whilst   only   No.    I,   No.   2, 
No.  8,  No.  II  and  No.  12  are  considered  essential: 

(a)  Natural  components: 

1.  Soil. 

2.  Trees. 

3.  Fish  and  game. 

4.  Minerals. 

5.  Water  power. 

(b)  Semi-natural  components: 

6.  Pastures. 

7.  Farms  and  orchards. 

(c)  Artificial  components: 

8.  Permanent  means'  of  transportation. 

9.  Logging  appliances. 

10.  Industrial  establishments. 

11.  Means  to  prevent  and  to  subdue  forest  fires. 

12.  Surveys,  maps,  working  plans. 

13.  Ranger  houses,  workmen's  houses,  lumber  camps. 

14.  Nurseries. 

15.  Silvicultural  improvements. 

16.  Capital  set  aside  to  defray  taxes,  protection,  administra- 

tion and  other  current  expenses. 

In  the  case  of  well-stocked  virgin  woods,  the  aggregate  final  invest- 
ment is  likely  to  be  lower  than  the  original  purchase  price  of  the  forest, 
when  the  virgin  forest  contains  a  surplus  of  mature  timber  exceeding  in 
value  the  expense  required  for  the  establishment  of  the  essential  arti- 
ficial components. 

In  the  American  forests,  after  the  usual  lumbering  operations,  very 
little  is  left  of  the  natural  components;  as  a  consequence,  relatively 
heavy  additional  investments. are  required  (as  a  rule  without  a  chance 
of  deriving  immediate  revenue)  in  order  to  make  the  aggregate,  in 
time  to  come,  a  permanent  source  of  revenue. 

The  conclusion  is  simple:  Unless  the  owner,  before  he  begins  to 
operate  primeval  woods,  decides  to  embark  in  conservative  forestry, 
the  chances  are  slim  that  he  will  ever  embark  in,  it. 

In  German  working  plans  the  necessity  of  ascertaining  the  most  op- 
portune amount  of  capital  to  be  invested  in  forestry  is  invariably  over- 
looked.    The  explanation  lies  in  the  following: 

1.  The  value  of  the  growing  timber  and  of  the  soil  comprises,  say, 
95  per  cent,  of  the  investment. 

2.  The  means  of  transportation  are  already  at  hand,  developed  at  a 
time  at  which  financial  considerations  were  not  made  in  forestry. 

The  "period  of  installation"  should  cover  as  many  years  as  are  re- 
quired to  obtain  the  proper  total  and  the  proper  composition  of  the 
forestal  investment. 


Forest  Management  23 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  period  of  installation  in  conservative  for- 
estry must  comprise  a  number  of  years;  whilst  other  investments  (e. 
g.,  a  livery)  can  be  fully  installed  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  or  a 
few  months. 

ad  B:  Whosoever  has  traveled  in  recent  years  through  Germany  with 
an  eye  to  the  forest  can  not  be  in  doubt  that  every  state  and 
every  county  offers  innumerable  sites  at  which  conservative 
forestry  can  be  conducted  as  a  remunerative  business.  In- 
deed, economic  sites  are  at  hand  in  Germany  wheresoever 
the  trees  do  not  happen  to  occupy  farming  soil. 

Such  was  not  the  case  in  Germany  two  hundred  years  ago; 
and  such  is  not  the  case  in  Russia,  Canada  and  the  United 
States  today. 

Economic  sites  are  those  where  stumpage  values  range 
high;  where  natural  reproduction  is  easy;  where  the  danger 
of  fires  is  small;  where  the  land  is  unfit  for  agriculture; 
where  forest  taxes  are  low. 

These  conditions  prevail,  particularly,  in  the  pineries  of 
the  Coastal  Plains  and  in  the  hardwood  forests  of  the  higher 
Appalachian  region. 

It  must  be  clearly  understood  that  these  conditions  did  not 
— or  did  not  all — prevail  some  20  years  ago;  further,  that  the 
absence  of  such  conditions  in  the  West  anno  1907,  does  not 
render  conservative  forestry  in  the  West  for  all  times  im- 
possible. 

It  is  unfortunate,  indeed,  that  the  majority  of  these  condi- 
tions arises  only  at  a  very  late  hour,  to-wit,  invariably  after 
the  general  disappearance  of  the  primeval  woods. 

No  man  in  the  United  States  has  had,  so  far,  sufficient  con- 
fidence in  conservative  lumbering  to  postpone  the  tapping  of 
his  primeval  woods  until  the  "economic  site"  for  conservative 
lumbering  had  locally  arisen. 

The  man  who  does  will  never  live  to  regret  his  confidence. 


CHAPTER  IV— METHODS  REGULATING  THE  YIELD 
IN  WOOD  AND  TIMBER 

The  question  as  to  the  amount  of  timber  which  might  be  removed 
annually  without  reducing  the  growing  stock  (the  main  investment) 
has  occupied  the  minds  of  foresters  since  many  centuries.  European 
governments  prescribe  definite  methods  by  which  the  yield  of  a  forest 
is  to  be  regulated.  The  family  laws  governing  entailed  property  do 
likewise.  For  America,  at  the  present  moment,  these  methods  will  find 
application  in  rare  cases  only.  A  sustained  vield  in  virgin  forests  con- 
taining large  numbers  of  idling  trees  is  an  economic  absurdity.     Pulp 


24  Forest  Management 

mills,  tanneries,  and  other  industrial  establishments  requiring  large 
investments  to  be  made  close  to  a  forest  may,  however,  seek  for  sus- 
tained yields  on  cut  over  lands,  from  which  the  idling  trees  have  been 
removed. 

PARAGRAPH   XVIII. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

The  methods  commonly  used  for  regulating  the  "possibility"  of  the 
forest  are: 

A.  Brick  masonry  methods. 

1.  Area  method  (Par.  XIX.) 

2.  Volume  method  (Par.  XX.) 

B.  Formula  methods. 

3.  Charles  Heyer  method  (Par.  XXI.) 

4.  Hundeshagen  method   (Par.  XXII.) 

C.  Increment  methods. 

5.  Common  increment  method  (Par.  XXIII.) 

6.  Brandis  method  (Par.  XXIV.) 

7.  Pinchot  method  (Par.  XXV.) 

These  seven  methods  consider  the  forest  as  a  whole,  ascertain  the 
productive  capacity  of  the  whole,  and  locate  the  annual  cuttings  there- 
after. 

The  methods  to  be  considered  in  the  next  chapter  (V.),  treat  every 
part  of  the  forest  according  to  its  individual  financial  merits,  thus  locat- 
ing the  cuttings  to  begin  with.  Thereafter,  they  merely  see  to  it,  if 
necessary,  that  the  total  cuttings  of  a  year  agree  with  the  consuming 
capacity  of  the  market. 

PARAGRAPH   XIX. 

AREA  METHOD. 

The  simplest  way  to  regulate  the  yield  by  area  is  a  division  of  the 
entire  forest  area  into  as  many  lots  as  the  rotation  numbers  years. 
This  scheme  has  been  followed  often  in  the  case  of  coppice  forests 
having  rotations  less  than  forty  years.  In  the  case  of  high  forests,  the 
rotation  is  divided  into  a  number  of  periods  of  equal  length  (ten  to 
twenty-four  years).  On  the  "Statement  of  Ages"  the  acreage  of  each 
compartment  is  allotted  to  that  periodical  column  to  which  it  belongs 
according  to  its  present  age.  The  oldest  compartments  are  allotted 
to  period  number  one;  the  next  oldest  period  number  two,  etc.  The 
total  acreage  allotted  to  each  periodical  column  is  found  by  addition 
and  compared  with  the  average  contents  of  a  column.  If  a  column 
contains  too  much  acreage,  the  surplus  is  shifted  backward  or  forward 
into  adjoining  columns.     Compartments  growing  vigorously  are  shifted 


Forest  Management  25 

backward  into  later  periods  and  vice  versa.  After  shifting,  each  col- 
umn contains  in  toto,  approximately,  an  equal  number  of  acres. 

By  valuation  surveys  or  yield  tables,  the  volume  contents  of  the 
compartments  allotted  to  the  first  period  are  ascertained;  and  the  con- 
tents are  increased  by  the  probable  volume  increment  of  these  com- 
partments expected  during  half  a  period.  The  total  contents  are  then 
divided  by  the  number  of  years  comprised  by  the  period.  The  result 
is  the  annual  "sustained  yield."  Obviously,  the  sustained  yield  is  apt 
to  change  at  the  end  of  each  period. 

The  installation  period  comprises  a  whole  rotation.  At  the  end  of 
a  rotation  the  forest  is  sure  to  exhibit  a  more  normal  age  gradation. 

This  method  is  in  use  in  Prussia,  Bavaria,  etc.,  and  has  been  working 
in  almost  all  European  forests  since  1780.  The  method  is  not  applica- 
ble to  selection  forests.  It  might  be  improved  by  replacing  the 
"Statement  of  Ages"  by  a  "Statement  of  Indicating  Percentages." 


PARAGRAPH   XX. 

VOLUME  METHOD. 

A  statement  of  ages  is  prepared,  each  compartment  being  allotted 
to  a  periodical  column  according  to  the  number  of  years  which  separ- 
ates it  from  maturity.  The  compartmental  entries  made  in  the  state- 
ment of  ages  are,  in  this  case,  however,  the  final  volumes  expected  at 
maturity,  and  not  the  compartmental  acreages. 

The  totals  for  each  period  are  drawn  and  compared  with  the  average 
volume  expected  from  each  periodical  column.  Again,  by  shifting  com- 
partments onward  and  backward,  surpluses  are  shifted  into  columns 
showing  a  deficit,  under  adequate  allowance  for  changed  yields.  The 
possibility  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  of  the  first  column,  as  it 
stands  after  shifting,  by  the  length  of  a  period. 

The  method  does  not  work  towards  normal  age  gradation.  The 
shifting  of  volumes  is  times  taking,  and  the  method  is  not  in  use 
nowadays. 

PARAGRAPH   XXI. 

CHARLES  HEYER  METHOD. 

By  cutting  the  actual  annual  increment,  the  growing  stock  is  left 
undisturbed.  In  order  to  convert  the  actual  growing  stock  into  a 
normal  growing  stock,  it  is  necessary  to  decrease  the  annual  cut  if 
the  normal  growing  stock  is  larger  than  the  actual  growing  stock;  and 
to  increase  the  cut  if  the  normal  growing  stock  is  smaller  than  the  ac- 
tual growing  stock.  Heyer  expresses  this  idea  by  the  formula:  The 
annual  possibility  (P)  is  equal  to  the  sum  (S)  of  the  expected  average 
increments  diminished  by  the  n'th  part  of  the  difference  existing  be- 


26  Forest  Management 

tween  the  normal  growing  stock  (Ng)   and  the  actual  growing  stock 
(Ag). 

Ng  — AG 

P  =  S 

n 
"n"  is  the  number  of  years  forming  the  installation  period. 

The  field  work  in  this  method  is  timestaking;  especially  so  under 
the  selection  system  or  group  system  when  the  actual  growing  stock 
can  be  ascertained  only  by  complete  valuation  surveys.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  method  prevents  any  over-cutting  or  any  under-cutting  of  the 
forest,  and  shows  clearly  how  much  of  the  revenue  obtained  is,  in  fact, 
net  revenue  and  not  capital  withdrawn,  or  else,  how  much  of  the  reve- 
nue is  left  latent  being  used  to  increase  the  original  growing  stock. 
This  method  is  well  adapted  for  irregular  forests.  The  method  re- 
quires:— 

i.  A  detailed  description  of  compartments  giving  the  normal  and 
actual  volume,  and  the  normal  and  actual  increment  for  each  compart- 
ment. 

2.  A  statement  showing  the  normal  growing  stock,  the  actual  grow- 
ing stock,  and  the  total  increment  for  the  period  of  installation. 

3.  A  statement  enumerating  the  compartments  in  which  the  possi- 
bility is  to  be  cut. 

No  particular  stress  is  put  on  reaching  a  normal  gradation  of  age 
classes. 

PARAGRAPH   XXII. 

HUNDESHAGEN   METHOD. 

Hundeshagen  assumes  that  the  ratio  existing  between  the  incre- 
ment and  growing  stock  is  constant.  With  the  help  of  yield  tables,  he 
ascertains  the  ratio  existing  between  normal  increment  and  normal 
growing  stock  and,  further,  the  actual  growing  stock  found  in  the  for- 
est. Multiplying  the  actual  growing  stock  by  the  above  ratio,  Hun- 
deshagen obtains  his  actual  annual  possibility  of  the  forest. 

In  normal  forests  (yield  table  forests),  'the  ratio  is  necessarily  at 
an  optimum.  If  that  optimum  is  applied  to  abnormal  forests,  over- 
cutting  seems  the  necessary  consequence.  Absurd  results  are  apt  to 
crop  out  if  the  growing  stock  is  under  normal  and  the  increment  poor. 

Inasmuch  as  the  method  requires  periodic  stock  taking,  over-cut- 
ting or  under-cutting  the  forest  for  any  length  of  time  is,  however, 
excluded.  Indeed,  any  method  is  good  which  controls  its  own  results 
by  periodic  stock-taking.  Hundeshagen's  method  is  applicable  to  all 
sorts  of  silvicultural  conditions,  and  might  well  be  applied  in  a  tentative 
first  working  plan.  In  that  case,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  express  the 
ratio,   "normal   increment   over   normal    growing   stock"    by   the    frac- 

2 
tion  — . 
n 


Forest  Management  27 

PARAGRAPH   XXIII. 

COMMON  INCREMENT  METHODS. 

The  increment  methods  are  the  oldest  and  roughest  methods  of 
yield  regulation.  The  underlying  idea  is  the  following:  As  long  as 
only  the  increment  is  cut — no  more,  no  less — an  overcutting  of  the 
forest  is  impossible.  The  average  production  per  acre  can  be  ascer- 
tained from  yield  tables,  by  systematic  experiments,  or,  as  is  the  usual 
practice,  by  estimating. 

The  methods  do  not  pay  any  attention  to  normal  growing  stock, 
normal  age  gradation  and  normal  increment.  The  methods  are  not 
applied  anywhere,  nowadays,  in  scientifically  conducted  forestry. 


PARAGRAPH   XXIV. 

BRANDIS   METHOD. 

The  Brandis  method  was  first  applied  by  Sir  Dietrich  Brandis  in  the 
Teak  forest  of  Burma.  The  method  ascertains  the  number  of  mature 
trees  in  a  forest  as  well  as  the  time  which  an  equal  number  of  trees 
styled  "immature,"  next  in  diameter  to  the  mature  class,  require  to 
grow  as  large  as  the  mature  trees  are,  so  as  to  be  fit  to  replace  them. 

Dividing  the  number  of  mature  trees  by  the  period  of  replacement, 
the  annual  possibility  of  the  forest  is  ascertained.  The  method  per- 
petuates the  original  composition  of  the  forest,  calling  it  normal  be- 
cause natural. 

An  illustration  might  be  obtained  from  the  data  contained  in  bulle- 
tin No.  32,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  prepared  by  F.  E.  Olmsted: 
Diameter  of  mature  trees,  20  inches  and  over. 
Number  of  mature  trees,  per  acre,  4.94. 

Number  of  immature  trees,  having  15  inches  to  19  inches  diam- 
eter, per  acre,  4.99. 
Number  of  years  required  by  a  15  inch  tree  to  grow  mature,  34. 
The  annual  possibility,  after  Brandis,  in  this  case  amounts  to 
4.94 

=  0.145 

34 
mature  trees  per  acre,  or  145  mature  trees  for  every  1,000  acres. 

After  bulletin  No.  32,  the  volume  of  the  trees  having  20  inches  and 
over  at  breast  height  is  4561  feet  b.  m. 

The  possibility  in  lumber  is,  consequently, 

456i 

=   134 

34 
feet  b.  m.  per  acre  per  annum. 


28  Forest  Management 

PARAGRAPH   XXV. 


PINCHOT  METHOD. 

The  published  working  plans  for  which  Mr.  Gifford  Pinchot  is  re- 
sponsible as  author  or  as  forester  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  are, 
notably,    the    following: 

The  Adirondack  spruce,  published  by  the  Critic  Co.,  New  York; 

A  Forest  Working  Plan  for  Township  40,  Bulletin  30;  Bureau  of 
Forestry; 

A  Working  Plan  for ,  Arkansas,  Bulletin  32;  Bureau  of 

Forestry; 

A  Working  Plan  for ,  South  Carolina.  Bulletin  56;  Bu- 
reau of  Forestry; 

A  Working    Plan    for *. ,    Alabama,    Bulletin    63;    Forest 

Service. 

These  publications  fail  to  be  working  plans  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word.  This  failure  might  be  due  to  the  educational  character  of 
the  publications.  Whilst  they  define  the  term  "working  plan"  as 
"simply  a  scheme  of  management  for  a  forest  tract."  the  reader  looks 
in  vain  for  an  actual  "scheme  of  management."  Forest  utilization, 
which  commands  the  lion's  share  of  forestal  activity,  is  not  considered 
by  the  scheme  of  forestal  management. 

The  Pinchot  method  is  classed  as  an  increment  method  because  it 
lays  all  stress  on  yield  forecasts.  Future  yields  are  forecasted  on  the 
basis  of  a  first  cut,  reaching  down  to  a  stated  diameter  limit,  for  periods 
covering  from  ten  to  fifty  years. 

Continuity  of  action  is  not  advised  in  any  case.  Forestry  as  an  in- 
vestment is  considered  in  bulletin  No.  32  and  No.  68.  Table  No.  15  in 
bulletin  No.  2,2,  however,  showing  the  interest  on  the  assets  left  by 
lumbering  in  virgin  woods  and  depending  as  tn  their  size  on  the  sever- 
ity of  such  lumbering,  is  incorrect. 

After  the  Bureau,  a  working  plan  should  contain: 

i.    A  statement  of  facts. 

2.  A  statement  of  yield  capacity. 

3.  A  statement  of  market  and  transport  conditions. 

4.  A  systematic  plan  for  lumbering. 

Only  one-half  page  of  bulletin  No.  32,  comprising  48  pages,  is  de- 
voted to  point  3,  and  only  two  pages  to  point  4. 

The  chief  rules  of  management  are  in  all  working  plans: 

1.  A  fixed  stump  diameter  limit. 

2.  A  fixed  height  permissible  for  stumps. 

3.  Recommendations  to  prevent  fire. 

4.  Recommendations  to  prevent  damage  to  young  growth. 

Bulletin  No.  68,  published  in  1905,  excels  in  clear  financial  consider- 
ations of  the  merits  of  a  second  growth,  judged  according  to  diameter 
limits  observed  in  cutting. 


Forest  Management  29 

CHAPTER    V— METHODS    REGULATING    THE    IN- 
VESTMENTS  AND  THE  RETURNS 

The  methods  to  be  described  in  the  three  paragraphs  following  are: 

Judeich  Method  (Par.  XXVI.) 

Raess  Method  (Par.  XXVII.) 

Schenck  Method   (Par.  XXVIII.) 

Judeich,  Raess  and  Schenck  advocate  conservativism  only  when 
conservative  forestry  pays  better  than  destructive  forestry. 

A  "sustained  yield"  is  considered  only  where  it  guarantees  better 
financial  results  than  an  irregular  yield. 

No  two  forests  are  alike.  The  financial  development  of  any  forest 
offers  a  problem  of  its  own;  on  the  basis  of  a  difference  existing  in  the 
resources  of  the  forest;  the  accessibility  of  the  forest;  the  availability 
of  manual  labor;  the  climate;  the  dangers  threatening  the  forest,  etc. 

Aside  of  these  tangible  differences  there  is  invariably  met  another 
intangible  difference  in  two  forest  problems  otherwise  comparable, — 
due  to  a  difference  in  ownership.  Among  the  problems  confronting 
the  managing  forester,  the  most  difficult  is,  perhaps,  the  task  of  ascer- 
taining the  definite  desire  of  the  owner.  This  task  is  more  trying  in 
the  case  of  individual  ownership  than  in  the  case  of  stock  companies. 

Working  plans  cannot  be  made  for  a  forest  when  an  owner,  lacking 
continuity  of  purpose,  is  subject  to  whimsical  fluctuations  of  mind;  or 
when  the  owner's  financial  status  happens  to  be  of  a  shaky  nature. 

It  must  be  clearly  understood,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  "working 
plan"  is  a  plan  merely  outlining  a  definite  policy;  a  policy  to  be  fol- 
lowed as  long  as  (and  no  longer  than)  the  economic  conditions  sur- 
rounding the  financial  problem  remain  unaltered. 

The  market  of  forest  products  in  America  is — unlike  the  German 
market — an  interstate  market,  not  a  home  market. 

In  Germany  the  sustained  yield  of  the  forests  is  framed,  essentially, 
with  a  view  to  the  consuming  capacity  of  a  home  market. 

In  this  country,  so  far,  no  attempt  is  being  made  towards  the  ad- 
justment of  a  supply  of  lumber  and  demand  for  lumber — with  the  ex- 
ception only  of  the  cypress  industry  which,  controlled  by  firms  of  re- 
markable strength,  seems  effectually  to  establish  an  equilibrium  be- 
tween lumber  demand  and  lumber  supply. 

In  the  production  of  the  hardwoods  and  of  pine,  concerted  action 
of  the  producers  toward  a  similar  end  is,  for  the  time  being,  a  pious 
wish. 

"Concerted  action"  of  the  producers  is  usually  decried  as  a  "trust." 
From  the  patriotic  standpoint,  no  more  beneficial  trust  can  be  imagined 
than  a  lumber  trust. 

The  German  sustained  yield,  adopted  by  practically  all  owners  of 
stumpage,  amounts  to  a  "trust-yield." 


30-  Forest  Management 

There  is  no  possibility — neither  abroad  nor  here — to  establish  an 
absolute  equilibrium  between  production  of  trees  and  consumption  of 
lumber,  the  latter  being  subject  to  continuous  fluctuations,  whilst  the 
former  allows  only  of  slow  alterations. 

The  American  producers,  with  rare  exceptions,  have  never  at- 
tempted to  curtail  the  output  of  the  lumber  industry.  On  the  con- 
trary, when  the  price  of  lumber  was  low,  when  the  margin  of  profit 
was  small,  the  producers  have  usually  increased  the  production  so  as 
to  obtain  the  surplus  receipts  required  to  meet  pressing  financial  obli- 
gations  (mortgages,  bonds,  notes  due,  etc.) 

The  output  of  the  lumber  industry  has  risen  by  leaps  and  bounds; 
and  it  is  astounding  that  the  prices  of  lumber  have  advanced,  never- 
theless, by  bounds  and  leaps. 

The  advance  of  lumber  prices  is  certain  to  continue,  the  available 
supply  of  merchantable  timber  declining  from  month  to  month. 

An  increased  production  of  stumpage  we  may  expect,  indeed,  to 
take  a  start  when  the  price  of  stumpage  has  increased  at  a  ratio  pro- 
portioned to  the  increased  price  of  lumber. 

Still,  many  a  year  must  elapse  before  an  increased  production  of 
trees  can  result  in  increased  offerings  of  lumber.  In  the  meanwhile, 
the  famous  "law  of  demand  and  supply"  is  set  at  rest;  and  prices  will 
continue  to  climb  upward. 


PARAGRAPH   XXVII. 

JUDEICH  METHOD. 

Judeich's  method  treats  every  part  of  the  forest  according  to  its 
own  financial  merits.  The  management  of  the  forest  as  a  whole  is 
merely  a  consequence  of  the  requirements  of  the  individual  woods  com- 
posing it.  Sustained  yield  of  volume  or  money  does  not  underlie  Ju- 
deich's method.  Where  the  capacity  of  the  market  requires  it,  how- 
ever, sustained  yield  is  advised. 

The  treatment  for  each  piece  of  wood  is  prescribed  in  detail  for  the 
next  working  period.  From  these  prescriptions  the  total  volume  yield 
of  the  period  as  well  as  the  total  area  to  be  cut  during  the  period  is 
finally  ascertained. 

-'.  The  normal  growing  stock  is  entirely  disregarded.  Working  plan 
periods  shall  not  exceed  ten  years;  and  every  five  years  a  thorough 
revision  of  the  entire  working  plan  shall  take  place. 

Judeich  puts  great  stress  on  the  development  of  proper  cutting 
series  (small).  The  lumberman's  axe  is  meant  to  enjoy  freedom  of 
action  and  a  multitude  of  points  of  attack. 

For  each  working  section  the  financial  rotation  is  determined.  Ju- 
deich realizes,  however  that  the  financial  rotation  is  subject  to  change 
and  is  .satisfied  with  fixing  it  approximately.  The  plan  of  cutting 
embodies  the  following  points: 


Forest  Management  31 

There  must  be  cut: 

1.  All  economic  necessities,  especially  severance  cuttings. 

2.  All    decidedly    mature    woods    the    indicating    percentage    of 

which  is  too  low. 

3.  All  woods  which  must  be  sacrificed  to  the  proper  progress  of 

the  axe  within  the  cutting  series;  for  instance,  a  group 
of  polewoods  lying  between  two  mature  pieces.  Whether 
such  a  sacrifice  should  be  made  or  not  is  answered  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  forest  finance. 

4.  All  suc"h  woods  as  are  about  to  mature,  as  far  as  such  woods 

can  be  reached  by  the  axe  in  the  proper  progress  of  cut- 
tings. These  are  the  pieces  for  which  an  exact  examina- 
tion of  the  indicating  percentage  is  particularly  desirable; 
which,  however,  are  so  near  financial  maturity  that  mis- 
takes made  will  entail  small  losses  only. 

By  summing  up  the  areas  and  yields  of  the  above  headings,  the 
periodical  yield  is  ascertained.  Control  is  required  whether  or  not  the 
market  is  able  to  consume  that  yield  without  changing  the  prices  of 
forest  produce  on  which  financial  calculations  are  based.  The  con- 
tents of  the  working  plan  are  as  follows: 

Actual  conditions  of  the  forest. 

Compartments,  cutting  series,  plan  of  road  building. 

Yield. 

Future  treatment,  silviculturally,  and  forest  utilization. 

Detailed    descriptions    of    compartments    and    sub-compart- 


ments. 


PARAGRAPH   XXVII. 


RAESS  METHOD. 


The  method  recommended  by  Dr.  Raess  might  be  termed  the 
method  of  sustained  money  yield.  The  method  pays  full  attention  to 
the  silvicultural  as  well  as  the  financial  requirements  of  the  forest,  and 
gives  the  forester  great  freedom  of  action.  Raess  realizes  the  financial 
mistakes  due  to  a  strictly  sustained  timber  yield,  and  finds,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  a  sustained  money  yield  is  a  necessity  for  the  proper  balance 
of  annual  budgets  in  case  of  wood-owning  families,  communities,  or 
states. 

Like  Judeich,  he  treats  every  piece  of  the  forest  according  to  its 
financial  merits.  If  the  revenue  thus  obtained  exceeds  the  normal  rev- 
enue, when  the  excess  is  placed  in  a  bank  and  left  over  for  lean  years, 
etc.  The  normal  revenue  is  that  which  brings  the  normal  indicating 
percentage  on  the  capital  value  of  the  forest.  Normal  growing  stock 
and  age  gradation  are  discarded.     Periodic  stock-taking,  not  of  timber 


32  Forest   Management 

but  of  values,  forms  part  of  the  working  plan.  Over-cutting  as  well 
as  under-cutting  is  thus  prevented.  The  enormous  amount  of  book- 
keeping required  has  prevented  the  introduction  of  this  method  in  the 
German  practice. 

PARAGRAPH   XXVIII. 

SCHENCK  METHOD. 

Schenck  foots  on  the  belief  that  forestry  is  business;  and,  enlarg- 
ing upon  this  truism,  that  forestry  is  at  its  best  when  it  pays  best. 

Schenck's  working  plans  do  not  advocate  conservative  forestry; 
they  advocate  destructive  forestry  whenever  the  destruction  of  the 
trees  promises  the  best  financial  results;  they  advocate  conservatism — 
to  a  lesser  or  higher  degree — where  conservative  management  seems 
to  be  the  most  productive  of  dividends;  they  advocate  a  policy  of  pa- 
tient waiting  whenever  it  recommends  itself  financially. 

Schenck's  working  plans  are,  consequently,  according  to  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  situation  and  of  the  owner: 

either  merely  plans  of  silvicultural  development; 
or  merely  plans  of  forest  protection; 
or  merely  plans  of  utilization; 

or  plans  combining  silvicultural  advice  with  a  distinct  plan  of 
lumbering  and  forest  protection. 

Schenck's  working  plans  are  characterized  by  the  following: 
i.    After  revising  in  detail  the  investments  existing  in   the  forest, 
Schenck  shows  the  most  opportune  level  to  which  the  various  compo- 
nents of  the  investment  shall  be  either  raised  or  lowered.     Bad  invest- 
ments must  be  eliminated.     Good  investments  must  be  added. 

2.  Schenck  considers,  as  sources  of  forestal  revenue,  not  merely  the 
trees  but  as  well  the  farms,  the  meadows,  the  pastures,  the  minerals 
and  the  water  powers  available  on  the  forest  property. 

3.  Schenck  forecasts  the  cash  revenue  obtainable  from  the  adjusted 
investments, — not  merely  the  yield  in  lumber  and  wood;  he  confronts 
the  forecasted  revenue  with  the  revenue  obtainable  from  unadjusted 
investments. 

4.  In  plans  of  conservative  forestry  Schenck  insists  on  the  neces- 
sity of  permanent  protection  from  fires  and  of  permanent  investments 
to  provide  facilities  of  transportation. 

5.  Schenck  insists  that  in  forestry  as  in  railroading,  banking,  in- 
surance, etc.,  calculation  at  compound  interest  must  be  applied  to  the 
comparison  of  receipts  and  expenses. 

6.  Periodic  stock  taking  is  demanded,  so  as  to  control,  from  time  to 
time,  the  actual  status  of  the  entire  investment. 

7.  Trees  are  either  good  or  bad  investments,  and  should  be  treated 


Forest  Management  33 

— as  individuals  or  as  aggregates — according  to  their  financial  merits. 
The  trees  are  divided  into  four  classes: 

(a)  Money  makers,  promising  to  increase  in  stumpage  value  at  a 

rate  of  interest  higher  than  normal;  trees  to  be  preserved. 

(b)  Indifferent  trees,  yielding  a  normal  rate  of  interest,  merely, 

through  growth  in  volume,  value  and  price;  trees  to  be  pre- 
served or  cut. 

(c)  Idlers,  merchantable  trees  yielding  an  inadequate  rate  of  in- 

terest; trees  to  be  cut. 

(d)  Weeds,  trees  of  negative  value   (not  merchantable),  never 

promising  any  revenue;  trees  usually  left  to  rot. 

Practical  experience  in  the  woods,  in  the  mill  and  in  the  office  is 
required  to  allot  a  given  tree  correctly  to  one  of  the  four  classes  given. 
Volume  tables  are  of  little  use  in  the  determination  of  the  maturity  of 
a  tree. 

8.  A  sustained  yield  is  recommended  only  when  it  promises  greater 
safety  or  higher  remunerativeness   of  the  investments. 

Schenck's  working  plan  reports  consist  of  the  three  parts  given  in 
Chapter  III,  viz.: 

first  part,  detailed  statement  of  facts; 
second  part,  statement  of  the  owner's  desire; 
third  part,  detailed  plan  of  action. 

The  plan  of  action  weighs  the  financial  merits  of  all  methods  of 
development  or  treatment  possible  under  the  prevailing  conditions  and 
shows  the  financial  superiority  of  its  own  recommendations  over  any 
other  proposed  plan  of  management. 

The  heads  under  which  the  first  part  and  the  third  part  are  treated 
should  be  those  given  in  paragraph  XVI. 

The  "installation  period"  is  the  time  required  for  the  proper  adjust- 
ment of  all  investments. 

The  annual  working  plan  is  an  annual  budget.  It  dwells  in  detail  on 
that  part  of  all  provisions  of  the  chief  working  plan  which  should  be 
carried  out  in  a  given  year  of  the  period  of  installation. 


#  ~/  ^s^^oa^V 


(---wi^^^ 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


g^r^j 


-n 

Guide  to  Lectures 

Delivered  at  the  Biltmore  Forest  School 

by 

C.  A.  SCHENGK,  Ph.  D 

Director. 


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<#> 


The  Inland  Press, 
Asheville,  N.   C. 


PREFACE 

This  book  on  "forest  protection"  is  being  printed,  pre-eminently,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  students  attending  the  Biltmore  Forest  School. 

In  American  forestry,  the  most  important  duty  of  the  forester  consists 
in  the  suppression  of  forest  fires. 

If  forest  fires  were  prevented,  a  second  growth  would  follow  invariably 
in  the  wake  of  a  first  growth  removed  by  the  forester  or  by  the  lumberman; 
and  the  problem  of  forest  conservation  would  solve  itself. 

If  forest  fires  were  prevented,  a  second  growth  would  have  a  definite, 
prospective  value;  and  it  would  be  worth  while  to  treat  it  sylviculturally. 

If  forest  fires  were  prevented,  our  investments  made  in  merchantable 
timber  would  be  more  secure;  and  there  would  be  a  lesser  inducement  for 
the  rapid  conversion  of  timber  into  cash. 

The  issue  of  forest  fires  stand  paramount  in  all  forest  protection.  Com- 
pared with  this  issue,  the  other  topics  treated  in  the  following  pages  dwindle 
down  to  insignificance. 

I  write  this  with  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the  leading  timber  firms 
in  this  country  place  an  estimate  of  less  than  1%  on  their  annual  losses  oft 
timber  due  to  fires: 

These  firms  are  operating  close  to  their  holdings;  and  if  a  tract  is  killed 
by  fire  the  operations  are  swung  over  into  the  burned  section  as  speedily 
as  possible;  and  the  salvage  may  amount  to  99%  of  the  timber  burned. 

These  firms  do  not  pay  any  attention,  in  their  estimate,  to  the  "lu- 
crum cessans,"  nor  to  the  prospective  value  of  inferior  trees,  poles,  saplings 
and  seedlings. 

The  "prospective  forest"  is  the  forest  of  the  future;  and  this  forest 
is  annihilated  by  the  fires. 

Merchantable  trees  of  immediate  value  cannot  be  killed  any  "more 
dead"  by  fires,  nor  by  insects,  nor  by  strom.  than  by  the  legitimate  use  of 
axe  and  saw. 

Where  the  means  of  transportation  are  ready,  the  damage  inflicted 
upon  the  forest  and  upon  its  owner  by  catastrophies  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

In  writing  the  paragraph  on  "forest  insects,"  I  have  availed  myself 
of  many  hints  obtained  from  Dr.  A.  D.  Hopkins.  My  own  knowledge  of 
forest  insects  amounts  to  little;  and  on  the  basis  of  past  experience,  I  strongly 
recommend  to  all  foresters  a  "lack  of  self-reliance"  in  forest  entomological 
questions.  Consult  Dr.  Hopkins  before  spending  any  money  for  fighting 
insects ! 

Mr.  C.  D.  Couden  has  revised  and  rewritten  my  manuscript  on  forest 
insects,  eliminating  many  mistakes  made  by  a  layman.  My  sincerest  thanks 
are  tendered  to  him  herewith. 


4  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Whatever  I  know  of  American  tree  diseases  and  of  timber  diseases  in- 
duced by  fungi,  I  have  learned  from  Dr.  Hermann  von  Schrenk.  The 
errors  only  which  may  have  crept  into  the  7th  paragraph  of  this  book  deal- 
ing with  fungus  diseases  are  my  own. 

The  graduates  of  the  Biltmore  Forest  School,  and  all  other  gentle  readers 
are  earnestly  requested  to  assist  me  in  the  elimination  of  errors  and  mis- 
takes contained  in  this  book  on  forest  protection. 

Biltmore,  N.  C,  October  1,  1909.  C.  A.  Schenck. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


DEFINITION  AND  SYNOPSIS. 

The  term  "Forest  Protection"  comprises  all  the  acts  of  the  forest-owner 
made  with  a  view  to  the  safety  of  his  investments. 

Forest  Protection  as  a  branch  of  science  is  divided  into  the  following 
parts  and  chapters: 

PART  A:  Protection  Against  Organic  Nature. 
Chapter  I:      Protection  against  man. 
Chapter  II:     Protection  against  animals. 
Chapter  III:  Protection  against  plants. 

PART  B:  Protection  Against  Inorganic  Nature. 

Chapter  I:      Protection  against  adverse  climatic  influences. 

A— Heat. 

B— Frost. 

C — Snow  and  sleet. 
Chapter  II:     Protection  against  storm,  erosion,  sanddrifts,  noxious 


D — Wind  and  storm. 
E — Erosion. 
F — Shifting  sand. 
G — Noxious  gases. 

The  English  literature  on  Forest  Protection  consists,  in  the  main,  of 
the  following: 

Dr.  Wm.  Schlich,  Vol.  IV.  of  "Manual  of  Forestry." 

Dr.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  Bulletins  of  the  West  Virginia  Agricultural 
Station.     Bulletins  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

Tubeuf  and  Smith,  "Diseases  of  Plants." 

Dr.  H.  von  Schrenk,  bulletins  of  the  Shaw  School  of  Botany,  bulle- 
tins of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Forestry  and  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry. 

Lectures  on  game  protection,  on  protection  of  forest-roads  and  forest- 
railroads,  on  protection  of  forest  industries — of  vital  interest  to  the  owner 
of  forests — are  not  included  in  the  following  paragraphs.  The  author's 
excuse  for  this  omission  lies  in  the  word  "precedent." 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


CONTENTS  IN  PARAGRAPHS. 


Par.    1.  Protection  against  adverse  possession. 

Par.    2.  Protection  against  forest  fires. 

Par.    3.  Protection  against  domestic  animals  on  pasture. 

Par.    4.  Protection  against  wild  vertebrates. 

Par.    5.  Protection  against  insects. 

Par.    6.  Protection  against  weeds. 

Par.    7.  Protection  against  fungi. 

Par.    8.  Protection  against  parasites  other  than  fungi. 

Par.    9.  Protection  against  frost. 

Par.  10.  Protection  against  heat. 

Par.  11.  Protection  against  snow  and  sleet. 

Par.  12.  Protection  against  wind  and  storm. 

Par.  13.  Protection  against  erosion. 

Par.  14.  Protection  against  shifting  sand. 

Par.  15.  Protection  against  noxious  gases. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 

Part  A :  Protection  Against  Organic  Nature 

CHAPTER  1.   PROTECTION  AGAINST  MAN. 


Par.  1.    Protection  Against  Adverse  Possession. 

Adverse  possession  and  its  consequences  are  best  prevented  by  con- 
tinuous, open  and  notorious  possession  of  every  acre  of  land  comprised  in 
the  property.  To  that  end,  a  proper  survey  is  necessary,  coupled  with  de- 
markation  of  the  boundary  lines  by  proper  marks  or  by  fences;  of  the  cor- 
ners by  proper  corner  trees  and  witnesses. 

Wooden  stakes  as  corner  signs  are  objectionable;  iron  "T"  stakes,  5' 
long,  costing  35  to  60  cents  apiece,  are  extensively  used  at  Biltmore. 

The  exactness  of  the  survey  depends  on  the  acre-value  of  the  forest. 

The  lines  of  the  property,  established  by  the  demarkation,  must  be 
maintained  by  continuous  patrolling.  The  posting  of  trespass  notices  and 
the  trimming  of  bushes  along  the  lines  are  advisable,  if  not  legally  required. 
Foremen,  tenants  and  guards  should  know  the  lines  perfectly  so  as  to  be 
witnesses  available  in  lawsuits. 

In  the  case  of  disputes  with  neighbors,  refuge  to  "processioning  pro- 
ceedings" is  taken. 

The  forester  should  endeavor  to  straighten  the  lines  of  the  forest  by 
purchase  or  exchange,  and  to  substitute  natural  boundary  lines  for  arti- 
ficial lines. 

Squatters,  with  the  help  of  state  grants  or  other  colorable  title, — or 
without  title  but  with  distinct  boundary  lines  and  with  distinct  possession — 
become  owners  within  a  few  years. 

In  real  estate  law,  the  written  word  is  decisive  rather  than  the  gist 
of  a  contract. 

The  lessee  surrenders  to  the  lessor  all  claim  to  the  property  on  which 
he  lives. 

All  deeds  pertaining  to  a  piece  of  property  should  be  placed  on  pub- 
lic record. 

Suit  should  be  brought  in  the  federal  courts,  preferably. 

In  the  distant  future,  the  increased  value  of  real  property  will  force 
the  states  to  "legalize"  the  individual  holdings  after  careful  survey. 

The  administering  forester  must  command  a  good  knowledge  of  real 
estate  law;  he  should  leave  no  means  untried  to  ferret  out  the  trespasser 
and  to  secure  his  conviction. 

The  most  important  laws  in  this  connection  are  those  concerning 
Destruction  of  corner  marks 
Larceny  of  wood  and  timber 
Entering  land  when  forbidden 
Arrest 
Proceedings  at  court. 


8  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Par.  2.    Protection  Against  Forest  Fires. 

Protection  against  forest  fires  means,  practically,  protection  against 
man  who,  intentionally  or  carelessly,  causes  the  very  large  majority  of  all 
forest  fires.     Fires  due  to  lightning  are  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  East. 

A:  Causes  of  Fires: 

I : — Fires  are  intentionally  set : — 
To  improve  pasture. 
To  uncover  minerals  for  prospecting. 
To  gather  chestnuts. 

To  force  the  owner  of  woodlands  to  purchase  interior  holdings. 
To  chase  deer  or  turkeys. 
To  drive  bees  or  coons  from  trees. 
To  improve  the  huckleberry  crop. 
To  facilitate  access  to  thick  woods. 
To  get  a  job  at  stopping  fires. 
To  surround  farms,  pastures  or  forests  with  a  safety  belt  of  burned 

land. 
To  mask  trespass  by  fishing  and  hunting. 
To  take  revenge  for  supposed  acts  of  animosity. 
II: — Fires  carelessly  started  result  from: — 
Locomotive  sparks  and  cinders. 
Sparks  from  forest  cabins. 
Campers'  and  hunters'  fires. 

Charcoal   burning,    rock   blasting,   tobacco    smoking,    burning   ad- 
joining fields  or  pastures. 

B:  Kinds  of  Forest  Fires: 

Fires  are  distinguished  as: — 
Surface  fires. 
Jftidsrground  fires. 
Top  fires. 

C:  Damage  by  Fires: 

The  damage  done  by  forest  fires  consists  of  the  loss  of  present  values 
or  of  the  loss  of  prospective  values;  seedlings  are  killed;  saplings  burst  open; 
stool  shoots  replace  seedling  growth. 

A  heavy  growth  of  weeds,  frequently  following  in  the  wake  of  forest 
fires,  prevents  natural  or  artificial  regeneration.  A  deterioration  of  pro- 
ductiveness is  the  natural  consequence  of  deteriorated  soil,  due  to  destruc- 
tion of  humus. 

Trees  weakened  by  fires  cease  to  resist  the  attacks  of  insects  and  fungi. 
Trees  burned  at  the  stump  are  subject  to  breakage  by  sleet  or  snow. 


FOREST  PROTECT  10 X  9 

D:  The  Factors  Influencing  the  Amount  of  Damage  are: — 
The  age  of  the  woods. 
The  aspect  of  the  slope. 

The  severity  of  the  wind,  and  the  uphill  or  downhill  direction  of  the  wind. 
The  season  of  the  year  and  the  preceding  duration  of  drought. 
The  silvieultural  system. 

The  amount  of  debris  and  humus  on  the  ground. 
The  species  forming  the  forest  (conifers  have  less  reproductive  power; 

light  demanders  usually  have  fireproof  armor  of  bark;  thin  or  thick 

layer  of  sap  wood.) 

E:  The  Measures  Taken  Against  Forest  Fires  .are  Either  of  a  Pre- 
ventive or  of  a  Remedial  Nature: 

I. — Preventive  measures: — 

Education  of  the  people  and  of  the  legislature  through  the  news- 
papers and  from  the  pulpit. 
Friendly  relations  with  all  neighbors. 
Securing  proper  fire  laws  and  publishing  notices  giving  the  essence 

of  such  laws. 
The  purchase  of  all  interior  holdings. 
Settlements  of  tenants  within  the  forest. 
Telephone  connection  in  the  forest. 

Fire  lanes  (in  India  up  to  400'  wide)  kept  clear  from  inflammable 
material.  Such  lanes  exist  along  all  European  railroads.  In 
America  the  main  advantage  of  a  fire  lane  lies  in  the  possi- 
bility of  back  firing  with  the  lane  as  a  basis. 
Trails  or  roads,  further  strips  of  pasture  along  the  ridges  and  strips 
of  farmland  along  the  creeks  form  the  most  useful  fire  lanes. 
Burning  all  around  the  forest  at  the  beginning  of  the  dangerous 

season. 
Burning  debris  after  lumbering — a  measure  of  doubted  expediency. 
Removing  debris  from  the  close  proximity  of  valuable  trees. 
Proper  contracts  for  all  work  in  the  woods  by  which  the  liability 
for  damage  caused  by  fires  is  thrown   upon  the  contractor. 
Annual   burning   of  the   woods  intended  to   prevent   the   accumu- 
lation of  vegetable  matter  or  mould.     (Pineries  of  the  South). 
Removing  duff  from  the  close  proximity  of  turpentine  boxes. 
Stock  law. 

Associations  of  forest  owners,  as  in  Idaho,  Washington  and  Oregon. 
Pasture  by  cattle  and  hogs  to  cause  a  more  rapid  decomposition 

of  the  vegetable  carpet. 
Unceasing  patrol  of  the  forest  during  the  dry  season  or  during  dry 
spells,  day  and  night,  by  an  increased  staff  of  watchmen,  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  their  beat  and  with  the  people  living 
in  the  neighborhood. 


10  FOREST  PROTECTION 

II. — Remedial  Measures: — 
a. — Main  principles: — 

Have  one  man  in  full  charge  and  hold  him  alone  responsible. 

Have  helpers  and  relays  for  helpers  ready  in  the  various  ranges 
{scattering  the  work)  during  droughts,  employing  them  in 
lumbering  or  in  silviculture  until  their  help  is  required 
at  a  fire. 

The  foreman,  upon  arrival  at  the  fire,  must  first  ascertain  the 
speed  of  the  fire  and  the  length  of  the  line  of  attack;  fur- 
ther, the  distance  from  the  next  fire  lane  (trail,  brook, 
pasture),  and  the  amount  of  help  locally  available. 

The  foreman  must  not  hesitate  to  abandon  the  burning  dis- 
trict, up  to  the  next  or  second  next  fire  lane. 

Food  and  water  for  the  fire-fighters  must  be  provided. 

The  fire  is  subdued  only  when  the  last  spark  is  extinguished. 
The  edges  of  the  burned  area  must  be  watched  for  24 
hours  succeeding  the  fire. 

b—  Tools:— 

The  axe,  hoe,  spade,  shovel,  rake  (preferably  wooden  teeth); 
brooms;  plows  on  abandoned  fields;  water  buckets  and 
sprinkling  cans;  pack-train,  or  railroad-velocipedes  prop- 
erly equipped;  fire  extinguishers. 

c. — Actual  Work: 

(1)  Underground  fires  can  be  stopped  only  by  digging  ditches 
and  by  turning  water  into  them. 

(2)  Surface  fires  are  stopped 

By  plowing  or  digging  a  furrow  around  the  fire. 

By  beating  the  fire  out  with  brooms  or  green  twigs. 

By  removing  the  humus  and  debris  from  a  narrow  line 
in  front  of  the  fire  by  hand  or  rake. 

By  throwing  dirt  on  the  fire. 

By  sprinkling  in  front  of  the  fire. 

By  the  use  of  extinguishers  against  the  flame  itself. 

By  back-firing  from  the  next  point  of  vantage  with  due 
regard  for  the  speed  of  the  fire — the  best  and  only 
remedy  in  the  case  of  heavy  conflagrations. 

(3)  Top  fires  can  be  stopped  only  by  providing  broad  fire 
lanes  on  which  the  trees  are  cut,  and  by  back-firing  from 
such  lanes. 

(4)  Stem  fires  burning  in  hollow  trees  are  stopped  by  filling 
the  holes  in  the  trunk  with  dirt  or  by  cutting  the  tree 
down. 

Fires  going  down  hill,  against  the  wind  and  in  the  hours  following  mid- 
night are  the  easiest  to  subdue. 

For  the  history  of  some  famous  forest  fires,  see  Pinchot's  Primer,  Part  I. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  11 

For  a  number  of  tree  species  (notably  Douglas  fir,  Yellow  pines,  Jack 
pine,  Lodgepole  pine,  Aspen)  fire  must  be  considered  as  an  excellent  silvi- 
cultural  tool  or  as  a  means  of  securing  regeneration. 
F: — Treatment  of  Injured  Woods. 

The  treatment  of  injured  woods  differs  according  to  species,   age  of 
woods,  market  facilities  and  severity  of  damage  inflicted. 

I — Thickets  of  broadleaved  species  it  is  best  to  coppice,  or  else  to  clip 
down  with  the  help  of  long  handled  pruning  shears. 
Thickets  of  conifers  are  either  so  badly  damaged  as  to  require  re- 
generation anew  or  are  so  little  damaged  as  not  to  require  any  help. 

II— Pole  Woods. 

Pole  woods  of  broadleaved  species  are  most  severely  damaged  by 
spring  fires,  and  should  be  cut  where  salable. 
Pole  woods  of  conifers,  if  apt  to  die,  should  be  made  into  money 
immediately,  where  possible. 

If  coniferous  pole  woods  are  apt  to  live,  careful  trap-tree  prac- 
tice will  tend  to  avoid  more  severe  injury  from  insect  plagues. 

III.— Tree  Forests. 

Broadleaved  tree  forests  are  not  apt  to  be  injured  by  surface  fires 
sufficiently  to  cause  the  death  of  the  trees.  Hence,  usually,  the 
trees  are  allowed  to  stand.  If,  however,  a  majority  of  the  trees 
are  killed,  speedy  utilization  is  necessary. 

In  coniferous  tree  forests,  trees  are  either  at  once  killed  by 
the  fire,  requiring  immediate  removal,  or  else  not  sufficiently  touched 
to  be  doomed.  In  the  latter  case,  the  use  of  trap  trees  is  required 
to  prevent  insect  plagues  from  developing. 

The  presence  of  permanent  means  of  transportation  connecting 
the  forest  with  a  ready  market  is,  under  all  circumstances,  the  most 
important  factor  in  preventing  material  damage  from  striking  the 
owner  of  merchantable  forests  killed  by  conflagrations. 


12  FOREST  PROTECTION 

CHAPTER  II:  PROTECTION  AGAINST  ANIMALS. 


Par.  3.     Protection  Against  Domestic  Animals  on  Pasture. 
A — Introduction. 

Forest  pasture  is  a  legitimate  forest  industry.  The  waste  pro- 
duction of  the  soil,  in  addition  to  shoots  and  branches  of  trees,  are  util- 
ized by  pasturing  stock.  Vegetable  matter  transformed  into  flesh  or 
wool  adopts  a  more  marketable  and  a  more  profitable  shape. 

Forest  pasture  is,  obviously,  best  adapted  to  woods  of  low  stump- 
age  prices;  of  difficult  access;  of  scant  timber  production  (East  slopes 
of  the  Cascades;  ridge  between  Pisgah  and  Balsam  mountains). 

Forest  pasture  plays  a  role  in  the  forest  similar  to  that  which  field 
pasture  plays  on  the  farm. 

Whether  forest  pasture  pays  better  in  connection  with  tree  growth 
or  regardless  of  timber  production, — that  is  a  financial  question  to  be 
answered  by  every  land  owner  on  the  basis  of  local  experience  and  of 
individual  forecast. 

Abroad,  since  times  immemorial,  forests  have  been  pastured  and 
are  still  pastured  to  a  surprising  extent. 

Pasture  frequently  acts  as  a  silvicultural  tool;  hogs  are  used  to 
break  the  soil  and  to  destroy  insects;  cattle  or  sheep  driven  over  seed 
plantations  or  through  the  woods  after  seed-fall  imbed  the  seeds  to  a 
proper  depth;  they  destroy  rank  weeds  overshadowing  valuable  seed- 
lings. 

B — The  Damage  by  Pasture  in  the  Forest  is  Threefold: — 
I. — To  soil.     Pasture  hardens  hard  soil  and  loosens  loose  soil. 
II. — To  trees.     This  damage  consists  of: 

a. — Browsing  on  buds,  leaves  and  shoots. 

b. — Eating  seeds  and  uprooting  seedlings. 

c. — Tramping  down  seedlings  and  over-riding  saplings. 

d. — Tossing-off  the  tops  of  saplings. 

e. — Peeling  hardwood  poles  in  spring. 

III. — To  roads  and  road  drainage. 
C. — Factors  of  Damage  are: 

I. — Species  of  trees:  Those  most  exposed  are  ash,  maple,  locust,  chest- 
nut, linden,  elm;  less  exposed  are  yellow  poplar,  willows,  oaks 
(horses  like  oaks),  birch,  fir,  hickory  and  walnut;  least  endangered 
are  larch,  spruce,  pine.     Practically  safe  is  red  cedar. 

II. — Age  of  trees:     The  seedling  stage  suffers  most. 
III. — Silvicultural  system:    Systems  in  which  the  age  classes  are  mixed 
6uffer  most,  notably  selection  system  and  group  system. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


13 


IV. — Locality:    Steep  slope,  loose  soil  and  shifting  sand  suffer  severely. 

V. — Species  of  animals:     The  animals  may  be  arranged  in  the  follow- 
ing schedule,  placing  the  damage  done  by  a  horse  at  100: 

Horse  or  mule  foal 150 

Horse  or  mule 100 

Yearling  cattle 75 

Grown  cattle 50 

Goats  25 

Sheep 10 

Since  a  goat  weighs  80  lbs.  and  a  horse  10  times  as  much,  the  dam- 
age done  by  the  goat  is  relatively  great.  In  addition,  goats  prefer 
woody  shoots  and  buds  to  mere  grass. 

The  rates  charged  for  forest  pasture  in  Pisgah  Forest  correspond 

more  or  less  with  this  schedule,  viz: 

Horses 90  cents  per  head  per  month 

Cattle 50  cents  per  head  per  month 

Sheep 10  cents  per  head  per  month 

In  the  pineries  of  the  South,  the  lease  receipts  from  pasture  offset 
the  taxes  frequently.  Foals  destroy  pasture  more  by  their  mere 
frolics  than  by  their  appetite.  After  Hundeshagen,  10  to  12J^ 
acres  of  forest  are  required  for  the  pasture  of  one  head  of  cattle. 
VI. — Season  of  the  year.  Spring  pasture  is  more  destructive  than 
summer  or  fall  pasture. 

D. — Closed  Time. 

In  Central  Europe  young  woods  are  closed  to  pasturage  for  a  number 
of  years. 

AGE  OF  WOODS  WHEN  PASTURE  BEGINS,  IN  YEARS. 


SPECIES  OF 
ANIMALS 

HIGH  FOREST, 
BROAD  LEAF 

HIGH  FOREST, 
CONIFERS 

COPPICE 
FOREST 

Horses    

Cattle 

18  to  24 
14  to  18 

12  to  20 
9  to  16 

6  to  14 
4  to  10 

-Duration  of  Pasture 

In  Western  North  Carolina,  cattle  are  pastured  in  the  woods  from  May 
1st,  to  October  15th,  whilst  sheep  and  hogs  are  kept  on  pasture  dur- 
ing the  entire  year,  fed  only  slightly  after  a  heavy  snow  fall. 
In  the  pineries  of  the  South,  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  are  kept  in  the  woods 
during  the  entire  year.  Cattle  are  fed  slightly,  in  addition  to  the  pas- 
ture, during  the  four  winter  months.  The  much  disputed  pasture  in 
the  Sierras  and  Cascades  is  used  only  during  the  three  summer  months 
when  the  pasture  in  the  lowlands  dries  out. 


14  FOREST  PROTECTION 

F. — Pasture  in  the  National  Forests: 

The  pasture  of  sheep  and  goats  is  generally  prohibited;  cattle  pasture 
generally  allowed . 

Sheep  ranges  and  cattle  ranges  are  kept  strictly  apart. 
The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  determines  annually  the  amount  of  pas- 
turage permitted  for  each  forest,  viz: 

a. — The  number  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  goats  to  be  admitted; 

b. — The  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  grazing  season; 

c. — The  ranges  actually  to  be  grazed. 
The  stock  of  residents  owning  holdings  within  the  forests  is  given  pre- 
ference over  "neighboring  stock."     Only  citizens  of  the  State  are  en- 
titled, to  grazing  privileges. 

Under  any  circumstances,  permits  must  be  obtained  through  the  super- 
visor by  stock  owners  intending  to  pasture  on  the  reserve  (the  stock 
of  travelers  and  prospectors  excepted).  Sheep  must  be  herded  by  a 
herdsman. 

The  sheep  ranges  are  allotted  separately,  usually  according  to  the  re- 
commendation of  the  local  Wool  Growers'  Association.  Promiscuous 
sheep  grazing  is  strictly  prohibited. 

Permit  holders  are  required  to  prevent  and  to  fight  fires  without  com- 
pensation. 

G. — Protective  Measures  Meant  to  Safeguard  the  Timijer  Interests 
of  the  Land  Owner: — 
I. — Animals: 

a. — Limit  the  number  of  animals  admitted. 
b. — Exclude  goats. 

c. — Prevent  cattle  from  following  sheep. 
II.— Time: 

a. — Prevent  pasture  in  early  spring. 

b. — Insist  on  close  time  during  regeneration  and  up  to  the  thicket 

stage. 
c. — Close  forest  pasture  periodically  so  as  to  allow  tree  seedlings 
to  escape  the  mouth  of  browsing  animals. 

III. — Fencing: 

For  cattle  pasture,  two  or  three  strings  of  barbed  wire  are  suffi- 
cient. For  sheep  pasture  three  or  four  strings.  100  lbs.  of  barbed 
wire  form  a  string  1,600  to  1,900  feet  long. 

Individual  trees  or  seedlings,  like  orchard  trees,  are  sometimes 
protected  by  screens  placed  around  the  tree. 

IV. — Seedlings  should  be  planted  within  the  "bays"  of  tree  stumps 
after  clear  cutting  wherever  artificial  regeneration  is  resorted  to. 
Seed  planting  should  be  avoided. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  15 


Par.  4.    Protection  Against  Wild  Vertebrates. 

Amongst  the  wild  animals  preying  upon  the  forest  the  mammals  figure 
as  well  as  the  birds.  The  role  played  by  the  vertebrates  in  the  "  house- 
hold" of  the  forest  is  little  known. 

Birds  and  mammals  may  injure  the  forest  directly — by  eating  vege- 
table matter  produced  in  the  forest, — or  indirectly — by  killing  the 
friends  of  the  forester.  Utility  of  a  wild  animal  is  frequently  combined 
with  noxiousness,  e.  g.  in  the  case  of  the  crow,  blue-jay,  fox. 
Useful  animals  may  help  the  forester  either  directly— by  seed  distri- 
bution,— or  indirectly — by  killing  the  enemies  of  the  forest. 

-Protection  Against  Mammals  Forming  the  Object  of  Chase. 
I. — Deer. 

a. — The  damage  done  consists  in: — 
Eating  fruits. 

Browsing  on  shoots  and  seedlings. 
Peeling  the  bark  of  saplings  and  poles    (notably   of  spruce, 

oak,  ash). 
Rubbing  off  the  bark  when  freeing  the  antlers  of  velvet. 
Tramping  down  plantations  or  natural  regenerations. 

The  objects  of  damage  are,  above  all,  the  rare  species,  or  species 
arousing  the  curiosity  of  the  deer. 

b. — Protective  measures  are: — 

Proper  regulation  of  the  number  of  deer.  Compatible  with 
the  objects  of  silviculture  are,  per  10,000  acres,  50  head  of 
elk  or  150  head  of  Virginia  deer,  provided  that  nurseries  are 
fenced. 

Feeding  during  winter  by  cutting  soft  woods  or  by  providing 
hay  stacks.  Mast-bearing  trees  should  be  encouraged;  grass 
meadows  should  be  maintained;  a  few  patches  should  be  planted 
in  turnips,  potatoes,  clover,  etc.  Maintaining  salt  licks,  es- 
pecially with  a  view  to  preventing  bark  peeling  in  spring. 
Hohlfeld's  game  powder  is  said  to  answer  the  purpose  still 
better.  Fencing  nurseries  and  young  growth. 
Sprinkling  seedlings  with  kerosene,  liquid  manure,  blood, 
cotton  residue  or,  better,  covering  the  fall  shoots,  exclusive  of 
bud,  with  coal  tar.  Coal  tar  is  especially  effective  in  the  case 
of  fir  and  spruce.  Thinnings  should  be  delayed  as  long  as 
possible.  Planting  is  preferable  to  sowing,  especially  to  sow- 
ing in  the  fall. 

II. — Wild  Boar.  Boar  are  particularly  disastrous  to  nurseries,  nat- 
ural regenerations  and  plantations.  The  only  remedies  are  strong 
fences. 


16  FOREST  PR0TECT10X 

III. — Hares  and  Rabbits.  The  damage  done  consists  in  the  biting- 
off  of  top  shoots  (notably  of  oaks,  maples,  firs,  but  also  of  pine); 
further,  in  gnawing-off  the  bark  of  locust,  crata?gus,  cherry,  hard 
maple,  linden. 

At  Biltmore.  rabbits  feast  especially  on  the  shoots  of  the  Buffalo 
nut  (Pyrularia).  The  seedlings  of  Pinus  echinata,  in  certain  years, 
were  bitten-off  in  the  nurseries. 

Plantations  of  acorns  at  Biltmore  have  been  annihilated  by  the 
rabbits,  the  shoots  being  clipped  year  after  year.  Thus  the  oak 
seedlings  were  prevented  from  successfully  competing  with  the 
weeds  (broom  sedge).  Nurseries  require  a  fine  meshed  fence. 
Remedies  lie,  above  all,  in  the  protection  of  the  fox,  'possum,  skunk, 
marten,  weasel,  hawk,  coon,  mynx. 

In  addition,  sprinkling  with  coal  tar  (not  on  buds!)  and  wrapping 
of  top  shoots  in  cotton  waste  is  recommended. 
The  planting  of  rabbit-proof  species  (notably  Picea  pungens  and 
Picea  Sitchensis)  is  advisable. 

B. — Protection  Against  Mammals  which  do  not  Form  the  Object  of 
the  Chase. 

Obviously,  all  carniverous  animals  are  friends  of  the  forester,  whilst 
most  herbivorous  animals  appear  as  his  enemies.  Amongst  the  plant 
eaters,  the  rodents  excel  in  the  amount  of  harm  done. 

I. — Squirrels. 

a. — Damage  done. 

Squirrels  eat  the  seed  on  the  tree  as  well  as  the  seed  planted 
by  nature  and  man,  preferring  sweet  oaks,  beech,  chestnut, 
walnut,  cucumber-tree,  hickories,  pines.  They  eat  the  coty- 
ledons, buds  and  cambium  of  young  shoots  and  destroy  the 
nest  brood  of  some  useful  birds.  In  the  Pink  Beds,  the  top 
shoots  of  white  pine  are  cut  off  by  the  squirrels.  Plantations 
of  the  heavy  seeded  broad  leaved  species  have  been  destroyed 
at  Biltmore  repeatedly. 

b. — Protective  measures. 

Protect  the  fox,  marten,  skunk,  coon,  o'possum,  hawk,  owl, 

cat  (wild  and  tame)  and  all  other  enemies. 

Remove  hollow  trees  forming  the  hiding  and  nesting  places 

of  the  squirrel. 

Plant  seedlings  or,  possibly,  nuts  after  sprouting,  and  if  seeds 

must  be  planted,  resort  to  spring-planting  of  the  same. 

c. — Remedial  measures. 
1 — Shoot  the  squirrel. 

2 — Poison  it  by  bathing  the  seeds  in  strychnine  before  plant- 
ing, a  means  found  ineffective  at  Biltmore. 

II. — Chipmunk.  Similar  damage  and  same  remedies  as  for  the  squirrel. 
Its  main  enemy  at  Biltmore  is  the  black  snake  and  the  rattlesnake. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  17 

III.— Mice. 

a. — Damage  done. 

The  mice  live  on  buds,  seeds,  seedlings  and  the  cambium  layers 
of  seedlings. 

The  field  mice  undermine  the  ground  in  nurseries  and  planta- 
tions following  the  rows  of  plants  and  cutting  the  roots  about 
one  inch  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Frequently  they 
seem  to  follow  in  mole  mines.  The  damage  done  by  gnawing 
is  conspicuous  in  plantations  of  locust  and  black  cherry.  In 
seed  plantations  on  abandoned  fields  at  Biltmore,  mice  have 
done  enormous  damage  to  oaks  and  hickories.  Planted  locusts 
are  bitten-off  below  ground.  In  the  Biltmore  nurseries,  oak 
seed  beds  have  suffered  severely  by  the  mice  cutting  the  roots. 
Transplanted  white  pines  were  severely  decimated,  by  gird- 
ling, in  February,  1909. 

b. — Protective  measures. 
Avoid  autumn  Bowing. 

Plant  seeds  broadcast  instead  of  planting  in  rills. 
Have  nurseries  far  from  grain  fields  and  from  abandoned  fields. 
Keep  deep  and  clean  pathways  between  the  beds.  Surround 
nurseries  by  deep  and  steep-walled  trenches.  Insert  pit  falls 
in  the  bottom  of  such  trenches.  Work  the  nurseries  contin- 
uously. Do  not  cover  the  nurseries  with  mould  or  moss  form- 
ing hiding  places. 

Keep  the  sedge  grasses  and  weeds  down  in  nurseries  and  re- 
generations, possibly  by  pasturing  with  cattle  and  sheep,  thus 
disturbing  the  mice  and  tramping  down  their  mines.  Burn 
abandoned  fields  before  planting. 

Pigs  admitted  to  the  woods  just  before  a  seed  year  destroy 
the  mice  whilst  preparing  the  soil  for  natural  regeneration. 
Protect  the  mouse-eaters,  especially  those  which  are  fond  of 
voles  as  owls,  crows,  fox,  o'possum,  cats. 

c. — Remedial  Measures. 

Kill  the  mice  by  trapping  or  poisoning.  In  this  latter  case, 
place  grains  of  wheat  poisoned  by  immersion  in  strychnine, 
arsenic  or  phosphorus  into  dram  pipes  so  as  to  check  the  possi- 
bility of  accidentally  poisoning  singing  birds  or  quail  at  the 
same  time.  Comp.  Farmers  bulletin  No.  369,  Biological  Survey. 
The  root  of  certain  Scylla  species,  chopped  into  sausages,  kills 
the  mice  by  causing  their  bladders  to  burst.  Gypsum  is  said 
to  have  a  similar  effect,  solidifying  in  the  stomach.  The  lat- 
ter remedies  are  not  injurious  to  the  mouse-eating  animals 
which  are  frequently  poisoned  by  catching  the  poisoned  mice. 
The  vaccination  of  the  mice  with  the  so-called  "typhoid  dis- 
ease" has  not  been  sufficientlv  successful  so  far. 


18  FOREST  PROTECTION 

d. — Treatment  of  injured  plants. 

Broad  leaved  seedlings  merely  chewed  above  ground  should 
be  clipped  back.  Oak  seedlings,  cut  off  below  ground,  have 
been  successfully  transplanted  at  Biltniore  and  have  replaced 
the  lost  tap-root  by  a  multitude  of  rootlets. 

IV. — Ground  Hog  or  Wood  Chuck.  Dr.  Fernow  reports  that  his 
coniferous  nurseries  at  Axton  were  badly  plundered  by  woodchuck. 
After  Schaaf,  white  oak  saplings  are  peeled  by  woodchucks  up  to 
five  feet  from  the  ground,  near  fields.  Stomach  analysis  at  Bilt- 
more  show  only  ferns. 

V. — Porcupine  or  Hedgehog.  It  peels  the  bark,  especially  that  of 
spruce,  basswood  and  hemlock,  close  to  the  base  of  the  tree,  pre- 
ferring saplings  up  to  5"  in  diameter. 

VI. — Beaver.  It  is  now  so  rare  that  the  damage  done  to  the  forest 
is  insignificant. 

C. — Protection  Against  Birds. 

I. — Grouse.  The  grouse  bite-off  buds  and  cotyledons,  and  eat  the 
fruit  of  certain  tree  species  (buds  of  birch,  maple,  cottonwood; 
seeds  of  red  cedar,  beech,  witch  hazel,  calmia  and  rhododendron). 
On  the  whole  the  damage  done  by  grouse  is  inconspicuous. 

II. — Wild  Turkey.  The  turkey  is  useful  by  eating  some  noxious  in- 
sects and  by  scratching  the  leaves,  thus  burying  certain  tree  seeds. 
At  Biltmore,  however,  on  Ducker  Mountains,  plantations  of  scarlet 
oak  acorns  have  been  practically  destroyed  by  the  turkey.  In 
forest  nurseries,  as  well,  the  turkey  is  apt  to  do  considerable  harm 
during  the  winter. 

III. — Pigeons   and   Doves.      Pigeons   live   during   spring   and   winter 
on  coniferous  seeds,  beech  nuts,  buds  and  cotyledons. 
Remedies  in  nurseries  are  lath  or  wire  screens  or  coverings  of  thorny 
branches.     Pigeons  may  be  shot  at  anise  licks. 

IV. — Crows  and  Bluejays.  These  birds  live  on  large  seeds  (acorns, 
beech  nuts,  chestnuts)  and  are  especially  dangerous  in  nurseries. 
They  plunder  the  nests  of  useful  birds.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
may  assist  the  forester  in  destroying  mice  and  noxious  insects; 
they  underplant  whole  forests  with  acorns,  beech  nuts,  hickory 
nuts  and  chestnuts. 

V. — Finches  and  Cross-bills.  The  damage  done  consists  in  the  de- 
struction of  seed  plantations  of  conifers  made  in  nurseries  or  in 
the  open.  It  occurs  during  the  spring  migration  of  the  birds  when 
they  appear  in  large  swarms. 

The  cotyledons  are  bitten  off  and  eaten  as  well  as  the  seeds.  Some 
cross-bills  split  the  scales  of  coniferous  cones  into  two,  withdraw- 
ing the  seed  from  underneath  the  scales. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  19 

Protective  measures  are: 
Screens  of  wire  or  lath  over  nursery  beds.    The  mesh  must  be  fine, 
and  the  distance  between  the  lath  must  not  exceed  %  inch. 
Shooting  some  birds,  keeping  the  balance  scared  off. 
Coating  the  seeds  in  red  lead  (very  efficient),  one  pound  of  red 
lead  being  sufficient  to  cover  seven  pounds  of  coniferous  seeds. 
Shortening  the  period  of  exposure  by  planting  the  seeds  in  late 
spring  after  three  to  eight  days  mulching. 
VI. — Woodpeckers.    Woodpeckers  withdraw  the  larvge  of  wood  boring 
insects  from  their  mines  with  the  help  of  a  long,  thin  tongue.    They 
withdraw  useful  as  well  as  harmful  insects.     They  do  damage  by 
opening  cones  and  by  eating  the  seeds  thereof. 
The  damage  done  by  picking  holes  into  the  cambium  layers  of 
certain  trees  is  small.     The  holes  made  in  sound  yellow  poplars 
rather  denote  a  high  quality  than  the  presence  of  defective  tim- 
ber.    The  holes  made  in  oak  and  chestnuts  are  usually  made  in 
rotten  or  decaying  wood,  or  in  wood  of  no  commercial  value. 
There  exist  four  theories  attempting  to  explain  the  curious  girdles 
of  holes  made  by  the  woodpecker. 
a. — Incubator  Theory. 

Holes  are  picked  to  invite  the  ovipositing  of  insects  in  such  holes. 
b. — Napkin  Theory. 

The  woodpecker  cleans  its  beak  from  particles  of  rosin. 
c. — Calendar  Theory. 

Due  to  observation  that  woodpecker  returns  at  regular  inter- 
vals to  same  tree, 
d. — Sap-sucking  Theory. 


20  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Par.  5.    Protection  Against  Insects. 

A.    General  Remarks. 

I.  Insects  are  the  most  serious  animal  enemies  of  the  forest.  More 
than  that,  they  are  the  worst  enemies  of  the  forest  within 
organic  nature. 

But  in  a  certain  sense,  many  insects  seemingly  injurious,  are 
in  fact  beneficial,  since  they  form  one  of  the  means  by  which 
nature  selects  the  fittest  individuals  for  the  propagation  of 
our  trees. 

II.  Almost  all  of  the  orders  of  insects  contain  families,  some  or 
all  the  members  of  which  are  directly  beneficial.  These  bene- 
ficial forms  are  usually  zoophagous,  and  may  be — 

o.  Predaceous  insects  feeding  on  eggs,  larvae,  pupae,  or 
imagines  of  injurious  species,  notably — 

Order  Coleoptera:    Families  Coccinellidce,  Cicin- 

delidce,  Carabidce,  Elateridce,  Cleridce,  Trogosilidce, 

Colydiidce. 

Order  Diptera:    Families  Asilidce,  Syrphidce. 

Order  Hymenoptera:     Superfamily  Formicoidea. 

Order  Hemiptera:    Family  Reduviidce. 

Order  Orthoptera:     Family  Mantidoe. 

Many  Neuropteroid  insects.* 

b.  Parasitic  insects,  ovipositing  on  or  in  the  bodies  of 
injurious  species.     The  more  important  are — 

Order  Diptera:     P'amily  Tachinidce. 

Order  Hymenoptera:     Superfamilies  Ichneumon- 

oidea,  Proctotrypoidea,  Chalcidoidea. 

c.  Parasitic  insects,  paralyzing  their  prey  by  stinging,  and 
carrying  them  into  their  nests  where  the  eggs  of  the 
parasite  are  deposited. 

Order  Hymenoptera:     Superfamilies  Sphegoidea, 
Vespoidea. 

Many  families  are  neither  injurious  nor  beneficial,  and  are  there- 
fore of  no  economic  importance.  Other  groups  which  may  be 
either  injurious  or  beneficial  to  man,  are  not  mentioned  here, 
because  they  bear  no  direct  relation  to  forest  trees.  Amongst 
the  phytophagous  insects,  there  are  however,  very  many  forms 
that  are  injurious  to  our  forests.  Those  living  on  tree  weeds 
must,  of  course,  be  considered  as  beneficial;  but  speaking  gen- 

*The  old  order  Neuroptera,  has  been  divided  into  several  orders  in  modern  systems  of 
classification.  The  group  as  a  whole  is  of  little  economic  importance  to  the  forester,  and 
for  that  reason,  the  inclusive  term,  Neuropteroid,  is  used. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  21 

erally,  phytophagous  insects  found  in  the  forests,  are  more  or 
less  injurious.  The  families  which  contain  most  of  the  injur- 
ious species  are — 

Order  Coleoptera:  Families  Cerambycidce,  Bu- 
prestidce,  Elateridce,  Ptinidce,  Scarabaeidce,  Chryso- 
melidce,  Curculionidce,  Brenthidce,  Scolytidoe. 
Order  Lepidoptera:  Families  Arctiidce,  Bomby- 
cidce,  Cossida*.  Hesperidce,  Liparidce,  Noctuidce,  Pa- 
pilionidce,  Zygaenidce. 

Order   Hymenoptera:     Superfamilies    Tenthredi- 
noidea,  Cynipoidea. 

Order  Hemiptera:     Families  Coccidce,  Aphididce, 
Cicadidce. 

Order  Diptera:     Families  Cecidomyiidce,  Syrph- 
idce. 

Order  Orthoptera:     Families  Locustidce,  Phas- 
viidce. 

III.     Insects  are  divided  into  three  groups,  according  to  the  rela- 
tion that  exists  between  the  younger  stages  and  the  adults. 

a.  The  Ameiabola.  which  includes  a  single  order,  the 
Thysaneura,  in  which  the  young  and  adults  differ 
only  in  size. 

b.  The  Hemimetabola,  in  which  are  included  the  Orthop- 
tera, the  Hemiptera,  etc.,  etc.  In  this  group  the 
young  and  adults  differ  not  only  in  size,  but  in  several 
other  characters,  and  the  young  become  more  and 
more  like  the  adults  after  each  molt. 

c.  The  Metabola,  in  which  are  included  the  Coleoptera, 
Lepidoptera,  Hymenoptera,  Diptera,  etc.,  etc.  In 
this  group,  the  young  and  the  adults  are  totally  un- 
like, and  before  taking  the  mature  form,  the  larva?  go 
through  a  resting  stage. 

The  first  stage  of  the  insect  is  the  egg,  and  after  hatch- 
ing, it  arrives  at  maturity  through  a  series  of  molts. 
On  hatching,  the  young  of  the  Metabola  are  called 
larva?  (caterpillars,  maggots,  grubs);  and  in  the  Ameta- 
bola  and  Hemimetabola,  they  are  called  nymphs.  There 
are  several  molts  during  the  larval  or  nymphal  stage, 
and  the  period  between  any  two  of  them  is  called  an 
instar.  The  quiescent  stage  during  which  the  larva? 
of  the  Metabola  change  to  imagines,  is  called  the  pupa; 


22  FOREST  PROTECTION 

and  the  mature  or  reproductive  stage  of  all  insects 
is  called  the  adult,  or  imago.  The  pupa  of  a  butterfly 
is  very  often  called  a  chrysalis,  and  the  silken  sack 
spun  by  many  insects  in  which  to  pupate,  is  the  co- 
coon. Larvae  of  Diptera  and  of  some  other  insects, 
pupate  within  a  tough  outer  covering  commonly  sup- 
posed to  be  simply  a  pupal  skin.  The  true  pupa  is, 
however,  entirely  within  it,  and  the  tough  outer  cover- 
ing is  distinguished  by  the  name  puparium.  After 
reaching  the  adult  stage,  the  insect  does  not  become 
any  larger,  and  does  not  molt;  its  only  function  is  to 
mate,  and  lay  eggs.  Some  species  are  unable  even  to 
feed  after  becoming  adult,  and  in  almost  all  cases,  the 
larvae  or  nymphs  are  much  more  voracious  than  the 
mature  insects.  In  general,  then,  the  greater  part  of 
the  insect  damage  to  our  forests  is  done  before  the  in- 
sects responsible  become  mature.  The  Ambrosia 
beetles  form  a  notable  exception  to  this  rule. 

The  sum  total  of  the  stages  of  development  of  an 
insect  is  termed  a  generation,  and  a  given  species  may 
be  single-brooded,  double-brooded,  treble-brooded,  etc., 
according  to  the  number  of  generations  which  occur 
during  a  single  year.  Many  insects  require  more  than 
a  single  year  to  complete  a  generation,  and  are  then 
called  biennial,  triennial,  etc.  A  species  of  the  Cica- 
didse  is  known  to  have  a  life  round  of  seventeen  years. 

IV.  Climatic  and  Seasonal  Conditions  Affecting  Insect  Life. 
In  general,  the  number  of  species  of  insect  life  decreases  as 
altitude  or  latitude  increases,  while  at  the  same  time,  the  num- 
ber of  individuals  of  a  species  becomes  larger.  The  number 
of  generations  of  a  given  species  is  also  affected  by  the  climate; 
for  instance,  a  species  which  is  "double-brooded"  in  the  Mid- 
dle States,  may  become  "treble-brooded"  in  the  Southern 
States,  and  "single-brooded"  in  Canada. 

Insects  spend  the  winter  months  in  a  resting  or  hibernating 
stage  which  varies  for  the  different  species.  That  is,  a  given 
species  may  hibernate  either  in  the  egg,  larval,  pupal,  or  adult 
stage.  They  are  protected  against  the  cold  either  by  their 
own  coverings,  or  by  the  hiding  places  selected  by  them  in  the 
trees,  in  the  bark,  in  the  moss  and  leaves,  in  the  stumps,  or 
in  t lie  ground.  Extreme  cold  is  no  more  likely  to  injure  the 
insect  than  it  is  to  kill  the  tree  itself;  but  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  and  moisture,  especially  cold  wet  spells  in  late 
spring,  or  after  a  premature  thaw  has  drawn  the  hibernating 


FOREST  PROTECTION  23 

insects  from  their  winter  quarters,  may  be  disastrous  to  large 
numbers  of  certain  species,  particularly  during  the  molting 
periods  of  the  larva?. 

V.  Insect  Plagues.  A  succession  of  favorable  springs,  free  from 
late  frosts  and  wet  spells,  is  apt  to  result  in  an  anomalous  mul- 
tiplication of  a  species.  Hence,  according  to  European  re- 
cords, insect  plagues,  like  successions  of  favorable  climatic 
conditions,  occur  and  recur  after  periodic  intervals.  The  ef- 
fects of  parasitism  however,  are  very  likely  to  be  confused  with 
climatic  effects  in  these  records,  and  too  much  dependance 
should  not  be  placed  on  them.  These  periodic  plagues  of  in- 
sects are  very  likely  to  occur  in  spite  of  all  human  ingenuity. 
But  experience  teaches  us  that,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases, 
nature  may  be  trusted  to  restore  the  balance  that  has  been 
so  disturbed.  An  abnormal  increase  in  the  numbers  of  a  given 
species  not  only  is  likely  to  reduce  the  natural  food  supply  of 
such  a  species  so  that  many  individuals  will  die  of  starvation, 
but  the  parasitic  and  predaceous  enemies  of  the  species  also 
enormously  increase  in  numbers,  being  encouraged  to  do  so 
by  the  abundance  of  the  food  on  which  they  exist,  and  by  the 
ease  with  which  it  may  be  obtained.  For  the  same  reason, 
bacterial  and  fungous  diseases  have  a  better  opportunity  to 
spread  from  one  individual  to  another.  The  years  following 
an  insect  plague  are,  therefore,  very  likely  to  be  exceptionally 
free  from  the  particular  species  involved.  Consequently,  a 
plague  of  this  sort  usually  lasts  for  but  one  or  two  years,  al- 
though in  exceptional  cases  it  may  last  for  three  or  four  years. 
In  the  forest,  an  insect  plague,  in  which  several  species  are 
often  involved,  is  likely  to  follow  in  the  wake  of  a  destructive 
fire  or  storm,  or  of  an  attack  by  fungi.  In  any  case  where 
such  a  plague  has  swept  through  the  forest  the  dead  trees  should 
be  marketed  immediately  if  the  conditions  are  at  all  favorable. 
Otherwise  the  result ing  loss  will  be  much  more  serious. 

The  amount  of  damage  done  by  a  serious  outbreak  of  insects 
in  a  forest  will  depend  very  largely  on  the  nature  of  the  species 
involved.  If  the  species  is  "monophagous,"  that  is,  depen- 
dent for  its  food  supply  only  on  a  single  species  of  tree,  it  is 
likely  to  cause  serious  losses  only  in  localities  where  pure  stands 
of  the  particular  tree  occur,  or,  at  least,  where  the  trees  of 
that  species  are  not  so  scattered  through  the  forest  as  to  make 
it  difficult  for  the  adult  females  of  the  injurious  insect  to  find 
a  suitable  place  for  oviposition.  Polyphagous  insects,  on  the 
other  hand,  affect  many  host  trees;  and  while  they  are  likely 
to  distribute  their  injuries,  so  that  their  effect  on  the  forest 
is  less  noticeable,  still  the  ultimate  losses  extending  over  a 
period  of  years,  may  be  very  great.     A  species  imported  ac- 


24  FOREST  PROTECTION 

cidentally  from  one  country  to  another,  is  much  more  likely 
than  a  native  species  to  cause  serious  losses,  because  of  the 
absence  of  native  parasites  and  other  enemies  which  serve 
to  keep  it  in  check  in  its  original  habitat.  The  extensive 
ravages  of  the  Gipsy  Moth  in  Massachusetts,  which  have  lasted 
over  a  long  period  of  years,  is  without  precedent  in  European 
countries,  although  the  species  has  been  abundant  over  a 
large  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  probably  for  several 
centuries. 

It  may  be  that  insect  plagues  play  a  role  in  the  natural  change 
of  species  of  plants  coinciding  with  geological  periods,  but 
the  question  is  one  of  speculation,  not  demonstration. 

VI.  Species  of  Trees  Affected.  There  are  no  species  which 
are  not  liable  to  insect  attack,  but  some  are  much  less  sus- 
ceptible than  others.  Conifers  have,  on  the  whole,  less  re- 
cuperative powers  than  broad-leaved  species,  and  consequently 
succumb  much  more  readily  to  insect  attacks.  In  this  coun- 
try, the  spruces  and  pines,  wherever  occurring  in  pure  and 
even-aged  forests,  are  the  species  which  suffer  most. 

VII.  Condition  of  Trees  Affected.  We  may  divide  injurious 
insects  into  three  classes  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
trees  attacked. 

a.  Certain  species,  notable  those  that  feed  on  leaves 
and  pith,  usually  prefer  healthy  to  diseased  plants. 
They  may  either  kill  the  tree  outright  or  weaken  it 
to  such  an  extent  that  conditions  are  made  favor- 
able for  the  attacks  of — 

b.  species  which  generally  prefer  unhealthy  trees.  Or- 
dinarily  these  species  never  attack  healthy  plants, 
but  in  years  of  plagues  they  may  lie  forced  to  do  so. 
Thus  in  years  of  extreme  abundance,  millions  of 
bark-beetles  may  be  drowned  in  the  resin  of  healthy 
pines  before  the  weakened  to  an  extent 
sufficient  to  allow  subsequent  millions  to  propagate 
the  species. 

c.  Certain  other  species  only  attack  the  trees  after  they 
have  been  killed.  Dead  timber,  either  standing  or 
on  the  ground,  should  be  marketed  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible as  a  precaution  against  damage.     Decayu 

and  stumps  are  always  found  infested  with  numerous 
species  of  insects  which  cannot  be  classed  as  injur- 
ious since  they  merely  hasten  the  process  of  decay. 
Those  insects   of  this  class  which  are  injurious  are 


FOREST  PROTECTION  25 

of  less  importance  to  the  forester  than  to  the  pur- 
chaser of  his  product.  Some  of  them  cause  serious 
losses  in  lumber  yards,  ship  yards,  bark  sheds,  fac- 
tories, etc. 

Insects  of  classes  "a"  and  "b"  above  are  sometimes  called 
"parasitic"  because  they  attack  living  plants,  as  distinguished 
from  those  of  class  "c,"  which  feed  only  on  dead  timber,  and 
are  called  "saprophytic."  The  term  "parasite,"  however,  is 
commonly  used  in  Entomology  to  denote  a  species  of  insect 
which  has  another  species  for  its  host,  and  the  student  should 
be  careful  in  his  reading  to  distinguish  between  the  broader 
and  narrower  uses  of  the  term. 

VIII.  Part  of  Tree  Attacked.  No  part  of  the  tree  is  entirely 
free  from  insect  injury.  According  to  species,  insects  may 
feed  upon  the  buds  (caterpillar  causing  the  fork  in  the  ash), 
the  leaves  (elm  leaf-beetle),  the  fruit  (chestnut  and  acorn 
weevils),  the  pith  (locust  shoot -borer),  the  cambium  (larvae 
of  the  so-called  bark-beetles),  the  heart-wood  (chestnut  borers), 
the  sap-wood  (many  of  the  longicorn  borers),  the  roots  (larvae 
of  May-beetles),  and  the  bark  (notably  tan-bark). 

IX.  Degree  of  Damage.  According  to  the  amount  of  damage 
done,  insects  may  be  classed  as  a,  Damaging  insects;  b,  Des- 
tructive insects,  and  c,  Pernicious  insects.  Insects  are  called 
physiologically  obnoxious  if  they  check  the  growth  or  propa- 
gation of  plants,  and  technically  obnoxious  if  they  destroy  or 
reduce  the  technical  value  without  checking  the  growth.  The 
Hemlock  bark-maggot  furnishes  a  good  example  of  the  last 
named  class. 


B.      REMEDIES     AND     PREVENTIVES     IN     GENERAL     AGAINST 
INSECT    INJURY. 

I.  Select  the  proper  species  for  reproduction  on  a  given  soil. 

II.  Encourage  mixed  forests. 

III.  Avoid  large  continuous  clearings. 

IV.  Use  the  ranger  staff  in  controlling  the  insects. 

V.     Remove  the  weak  trees,  and  strengthen  the  remaining  indi- 
viduals by  means  of  thinnings. 

VI.     Protect  and  improve  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

VII.     Protect  the  forest  from  damage  by  storm,  sleet,  or  fire  in  the 
wake  of  which  insect  plagues  frequently  follow. 


26  FOREST  PROTECTION 

VIII.  Remove  or  poison  stumps  if  they  are  found  to  form  the  incu- 
bators or  food-objects  of  a  noxious  insect  during  one  of  its 
stages. 

IX.     Peel  off  the  bark  where  logs  are  left  on  the  ground  for  any 
considerable  length  of  time. 

X.  Encourage  hog  pastures  in  the  case  of  certain  species  of  in- 
sects. With  other  species,  steep  walled  ditches  may  prevent 
the  enemy  from  spreading  in  nurseries  and  plantations. 

XI.     Protect  the  insectivorous  animals,  notably: — 

a.  Bats,  moles,  weasels,  foxes,  etc. 

b.  Woodpeckers,  tits,  owls,  etc. 

c.  Amphibia. 

d.  Spiders. 

e.  Centipedes,  millipedes,  etc. 

XII.  Collect  and  destroy  the  insect  in  that  stage  which  best  allows 
remedial  measures  to  be  taken. 

a.  Egejs  may  be  tarred  or  covered  with  creosote  when 
they  are  placed  in  masses  in  conspicuous  positions. 

b.  Larvse  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  food  plant 
with  arsenicals  or  other  stomach  poisons,  or  the  in- 
sects themselves  with  kerosene  or  other  contact  poi- 
sons; by  trapping  them  en  or  below  bands  of  burlap 
or  tree  tanglefoot;  by  the  use  of  trap  trees;  or  by 
burning  their  winter  quarters  or  the  object  (bark) 
forming  their  abode. 

c.  Pupse  may  sometimes  be  collected  and  burned,  par- 
ticularly   when    the    insect    hibernates    in   this   stage. 

d.  Adults  may  be  beaten  off  the  bushes  during  the  early 
morning;  may  be  collected  during  the  hot  hours  of 
the  day  in  artificial  hiding  places;  or  may  be  caught 
by  means  of  pit-falls,  tanglefoot  or  burlap  rings,  trap 
trees,  or  electric  lights. 

The  selection  of  a  method  of  treatment  depends  not  only  upon 
the  species  of  insect  concerned,  but  upon  many  factors  enter- 
ing into  the  local  conditions.  In  general,  prevention  is  better 
than  the  application  of  a  remedy.  This  is  particularly  true 
in  the  present  stains  of  American  forest  conditions;  and  the 
use  of  insecticides  is  only  profitable  in  rare  instances.  Indeed 
in  America  the  forester  irill  frequently  be  -prevented  from  adopt- 
ing any  measures  whatever,  remedial  or  preventive,  because  the 
cost  will  exceed  the  value  of  the  benefit  to  be  derived.     But  in  no 


FOREST  PROTECTION  27 

case  should  a  remedy  be  attempted  by  one  who  is  not  fully 
informed  as  to  the  life  history  and  food-habits  of  the  insect 
enemy,  and  with  the  remedy  to  be  used.  In  either  event 
more  damage  than  benefit  may  result.  For  instance,  trap- 
trees  may  often  be  successfully  used  against  certain  insect 
pests;  but  unless  destroyed  at  the  proper  time,  just  before 
the  emergence  of  the  adults,  the  numbers  of  the  enemy  will 
be  increased  rather  than  diminished.  The  advice  of  a  com- 
petent Forest  Entomologist  should  be  obtained  wherever  pos- 
sible. 


C.     INSECT  ANATOMY. 


I.     The  body  of  an  adult  insect  is  divided  into  three  regions. 

a.  The  head  consists  of  a  single  segment,  and  bears 
exteriorly  a  pair  of  antennae,  a  pair  of  compound  eyes, 
the  ocelli,  which  vary  in  number  and  are  often  absent, 
and  the  mouth  parts,  consisting  of  the  labrum,  two 
mandibles,  two  maxilla,  and  the  labium.  Maxillary 
and  labial  palpi  are  also  present,  sometimes  so  modi- 
fied however  as  to  be  not  easily  recognizable.  The 
difference  between  "biting"  and  "sucking"  mouth 
parts  is  important  both  in  classification  and  as  re- 
gards methods  of  treatment. 

b.  The  thorax  consists  of  three  segments,  the  prothorax, 
the  mesothorax,  and  the  metathorax.  Each  segment 
bears  a  pair  of  legs,  and  the  mesothorax  and  meta- 
thorax normally  bear  the  fore  and  hind  wings.  The 
legs  are  also  segmented,  the  joints  bearing  the  fol- 
lowing names:  The  segment  attached  to  the  thorax 
is  called  the  coxa,  then  come  in  order  the  trochanter 
(sometimes  made  up  of  two  short  segments),  the  femur, 
the  tibia,  and  lastly  the  tarsus  made  up  of  several 
segments  on  the  last  of  which  are  borne  the  claws. 
The  wings  are  composed  of  two  membranes  held  to- 
gether by  supporting  rods  called  veins,  or  nerves,  and 
are  sometimes  covered  with  hairs  or  scales.  In  the 
case  of  the  Coleoptera,  the  fore  wings  (Elytra)  are 
hard  and  leathery,  and  the  veins  are  absent. 

c.  The  abdomen  consists  of  several  segments,  some  or 
all  with  stigmata  or  breathing  pores.  The  external 
reproductive  organs  are  usually  borne  on  the  last  or 
anal  segment  of  the  abdomen.  In  certain  species 
an  ovipositor  (laying-tube),  or  a  saw-like  instrument 
assists  the  female  in  oviposition. 


28  FOREST  PROTECTION 

II.  The  Larva.  In  the  larvae  of  the  Metabola,  as  in  the  adult 
insect,  the  first  segment  is  the  head,  the  next  three  make  up 
the  thorax,  and  the  remainder  of  the  body  is  called  the  abdo- 
men; but  the  three  regions  are  not  so  distinct  as  is  the  case 
with  the  imago.  The  mouth  parts  are  almost  always  for 
"biting,"  and  have  the  same  names  as  in  the  imago.  The 
spinnarets  of  certain  caterpillars,  situated  in  the  mouth,  are 
the  apertures  of  long  glands,  which  traverse  the  entire  body. 
If  present,  the  antennae  are  rudimentary.  If  legs  are  present, 
there  are  always  three  pairs,  situated  on  the  ventral  side  of 
the  thoracic  segments.  Sometimes  there  are  also  legs  on 
some  of  the  abdominal  segments,  but  these  are  more  prop- 
erly called  pro-legs,  and  are  not  segmented. 

III.  The  Nymph.  In  the  Ametabola  and  the  Hemimetabola,  the 
anatomy  of  the  younger  stages  is  similar  to  that  of  the  imago. 

IV.  The  Pupa.  The  pupa  is  called  carved  or  masked,  according 
to  the  ease  with  which  legs,  antenna?,  mouth  parts,  etc.,  can 
be  distinguished  through  the  pupa  case.  The  outer  web  of 
silk  spun  for  protection  by  many  Lepidoptera  and  Hymen- 
optera  is  called  the  cocoon. 

V.  The  Egg.  Insect  eggs  vary  greatly  in  form.  They  may  be 
cup-shaped  or  kidney-shaped,  crater-formed  or  mucronate, 
round,  oval,  or  canoe-shaped.     Very  rarely  they  are  stalked. 

VI.  Internal  Anatomy.  In  an  insect,  this  consists  of  a,  the 
Endoskeleton;  6,  Musculature;  c,  the  Digestive  System;  (oesopha- 
gus, crop,  proveatriculus,  stomach,  hind-gut,  salivary  and 
other  glands.  Malpighian  tubes,  etc.);  d,  the  Nervous  System, 
(brain,  subcesophageal  ganglion,  thoracic  and  abdominal  gang- 
lia, nerve  cord,  motor  and  sensory  nerves);  e,  the  Circulatory 
System,  (the  heart  and  blood);  /,  the  Respiratory  System, 
(stigmata  and  trachse  or  trachaeal-gills);  and  g,  the  Reproduc- 
tive Organs,  (ovaries,  ovarian  tubes,  and  oviduct  in  the  female; 
spermaries  and  vasa  deferentia  in  the  male). 


{FOREST  PROTECTION) 


29 


INSECT  FAMILIES   ARRANGED   ACCORDING   TO   FOOD   OBJECTS 
IN  THE  FOREST. 

Compare  Page  of 
Ent.  Bul.  No.  48 
I.  Infesting  the  Cambial  Bark. 

Bark  Beetles  Scolytidse  (excepting  Platypini,  larvae  and  adults) ...      9 

Flat  and  round          Buprestida?,  Cerambycidae  (mines  often  extending  into 
headed  borers:  wood  prior  to  pupation) 10 

Bark  weevils:  Curculionidae 10 

Powder  post  ^ 

beetles:  Ptinidae,  (in  peeled  tan  bark) 11 

II.  Infesting  the  Wood. 
Ambrosia  or 

timber  beetles:  Scolytidae  (larvae  and   adults) 10 

Wood-boring 

caterpillars:  Sesiidae  .  .  .^*~  .  .  .  ,->n^. \  .  .*. .  . -fVlO 

True  woodboring  jy^  ^^V 

beetle-grubs:  Lymexflonidae,  Brenthidae.r\ x 10 

Bark  and  wood 

boring  grubs:  Curculionidae,  Cerambycidae,  Buprestidae 10 

Carpenter  worms:  Cossidae    11 

Horn  tails:  Siricidae    11 

Powder  post 

beetles:  Lyctidae,  Ptinidae,  Bostrichidae    (dead  wood  only).  .  .    11 

III.  Injuring  Leaves  or  Needles. 
True  Caterpillars 
and  measuring 

worms:  Lepidoptera  (practically  all  families  of  the  order).  .  .  11 

False  caterpillars       Tenthredinidse    j ..  .  ■ -  ri)_ 12 

Leaf  beetles:               Chrysomelidse .   bstf.sj&LK.  -.  U^CA.  .  12 

Gall  insects:                Cynipidae.  Cecidomyiidae.  Aphididae 12 

Plant  lice:                  Aphididae,  PsyUidae . , yJr. 12 

Scale  insects:             Coccidae    .  dtJuGC^'.                       :\,\^.l 12 

IV.  Infesting  Twigs. 
Twig  mining 

beetles:  Scolytidae,  Buprestida?,  Cerambycidae 12 

Twig  weevils:  Curculionidae 13 

Twig  caterpillars:      Tineidse,  Tortricidae 13 

Scale  insects:  Coccida? 13 

Plant  lice:  Aphididae 13 

Gall  insects:  Cecidomyiidae  and  Cynipidae 13 

Cicadas:  Cicadidae    13 

V.  Infesting  Young  Seedlings  in  Nurseries. 

Cutworms:  Noctuidse 

Junebugs:  Scarabaeidae 


30 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


Click  beetle-larva; 
(Wire  worms) 
Weevils:. 
Crickets :- 
Cicadas:- 


G 


Weevils: 
Cone  and 
nut  worms: 
Gall  flies: 


% 


Elateridse 

Curculionidaj 

Cryllida? --- ?C 

Cicadidse   ././ ..-...." 

VI.  Infesting  Fruits  or  Seeds. 
Curculionidse 13 

Tortricida?,  Phycitidas 14 

Cynipidse  14 


\ 


FOREST  PROTECTION  31 

Means  of  Protection 


I.  PROTECTION    AGAINST    INSECTS    INFESTING    THE    CAMBIAL 
BARK  OF  THE  TRUNK 

A.  Against  Scolytid.e  (Bark  Beetles). 

(1)  Conduct  the  logging  operations  at  that  season  of  the  year  at  which 
the  logs  are  apt  to  become  infested;  and  after  infection,  remove  the  bark, 
entirely  or  partially;  or  move  the  logs  rapidly  to  water  or  mill.  In  other 
cases,  conduct  logging  at  that  season  at  which  the  debris  left  are  not  apt 
to  form  incubators  for  Scolytidee;  or  else  long  before  swarming  (e.  g.,  cut 
pine  at  Biltmore  in  early  winter,  to  avoid  Dendrodonus  frontalis).  Com- 
pare Agric.  Year  Book,  1902,  p.  275  for  D.  frontalis  and  p.  281  for  D.  pon- 


(2)  Girdle,  peel,  lodge,  fall  or  blaze  trap  trees  of  inviting  diameter, 
shape  and  position  prior  to  the  time  of  the  swarming  of  the  Scolytida?.  Com- 
pare Agric.  Year  Book,  1902,  p.  269.  Trap  trees  might  be  prepared  in  the 
district  to  be  logged  next.  Try  to  destroy  the  trapped  Scolytidae  without 
injury  to  the  Cleridse  and  their  allies. 

(3)  Remove  or  burn  logging  debris;  or  swamp  the  tree  tops  left,  thus 
creating  unfavorable  conditions  of  moisture.  Sometimes  it  is  possible  to 
use  the  debris  as  traps.  Compare,  however,  Entom.  Bui.  No.  21,  p.  23,  for 
advice  to  leave  the  debris,  so  as  to  divert  predatory  Scolytidee  from  sound 
trees  to  debris. 

(4)  Leave  all  trees  (also  trap  trees)  in  the  woods  which  prove  to  be 
incubators  for  Ichneumoiudse,  Braconidse,  Chalcididse.  Remove  the  outer 
bark  so  as  to  assist  ovipositing  Ichneumons  in  reaching  their  prey.  Intro- 
duce and  breed  parasites.     (Bui.  West  Va.  Agr.  Station,  p.  326.) 

(5)  Counteract  reckless  deadening  by  farmers  engaged  in  clearing  their    - 
fields. 

(6)  Adopt  proper  diameter  limit  in  logging  where  a  Scolytid  attacks 
only  trees  of  certain  diameter  classes.  Remember,  e.  g.,  that  the  spruce 
having  under  10"  d.b.h.  is  safe  from  D.  piccaperda. 

(7)  Begin  logging  in  districts  recently  damaged  by  fire,  storm,  sleet. 

(8)  Remove  even  worthless  trees,  if  they  are  apt  to  act  as  incubators. 
Keep  in  mind,  on  the  other  hand,  that  trees  with  a^\]  cambium  ?™  Tint 
attacked  by  fisynhinm  hnrinp;  Scolytidae. 

Have  at  hand,  ready  for  use,  permanent  means  of  transportation 
so  as  to  be  able  to  operate  when  and  where  you  ought  to  operate;  particu- 
larly, when  and  where  timber   begins  to  die. 

(10)  Conduct  thinnings  in  a  manner  and  at  a  time  counteracting  in- 
fection by  Scolytidae.  Remove  dying  and,  injured  (by  lightning)  trees, 
also  trees  weakened  in  vigor. 


\. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 

(11)  Watch  for  spider  webs  showing  saw  dust:  for  drops  of  rosin  (pitch 
tubes)  appearing  on  the  bark;  for  a  local  increase  of  woodpeckers  indicating 
an  increase  of  foot!  material;  for  a  slight  change  in  the  tint  of  the  pine-crowns. 

(12)  Apply  sprays  or  washes,  twice  or  thrice  per  season,  to  particu- 
larly valuable  trees  (Forest  Bui.  No.  22,  p.  56),  e.  g.,  lime  and  Paris  green, 
mixed  to  a  mass  of  light  green  color;  or  soft  soap,  adding  enough  washing 
soda  and  water  to  reduce  the  mixture  to  the  consistency  of  a  thick  paint; 
or  a  thick  wash  of  soap,  Paris  green  and  plaster  of  Paris;  or  a  mixture  of  one 
pint  of  carbolic  acid,  one  gallon  of  soft  soap  and  eight  gallons  of  soft  water. 
Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  used  instead  of  Paris  green,  and  has  a  greater  in- 
sect icidal  value. 


B.  Against  Buprestid.e  and  Cerambycid.e  (Flat-headed 
and  Round-headed  Borers). 

Prepare  trap  trees,  or  use  trees  accidentally  injured  or  weakened 

Remove,  peel,  burn  or  immerse  in  water,  trees  in  weakened  con- 
Begin  logging  in  districts  containing  such  trees  (e.  g.,  blowdowns, 

Prevent  ground  fires  which  weaken  the  trees,  burst  their  bark  and 
render  them  liable  to  successful  attacks  by  Buprestids  and  Cerambycids. 
Try  to  retain  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

(4)  Protect    insectivorous    animals    (compare   Bureau    of   Entomology 
Bulletin  No.  28.  p.  23.) 

(5)  Prevent   trees  left  in  the  course  of  logging  from  being  recklessly 
injured  by  axe,  by  felled  trees  striking  them,  etc. 

(6)  Where  you  remove  a  portion  only  of  the  trees  standing  in  the  woods, 
log  in  winter  (not  in  spring  and  summer). 


C.  Against  Curculionid.e  ("Bark  Weevils"). 

(1)  Remove  the  trees  which  appear  injured  by  axe,  lightning,  storm, 
sleet  or  the  fall  of  a  neighbor. 

(2)  Prepare  trap  trees,  and  destroy  the  brood  of  Curculionids  develop- 
ing therein  in  due  season. 


D.  Against  Ptinid.e. 

Mind  that  the  bark  is  safe  from  powderpost  beetles  for  two  years,  and 
do  not  store  any  tan  bark  for  more  than  two  years. 


FOREST  PRGTECTWN  33 

II.  PR0TECTI0N   AGAINST  INSECTS  BORING   IN   W©@© 
AND  TIMBER. 


* 


A.  Against  Scolytid^e  ("Ambrosia  Beetles"). 

(1)  Remove  infested  trees  or  logs  prior  to  swarming. 

(2)  Cut  low  stumps,  or  poison  or  char  the  stumps. 

(3)  Remove  bark  from  all  logs  liable  to  be  affected  or  throw  the  logs 
into  water.     Do  not  leave  in  the  woods  any  summer-felled  logs. 

(4)  Log  all  blow-downs  and  brules  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

(5)  Have  all  parts  of  the  woods  continuously  accessible  to  logging,  by 
establishing  permanent  means  of  transportation. 

(6)  Prevent  ruthless  deadening  by  farmers.  Girdle  cypress,  oak  and 
ash — preparatory  to  driving  or  rafting — after  the  swarming  season  of  the 
Scolytids. 

(7)  In  orchards  or  gardens,  coat  the  treetrunks  with  dendrolene;  spray 
them  with  kerosene;  plug  the  holes  bored,  leave  a  nail  therein,  or  use  a  de- 
terrent wash  (compare  Bureau  of  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  46,  p.  66). 

(8)  Do  not  leave  any  logs  in  the  woods  or  in  the  log  yard  for  any  length 
of  time.     In  case  of  logging  in  spring  and  summer,  peel  off  the  bark. 

B.  Against  Lymexylqnid.e  and  Brenthid^e. 

(1)  Reproduce  the   chestnut   from   seedlings,   not   from   sprouts.     Re-        / A^Xx^i 
move  dead  limbs  quickly,  and  cover  the  scar  with  tar. 

(2)  Prevent  the  bark  of  the  chestnut  from  being  injured  and  opened 
by  fires,  by  the  fall  of  neighboring  trees,  by  axe  wounds,  etc. 

On  the  other  hand,  scarify  a  number  of  trees  to  be  cut  and  removed  in 
the  course  of  your  operations  in  the.  near  future.  Strip  off  the  bark  in  nar- 
row bands,  or  blaze  and  hack  through-  it  as  high  as  the  axe  will  reach.  Do 
this  towards  the  time  when  the  chestnut  begins  to  bloom.  The  swarming 
insect  deposits  her  eggs  into  the  scars  made,  and  all  trees  thus  treated  act 
as  trap  trees. 

(3)  Do  not  leave  any  cord  wood'  or  any  logs  of  chestnut  in  the  forest 
after  June  15,  so  as  to  remove  insects  contained  therein  before  hatching. 

(4)  Keep  the  forest  dense,  dark,  moist,  cool. 

C.  Against  Cerambycid^e  (Round-headed  Borers). 

(1)  Cut  in  summer  and  peel  the  bark  of  the  logs  cut;  or  remove  a  hor- 
izontal strip  of  bark  along  and  on  top  of  the  log.  The  moisture  gathering 
in  the  gutter  thus  made  prevents  the  grubs  from  developing. 

(2)  Log  rapidly  after  heavy  conflagrations,  blowdowns  or  plagues  of 
bark  beetles.  Readiness  to  remove  dead  timber  minimizes  the  damage  by 
Cerambycids.  If  removal  is  impossible,  throw  the  logs  into  water,  char  or 
peel  them. 

(3)  For  shade  trees,  prevent  oviposition  by  a  wash  consisting  of  soap 
and  carbolic  acid  (compare  Report  N.  Y.  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commis- 
sion, Vol.  IV,  p.  21).  The  borer-holes  might  be  stopped  with  putty  after 
inserting  a  little  carbon  bisulphide  (explosive). 

B 


34 


/ 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


D.  Against  Lyctid^e,  Ptinid.e,  Bostrichid.e  (Powderpost  Beetles). 

Use  heartwood  sticks  for  sticking  in  lumber  piles. 

Do  not  dead  pile. 

Spray  piles  with  naphtaline  or  creoline-Pearson  three  times,  per 


Impregnate  all  sapwood  before  using  it. 

Keep  an  eye  on  all  parts  of  the  yard  continuously. 

Infested  pieces  of  timber  should  be  thoroughly  steamed,  or  im- 
pregnated, or  liberally  treated  with  gasoline,  kerosene,  creoline,  or  kept 
submerged  for  a  number  of  weeks  (compare  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Circu- 
lar No.  55). 


III.  PROTECTION  AGAINST  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  LEAVES, 
NEEDLES  AND  BUDS. 

A.  Against  Lepidopterous  Caterpillars. 

(1)  Remove — possibly  by  fire — leaf  mould,  mosses,  brush  found  at 
bases  of  trees  where  such  material  forms  the  winter  quarters  for  the  insect. 

(2)  Apply  to  the  trees  bands  of  burlap,  10"  wide  (compare  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  99,  p.  20),  or  bands  of  "Tree  Tanglefoot";  in  the  latter  case 
either  after  the  removal  of  the  ross  on  the  tree,  or  on  a  sheet  of  oiled  paper 
fastened  round  the  tree.     Usually,  heavy  thinnings  precede  the  application. 

(3)  Burn  the  webs  of  web  worms. 

(4)  Moisten  egg  heaps  with  creosote  oil  (e.  g.,  for  tussock  moth).  Use 
a  6teel  brush  to  destroy  the  eggs  by  rubbing. 

(5)  Spray  with  washes,  remembering,  that  the  underside  of  the  leaves 
must  be  sprayed  and  that  the  job  is  well  done  only  when  the  tree  drips.  A 
common  wash  consists  of  one  pound  of  Paris  green  and  one  pound  of  quick 
lime  dissolved  in  150  gallons  of  water.  An  excellent  wash  is  made  from 
arsenate  of  lime  which  adheres  long,  shows  its  presence  by  its  white  color 
and  is  harmless  to  the  leaves.  See  for  recipe,  also  for  description  of  power- 
Bpray,  New  York  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  IV.   report,  p.   10. 

(6)  Protect  insectivorous  birds,  snakes,  lizards,  toads. 

(7)  Confine  collected  caterpillars  as  closely  together  as  possible,  so  as 
to  breed  deadly  diseases  amongst  them  (e.  g.,  Empusa),  or  so  as  to  invite 
counter-plagues  (Microgaster ,  Pimpla,  etc.) 

(8)  Catch  the  swarming  moths  by  exhaust  fans  placed  near  strong 
electric  lights. 

(9)  Allow  of  hog  pasture. 

B.  Against  Tenthredinid.e  (Nematus),  Aphidid^e,  Coccidje, 
Psyllid^e. 

(1)  Use  of  soap  wash,  prepared  by  dissolving  soap  in  boiling  water, 
adding  kerosene  (New  York  Forest,  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  IV.  re- 
port, p.  31);  or  arsenical  insecticides,  caustic  washes,  etc.,  (for  which  com- 
pare Bureau  of  Entomology,  Bui.  No.  7,  pp.  33,  37,  45,  51). 


FOREST  PROTECTION  36 

(2)  Protect  insectivorous  animals. 

(3)  Destroy  infested  plants  or,  in  the  case  of  Nematua   erichsonii,  in- 
fested woodlands. 


IV.  PROTECTION  AGAINST  INSECTS  INFESTING  BRANCHES, 
TWIGS,  SHOOTS. 

A.  Against  Scolytid.e. 

(1)  Collect  and  burn  affected  shoots  before  the  larvae  begin  to  pupate 
therein. 

(2)  Use  logging  debris  as  traps. 

(3)  Burn  logging  debris,  or  swamp  the  crowns  of  felled  trees. 


B.  Against  Curculionid.e  (Twig  Weevils). 

(1)  Avoid  logging  and  thinning  of  pinewoods  near  young  pines  in  the 
seedling  or  in  the  sapling  stage. 

(2)  Remove  the  top  shoots  of  white  pine  attacked  by  Pis.sodes  strqbi, 
and  keep  them  in  a  barrel  covered  with  netting,  in  the  nursery,  so  as  to  kill 
the  weevil  without  destroying  its  parasites. 

(3)  Remove,  char,  peel  or  poison  fresh  pine  stumps. 

(4)  Apply  to  the  terminal  shoots  of  white  pine,  during  April  or  May, 
a  spray  consisting  of  fish  oil  soap,  Paris  green  and  carbolic  acid  diluted  in 
water  (Bureau  of  Forestry,  Bui.  No.  22,  p.  59). 

(5)  Use  trap  trees  for  oviposition,  consisting  of  fresh-cut  pine  billetB 
buried  obliquely  with  one  end  protruding  above  ground.  Burn  these  traps 
after  the  eggs  have  hatched.' 

(6)  Collect  the  adults  underneath  large  pieces  of  fresh  pine  bark  placed 
on  the  ground.  The  adults  spend  the  hot  hours  of  the  day  underneath  the 
bark  attracted  by  the  smell  of  rosin. 


C.  Against  CerambyctD;9e. 

(1)  Collect  limbs  broken  off  by  wind  and  infested  by  Elaphidion  (Oak 
pruner). 

(2)  Cut  off  shoots  or  saplings  affected  by  larvae. 


D.  Against  Tineid.e  and  Tortricidje. 


(1)  Remove  infested  shoots. 

(2)  Apply  insecticides. 


E.  Against  Cicadid^. 
(1)-    Collect  larva?. 
(2)     Protect  crows  and  owls. 


36  FOREST  PROTECTION 

V.  PROTECTION  AGAINST  INSECTS  AFFECTING  SEEDLINGS 
IN  NURSERIES. 

A.  Against  Curculionid^e. 

(1)  Do  not  leave  any  pine  stumps  in  or  near  nurseries. 

(2)  Raise  healthy  transplants,  on  well-manured  soil. 

(3)  Collect  adults  under  bark  traps,  and  collect  larvae  on  billets  buried 
obliquely. 

B.  Against  Scarab^eidvE  (  June  Bugs). 

(1)  Collect  adults  in  early  morning  from  bushes. 

(2)  Cultivate  four  or  five  times  that  section  of  the  nursery  which  is 
lying  fallow. 

(3)  Protect  insectivorous  birds. 

(4)  Trap  the  larvae  beneath  reversed  sods  of  grass. 

(5)  Separate  the  beds  by  deep  trenches. 

(6)  Irrigate  freely — if  possible,  raising  the  water  in  the  trenches  from 
time  to  time  to  the  level  of  the  beds. 

(7)  Cultivate   the   beds   heavily    and   frequently,   particularly   during 
the  winter  months. 


C.  Against  Noctuid.e  (Cut  Worms). 

(1)  Catch  adu.ts  at  night  with  sugared  apples. 

(2)  Poison  caterpillars  with  cabbage  sprinkled  with  arsenic  and  laid 
along  the  nursery  beds. 

(3)  Irritate  caterpillars  by  continuous  cultivation  of  6oil. 


D.  Against  Cicadid.e. 

Do  not  keep  any  broad-leaved  trees  or  bushes  in  or  near  the  nursery 
on  which  the  eggs  might  be  deposited.  Injection  of  bisulphide  of  carbon 
into  soil  is  recommended  by  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Bui.  No.  14,  p.  111. 


E.  Against  Gryllidje  (Crickets). 

(1)  Protect  moles,  crows,  etc. 

(2)  Keep  deep  trenches  between  the  beds,  and  use  short  beds. 

(3)  Insert  earthenware  pots  at  the  intersection  of  trenches. 

(4)  Propagate  a  fungus  disease  (Empusa  Grylli)  for  which  see  Bureau 
of  Entomology,  Bull.  No.  38,  p.  53. 

(5)  Plow  the  beds  deeply  before  using  them. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  37 

VI.  PROTECTION  AGAINST  INSECTS  INFESTING  FRUITS  OR  SEEDS, 

i.  e.,  AGAINST  CURCULIONID.E,  TORTRI- 

CJDM,  PHYCITID.E. 

(1)  When  wintering  chestnuts  or  acorns,  store  them  in  the  natural 
way,  not  allowing  the  seeds  to  become  dry.     See  lectures  on  Sylviculture. 

(2)  Plant  seeds  as  soon  as  possible  after  collecting. 


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FOREST  PROTECTION  39 

REFERENCE  LIST 

Compiled  by  F.  D.  Couden  and  C.  A.  Schenck 
The  following  pages  will  refer  the  student  to  publications,  most  of  which 
should  be  in  the  library  of  the  up-to-date  forester,  where  accounts,  more 
or  less  complete,  of  certain  species  of  insects  injurious  to  forest  and  shade 
trees  may  be  found.  The  list  is  by  no  means  complete,  and  it  is  very  likely 
that  a  few  even  of  the  important  species  have  been  omitted.  The  study 
of  Forest  Entomology  is  still  in  its  infancy;  but  the  literature,  while  not 
yet  voluminous,  is  so  scattered  that  it  would  not  be  profitable  for  the  pre- 
sent purpose  to  go  through  it  with  a  fine-toothed  comb.  A  great  many 
errors  will  undoubtedly  be  noticed  by  Entomologists,  particularly  as  to 
synonymy;  but  it  is  hoped,  nevertheless,  that  the  list  will  be  of  some  value 
to  the  students  of  Forest ry  for  whom  it  is  designed. 

The  arrangement  is  faulty  in  that  many  polyphagous  species  of  insects 
are  not  listed  under  all  of  their  host  trees.  Porthetria  dispar,  for  instance, 
is  listed  only  under  Quercus,  whereas  the  caterpillars  of  the  Gipsy  Moth 
feed  indiscriminately  on  the  foilage  of  almost  any  tree  within  their  range. 
The  use  of  the  "index,"  however,  will  enable  the  student  to  find  the  refer- 
ences to  any  insect  listed,  without  regard  to  the  host  under  which  the  re- 
ference is  given. 

Here  follow  the  complete  titles  of  all  the  publications  used  in  the  pre- 
paration of  the  list.  The  abbreviations  used  in  the  list  proper  are  printed 
here  in  Black-Faced  Type,  and  are  followed  by  the  titles,  names  of  authors' 
and  years  of  publication. 

UNITED  STATES  PUBLICATIONS 

5th  Rept.  Ent.  Com.  U.  S.  Fifth  Report  of  the  United  States  Entomolog- 
ical Commission.  Insects  injurious  to  forest  and  shade  trees.  By 
A.  S.  Packard.     1890. 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1895  U.  S—  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1895.  The  Shade  Tree  insect  problem  in  the  eastern 
United  States.     By  L.  O.  Howard,     pp.  361-384.     1896. 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1902  U.  S.— Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1902.  Some  of  the  principal  insect  enemies  of  coni- 
ferous forests  in  the  United  States.  By  A.  D.  Hopkins,  pp.  265-282. 
1903. 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1903  U.  S— Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1903.  Insects  injurious  to  hardwood  forest  trees. 
By  A.  D.  Hopkins,     pp.  313-328.     1904. 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1904  U.  S.— Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1904.  Insect  injuries  to  forest  products.  By  A.  D. 
Hopkins,  pp.  381-398.  The  nut  weevils.  By  F.  H.  Chittenden, 
pp.  299-310.     1905. 


40  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1905  U.  S.— Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture  for   1905.     Insect  enemies  of  forest   reproduction.     By 

A.  D.  Hopkins,     pp.  i-iii  and  249-256.     1906. 
Ag.  Yr.  Bk.  for  1907  U.  S.— Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture  for  1907.     Notable  depredations  by  forest  insects.     By 

A.  D.  Hopkins,     pp.  i-iii  and  149-164.     1908. 

Bulletins  of  the  Bureau   (Formerly  Division)   of  Entomology, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  7  U.  S. — Some  miscellaneous  results  of  the  work  of  the  Di- 
vision of  Entomology.  The  ambrosia  beetles  of  the  United  States. 
By  H.  G.  Hubbard,  pp.  9-30.  Insect  injuries  to  chestnut  and  pine 
trees  in  Virginia  and  neighboring  states.  By  F.  H.  Chittenden,  pp. 
67-75.     1897. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  14  U.  S.— The  Periodical  Cicada.     By  C.  L.  Marlatt.     1898. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  21  U.  S. — Preliminary  report  on  the  insect  enemies  of  forests 
in  the  Northwest.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1899. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  28  U.  S. — Insect  enemies  of  the  spruce  in  the  Northwest.  By 
A.  D.  Hopkins.     1901. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  32  U.  S.— Insect  enemies  of  pine  in  the  Black  Hills.  By  A.  D. 
Hopkins.     1902. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  37  U.  S. — Proceedings  of  the  fourteenth  annual  meeting  of 
the  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists.  On  the  study  of  forest 
entomology  in  America.     By  A.   D.   Hopkins,     pp.   5-32.     1902. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  38  U.  S. — Some  miscellaneous  results  of  the  work  of  the  Di- 
vision of  Entomology.  Notes  on  the  Rhinocerus  Beetle.  By  F.  H. 
Chittenden,     pp.  28-32.     1902. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  48  U.  S. — Catalogue  of  exhibits  of  insect  enemies  of  forest 
products  at  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1904. 
By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1904. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  53  U.  S. — Catalogue  of  the  exhibit  of  Economic  Entomology 
at  the  Lewis  and  Clrak  Centennial  Exposition,  Portland,  Oregon,  1905. 
By  Rolla  P.  Currie.     1904. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  56  U.  S.— The  Black  Hills  Beetle.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1905. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  58  U.  S. — Some  insects  injurious  to  forests.  Parts  I,  II,  and 
III.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins  and  J.  L.  Webb.     1906-07. 

Ent.  Bui.  No.  71  U.  S.— The  Periodical  Cicada.     By  C.  L.  Martlatt.     1907. 

Circulars  of  the  Bureau  (Formerly  Division)  of  Entomology  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  24  U.  S.— The  Two-lined  Chestnut  Borer.  By  F.  H.  Chitten- 
den.    1897. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  29  U.  S.— The  Fruit-tree  Bark-beetle.  By  F.  H.  Chittenden- 
1898. 


F9RESTJPR9TECTI9N  41 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  55  U.  S. — Powder-post  injury  to  seasoned  wood  products.  By 
F.  H.  Chittenden.     1903. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  82  U.  S. — Pinhole  injury  to  girdled  cypress  in  the  South  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  States.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1907. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  83  U.  S  — The  Locust  Borer,  and  methods  for  its  control.  By 
A.  D.  Hopkins.     1907. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  90  U.  S—  The  White-pine  Weevil.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1907. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  96  U.  S.— The  Catalpa  Sphinx.  By  L.  O.  Howard  and  F.  H. 
Chittenden.     1907. 

Ent.  Cir.  No.  97  U.  S.— The  Bagworm.  By  L.  O.  Howard  and  F.  H.  Chit- 
tenden.    1908. 

Bulletins   of  the   Forest   Service    (Formerly   Bureau   of   Forestry) 

of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
For.  Bui.  No.  22  U.  S.— The  White  Pine.     Insect  enemies  of .     By 

F.  H.  Chittenden,     pp.  55-61.     1899. 
For.  Bui.  No.  31  U.  S.— The  Western  Hemlock.     Insects  of  the .     By 

A.  D.  Hopkins,     pp.   16-21.     1902. 
For.  Bui.  No.  38  U.  S.— The  Redwood.     Insects  of  the .     By  A.  D. 

Hopkins,     pp.  32-40.     1903. 
For.  Bui.  No.  46  U.  S. — The  Basket  Willow.     Insects  injurious  to . 

By  F.  H.  Chittenden,     pp.  63-80.     1904. 

Other  Publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Far.  Bui.  No.  99  U.  S. — Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  99.     Three  insect  enemies 

of  shade  trees.     By  L.  O.  Howard.     1899. 
Far.  Bui.  No.  264  U.  S.— Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  264.     The  Brown-tail  Moth, 

and  how  to  control  it.     By  L.  O.  Howard.     1906. 
Far.  Bui.  No.  265  U.  S.— Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  265.     The  Gipsy  Moth,  and 

how  to  control  it.     By  L.   O.   Howard.     1907. 
F'ld.  Pr'g'm.  F'st.  S'ce.-April,  1907,  U.  S.— Field  Programme  of  the  Forest 

Service  for  April,  1907. 

STATE  PUBLICATIONS. 
New  Jersey. 
Geol.  Rept.  for  1899.  N.  J.— Annual  Report  of  the  State  Geologist  of  New 
Jersey  for   the   year   1899.     Part   III.     Report   on   Forests.     The  role 
of  insects  in  the  forest.     By  J.  B.  Smith,     pp.  205-232.     1899. 
New  York. 
G'de.  L'fl't.  No.  16  A.  M.  N.  H.— Guide  Leaflet  No.  16,  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History.     The  insect  galls  of  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City. 
By  William  Beutenmuller.     1904. 
Ex.   Sta.  Bui.   No.   233   Cornell.— Cornell  University.     Agricultural  Experi- 
ment  Station  of  the  College  of  Agriculture.     Bulletin  No.   233.     De- 
partment of  Entomology.     Saw-fly  leaf-miners  on  European  elms  and 
alders.     By  M.  V.  Slingerland.     1905. 


42  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Ex.   Sta.   Bui.   No.   234    Cornell. — Cornell  University.     Agricultural   Experi- 
ment Station  of  the  College   of  Agriculture.     Bulletin   No.   234.     De- 
partment of  Entomology.     The  Bronze  Birch-borer.     By  M.  V.  Slinger- 
land.     1906. 
For.  Rept.  No.  4  N.  Y. — Fourth  annual  report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Fish- 
eries, Game,  and  Forests  of  the  State  of  New  York.     Report  for  1898. 
Insects  injurious  to  maple  trees.     By  E.  P.  Felt.     pp.  367-395.     1899. 
For.  Rept.  No.  7  N.  Y. — Seventh  annual  report  of  the  Forest,  Fish,  and  Game 
Commission    of   the   State   of   New   York.     Report   for    1901.     Insects 
affecting  forest  trees.     By  E.   P.  Felt.     pp.  479-534.     1902. 
St.  Mus.  Bui.  No.  53  N.  Y.— New  York  State  Museum  Bulletin  No.  53.     (En- 
tomology   14).     17th   Report   of   the   State   Entomologist   on   injurious 
and  other  insects  of  the  State  of  New  York.     By  E.  P.  Felt.     1901. 
St.  Mus.  Bui.  No.  103  N.  Y.— New  York  State  Museum  Bulletin  No.   103. 
(Entomology  25).     The  Gipsy  and  Brown-tail  Moths.     By  E.  P.  Felt. 
1906. 
St.  Mus.  Bui.  No.  109  N.  Y—  New  York  State  Museum  Bulletin  No.   109. 
(Entomology  27).     White-marked  Tussock-moth  and  Elm  Leaf-beetle. 
By  E.  P.  Felt.     1907. 
St.  Mus.  Bui.  No.  110  N.  Y.— New  York  State  Museum  Bulletin  No.   110. 
(Entomology  28).     22nd  Report  of  the  State  Entomologist  on  injur- 
ious and  other  insects  of  the  state  of  New  York.     By  E.  P.  Felt.     1907 
St.  Mus.  Mern.  No.  8  N.  Y. — New  York  State  Museum  Memoir  8.     2  vol- 
umes.    Insects   affecting   park  and   woodland   trees.     By   E.    P.    Felt. 
1905-06. 

Ohio. 
Ins.  Bui.  No.  7  Ohio. — Ohio  Department  of  Agriculture.     Division  of  Nur- 
sery and  Orchard  Inspection.     Bulletin  No.  7.     The  insects  affecting 
the  black  locust  and  hardy  catalpa.     By  E.  C.  Cotton.     1905. 
Pennsylvania. 
For.  Rept.  1901-02  Penn. — Statement  of  work  done  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Department  of  Forestry  during  1901  and  1902.     1902. 
West  Virginia. 
Ex.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  35  W.  Va.— Bulletin  of  the  West  Virginia  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  No.  35.     Defects  in  wood  caused  by  insects.     By 
A.  D.  Hopkins.     1894. 
Ex.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  66  W.  Va. — Bulletin  of  the  West  Virginia  Agricultural 
Experiment   Station   No.   56.     Report   on   investigations  to  determine 
the  cause  of  unhealthy  conditions  of  the  spruce  and  pine  from   1880 
to  1893.     By  A.  D.  Hopkins.     1899. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PUBLICATIONS. 
Comstock's   Manual. — Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects.     By  J.    H.   Com- 

stock.     1895. 
Ratzeburg  Vol.  III. — Die  Forst-Insecten,  volume  III.     By  J.  C.  Ratzeburg. 

Berlin,  1844. 
The  Forester  for  1901. — The  Forester.     A  periodical  published  by  the  Amer- 
ican Forestry  Association  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


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Damage  to  Hicoria  spp.,  by  Diptera 


Genus 

Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

G'de.   L'flet. 

No.  16 
A.  M.  N.  H. 

Cecidomyiidae 

Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 

caryacola  O.  S 

hfjldnrha  O.  S 

tubicola  0.  S 

Leaves 

Leaves 

Leaves 

27 
26 

27 

Damage  to  Quercus  spp.,  by  Diptera 


Cecidomyiidae  Cecidomyia 

I  Cecidomyia 

I  Cecidomyia 


niveipila  O.  S Leaves. 

■piluloz  Walsh Leaves. 

pocidum  O.  S Leaves. 


Parts 
Suffering 


Literary  References 


5th    Rept.  G'de.    L'flet. 
Ent.  Com.        No.  16 
U.  S.       A.  M.    N.  H. 


Damage  to  Liriodendron  spp.  by  Diptera 

Genus 

Species 

Parts 

Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

G'de.    L'flet. 

No.  16 
A.  M.  N.  H. 

Cecidomyiidae 

Cecidomyia 

Cecidomyia 

liriodendri  O.  S 

tulipifera  0.  S 

Leaves 

Leaves 

25 

25 

Damage  to  Cornus  florida 

by  Diptera 

Genus 

Species 

Parts 

Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

G'de.   L'flet. 

No.  16 
A.  M.  N.  H. 

Cecidomyiidae 

Cecidomyia 

clavula  Beuten  — 

Twigs 

29 

Damage  to  Acer  spp.  by  Diptera 


Genus 

Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

5th   Rept. 

Ent.  Com. 

U.  S. 

G'de.    L'flet. 

No.  16 
A.  M.   X.  H. 

Mycetophilidae 

ocellata  O.  S 

Leaves 

411 

33 

FOREST  PROTECTION 


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FOREST  PROTECTION 


103 


Damage  to  Juglans  spp.  by  Hemipt 

era 

Genus 

Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

Geol.  Rept. 

for  1S99 

N.J. 

? 

Twigs 

210 

Damage  to  Hicoria  spp.  by  Hemiptera 


Genus 

Species 

Parts 

Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

Geol.  Rept. 

for  1899 

N.  J. 

Guide  Leaflet 

No.  16 
A.  M.  N.  H. 

St.  Mus.  Mem' 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

Aphididae 

Phylloxera. 
Lecanium.. 

carycecaulis  Fitch. 

Lvs.  &  Twigs 
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209 
210 

38 

331 

Damage  to  Alnus  spp.  by  Hemiptera 


Genus 

Species 

Parts 

Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

5th   Rept. 

Ent.  Com. 

U.  S. 

Com- 
stock's 
Manual 

St.  Mus.  Mem. 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

Aphididae 

Pemphigus 

tessellatus  Fitch..  _ 

Lvs.  &  Twigs 

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U61 

195 

'As  Schizoneura  tessellata. 

Damage  to  Fagus  spp.  by  Hemiptera 


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Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

Com- 
stock's 
Manual 

Aphididae 

Schizoneura 

imbricator  Fitch. ._ 

Lvs.  &  Twigs 

161 

104 


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FOREST  PROTECTION 


105 


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Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

St.  Mus.  Mem. 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

Aphididae 

Coccidae 

Callipterus 

Schizoneura 

Colopha 

Chionaspis 

Gossyparia 

ulmifolii  Monell.. 
americana  Riley.  _ 
ulmicola  Fitch 

americana  Johns.. 
spuria  Mod 

Leaves 

Leaves 

Leaves 

Bole  &  Twigs 
Bole  &  Twigs 

176 

177 
186 

207 
203 

Damage  to  Liriodendron  spp.  by  Hemiptera 


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Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

Geol.   Rept. 

for  1899 

N.  J. 

St.  Mus.  Mem. 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

Coccidae 

Eulecanium 

tulipifera  Cook 

Twigs 

•210 

208 

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Damage  to  Various  Woods  by  Isoptera 


Genus 

Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

Ag.Yr.Bk. 

for  1904 

U.  S. 

St.  Mus.  Mem. 
No.  8 
N.  Y. 

Termitidae 

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Species 

Parts 
Suffering 

Literary  References 

Family 

For.  Rept. 

No.  7 
N.  Y. 

Com- 
stock's 
Manual 

Giyllidae 

Gryllotalpa 

Gryllus 

Oecanthus 

borealis  Burm. 

Rts.  nurse'ies 
Rts.  nurse'ies 
Leaves 

"512" 

117 

117 
118 

pirti  Beut 

108 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


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FOREST  PROTECTION  109 


CHAPTER  III:    PROTECTION  AGAINST  PLANTS. 


Par.  6.    Protection  Against  Weeds. 

Weeds    are    plants,  herbaceous    or    lignaceous    in    character,  the  pre- 
sence of  which  in  the  woods  is  financially  undesirable. 

A.  Influencing  Factors. 

I.  A  plant  may  appear  as  a  weed  in  one  locality  whilst 
it  is  useful  in  another.  Kalmia,  e.  g.,  is  useful 
on  steep  slopes  by  holding  the  soil;  whilst  it  is 
harmful  on  areas  in  regeneration.  Grasses  and 
herbaceous  weeds  are  valuable  on  forest  pas- 
tures; they  may  interfere,  however,  with  natural 
regeneration  from  seeds. 

II.  A  plant  may  be  considered  as  a  weed  at  a  certain 
stage  of  certain  sylvicultural  operations.  This 
is  the  case  with  black  gum,  witch  hazel,  box 
elder,  halesia  which  forms  a  superstructure  in- 
terfering with  the  regeneration  of  yellow  poplar, 
chestnut,  and  yellow  pine.  On  the  other  hand, 
these  same  species  may  be  valuable  as  an  un- 
dergrowth or  as  a  companion  growth  with  yel- 
low poplar,  chestnut,  pine  and  oak  after  the 
thicket  stage. 

III.  A  plant  of  a  usually  valuable  kind  may  be  classed 
as  a  weed  when  it  is  hopelessly  deformed;  e.  g., 
decrepit,  hollow,  burned  chestnuts;  fire  shoots 
of  hickory  and  oak. 

Thus  the  forester  might  distinguish  between  "ab- 
solute weeds,"  which  are  always  damaging,  and 
"relative  weeds,"  which  are  damaging  only 
under  a  given  set  of  conditions. 

B.  Most  weeds  injure  the  forest   only  indirectly.     Direct  damage  is 

done  by  parasitic  weeds,  in  rare  cases.    The  most  note-worthy 
cases  of  indirect  injury  are  the  following: 

I.  Smilax,  grapevine,  blackberry  interfere  with  the 
transportation  of  wood  goods  and  with  the  ease 
of  access  to  the  woods. 

II.  Sedge  grass,  heather,  blueberry  form  a  matting  through 
which  water  or  air  cannot  pass. 


110  FOREST  PROTECTION 

III.  The  mineral  fertility  of  the  soil  is  absorbed  by  the 

weeds  (especially  the  fruiting  weeds)  competing 
with  the  trees  for  a  food  supply. 

IV.  The  weeds,  notably  those  produced  after  fires,  inter- 

fere with  the  natural  regeneration  of  the  best 
species  of  the  forest;  they  prevent,  through  dense 
shade,  the  lignification  of  the  valuable  seed- 
lings during  summer.  Instances  are:  Chinqua- 
pin and  gum  in  the  case  of  yellow  pine  regener- 
ation at  Biltinore;  witch  hazel,  dogwood  in  yel- 
low poplar  regeneration  in  Pisgah  forest;  black 
jack  oak  in  long  leaf  pine  forests. 
V.  Some  weeds  distort  and  oppress  the  seedlings  and 
saplings  after  climbing  to  their  tops.  Grape- 
vine on  yellow  poplar;  Convolvulus  on  many 
tree  seedlings.  In  tropical  countries,  the  tree 
climbers  (sometimes  parasitic)  are  particularly 
troublesome,  notably  in  felling  trees. 
VI.  Certain  weed  species  (notably  Ericacce)  produce, 
through  their  leaf  fall,  an  unfavorable,  dusty 
humus. 
VII.     Weeds  harbor  and  hide  mice  and  damaging  insects. 

VIII.     Dead   weeds  increase  the  danger  of  fires,   especially 
in  the  spring. 

IX.  The  dead  mould  spread  on  the  ground  by  many  weeds 
prevents  the  germinating  seed  of  valuable  species 
from  sending  its  rootlets  into  the  mineral  soil. 
X.  Certain  weeds  play  an  important  part  in  the  path- 
ology of  the  trees,  the  weeds  acting  as  hosts 
for  the  second  generation  of  certain  fungi. 
C.     Means  of  Protection. 

I.     Preventive  measures. 

a.  Maintain  a  complete  cover  overhead — 

a  pious  wish  in  the  primeval  forests. 

b.  Underplant  light  demanding  species  with 

shade  bearers  at  a  time  at  which 
the  leaf  canopy  overhead,  through 
friction  of  crown  against  crown,  be- 
comes excessively  open — another 
pious  wish  under  the  present  con- 
ditions confronting  American  silvi- 
culture. 

c.  Work   towards   immediate   reforestation 

after  making  a  clean  sweep  of  the 
old  crop. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  111 

d.  Insist  on  thorough  protection  against 
ground  fires  which,  above  all,  foster 
the  growth  of  weeds  and  are  in- 
jurious to  the  nobility  amongst  the 
forest  species.  Kalmia,  chinquapin, 
alder,  soft  maple,  gum,  halesia  ob- 
tain the  upper  hand  in  the  forest 
through  fires.  On  fertile  soil  the 
growth  of  annual  and  biennial  weeds 
after  fires  is  especially  luxuriant.  In 
the  Adirondacks,  the  reforestation 
of  fire-swept  tracts  is  handicapped 
by  the   excessive  growth   of  forest 


e.  Admit  for  pasture  cattle,  hogs,  sheep 
and  goats,  thus  checking  at  the 
same   time   the   danger   from   fires. 

II.     Restrictive  Measures. 

a.  Cut  (with  a  mowing  scythe)  herbaceous 

weeds  before  the  seed  ripens. 

b.  In  forest  plantations,  cultivate  the  rows 

of  plants,   or  raise  farm  crops  to- 
gether with  seedlings. 

B      \ 


Plow  abandoned  fields  thorouglhy  before 


reforestation.  ft     , 

d.  Crush  blackberry  briars;  decapitate  ferns;     iVj 

skin  thorns;  deaden  gum,  dogwood, 
maple,  beech;  remove  the  bark  for 
2  ft.  above  the  stump  on  cotton- 
woods  to  prevent  the  growth  of  root 
suckers. 

e.  Cover  the  stumps  of  undesirable  hard- 

woods with  dirt  or  brush;  poison  the 
stumps;  peel  the  stumps  down  into 
the  roots;  set  fire  to  brush  heaps 
massed  upon  such  stumps  in  cop- 
pice woods. 
Weed  Species. 

I.  Andromeda,  huckleberry,  etc.,  are  expelled  by  the 
continued  use  of  a  briar  scythe,  preferably  in 
early  August.  Valuable  seedlings  are  planted 
on  reversed  sods  when  placed  in  thickets  formed 
by  the  above  species. 


112  FOREST  PROTECTION 

II.  Kalmia  and  Rhododendron  may  be  checked  by  burn- 
ing. They  sprout  luxuriantly  after  such  burn- 
ing. They  do  not  catch  up,  however,  with  the 
more  rapid  development  of  the  seedlings  planted 
at  the  same  time.  In  other  cases,  it  is  better 
to  allow  ivy  and  laurel  to  grow  unharmed.  The 
stems  when  over  4"  in  diameter  can  be  dead- 
ened readily. 

III.  Chinquapin    may   be   deadened    with   crushing   tongs 

in  spring. 

IV.  Dogwood  may  be  deadened.     Dogwood  sprouts  grow 

vigorously   from   the  stumps;   hence   it   will   not 
suffice  to  cut  the  dogwood  with  an  axe. 
V.     Large  trees  of  black  gum  are  skinned  or  deadened. 

It  is  impossible  to  get   rid  of  small  shoots. 
VI.     Hazel,  Vaccinium  and  Azalea  on  mountain  pastures 
can  be  checked  by  the  use  of  a  colter,  by  re- 
peated mowings  or,  possibly,  by  pasturing  goats. 
VII.     Blackberry  is  expelled  by  crushing  its  shoots  or  by 

skinning  them  between  two  pieces  of  timber. 
VIII.     Ferns  should  be  decapitated  in  early  spring. 
IX.     Climbers  {Clematis,  Vitis,  Ampclopsis  and  others)  are 
checked  by  cutting  close  to  the  ground. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  113 

Par.  7.    Protection  Against  Fungi. 

The  diseases  of  our  American  trees  caused  by  fungi  have  been  studied  by 
Dr.  Hermann  von  Schrenk,  of  the  Shaw  School  of  Botany.  Still,  it  must 
be  admitted  that  our  knowledge  of  the  diseases  of  trees  induced  by  cryp- 
togamic  parasites  is  deficient  or  inadequate.  In  the  forest,  obviously,  the 
present  conditions  confronting  forestry  do  not  allow  of  "tree  doctoring." 
Nurseries  and  young  plantations  in  which  fungi  may  cause  enormous  dam- 
age are  practically  absent  from  our  forests.  Fungi  directly  causing__the 
death  of  trees,  of^aver  12  inches    d.b.h.,    are  practically    unknown. 

Saplings  and  poles  killed  by  fungi  die  from  below,  whilst  those  killed 
by  insects  die  from  above. 

A.  Effect  of  Fungus  Infection. 

Observations  in  the  United  States  are  at  hand  only  with  re- 
ference to  fungi  of  a  technically  damaging  character. 

Such  fungi  may  cause: — 

I.     Disintegration    of   lignin,    leaving   the   shining   white 
fibres  of  cellulose  untouched. 

II.     Disintegration    of    cellulose    leaving    a    brittle    brown 
mass  resembling  charcoal. 

III.  Disintegration    of    entire    cell    walls,    leaving    a    hole 

or  holes. 

IV.  Liquification    of    the    rosin    incrustating    the    heart- 

wood,  in  which  case  the  rosin  exudes  at  branch 
holes  where  it  solidifies  by  oxidation,  forming 
knots,  galls  or  streaks  of  rosin. 

B.  Parts  of  Tree  Infected;  and  Methods  of  Infection. 

Fungi  may  attack  the  heartwood,  or  the  sapwood,  or 
both  heartwood  and  sapwood.  Heartwood  fungi  (which  never 
kill  a  tree  directly)  enter  through  insect  mines;  through  axe 
scars;  through  branch  stubs  having  heartwood,  or  through 
tops  broken  off  by  snow,  by  sleet,  by  failing  neighbors  or  by 
storm.  For  the  latter  reason,  diseased  timber  prevails  fre- 
quently  along  wind   swept   ridges   and  shores. 

Sapwood  fungi  may  use  the  same  channels  of  access,  or 
may  enter  the  wood  through  lightning  streaks  and  through 
fire  clefts.  Sapwood  resists  the  attack  of  fungi  much  beuer 
than  heartwood  ag  Ignfl  aff  f^ft  trpf  ^vp_g-  The  sapwood  is  the 
life*  zone  of  the  tree  in  which  it  defends  itself  readily,  by  thick- 
ening its  cell  walls  or  by  cell  wall  incrustations,  or  by  form- 
ing cork  against  the  spread  of  hyphse. 

In  dead  trees,  on  the  other  hand,  sapwood  decomposes 
much  more  readily  than  heartwood  owing  to  the  absence  of 


114  FOREST  PROTECTION 

incrustating  substances  and  owing  to  the  presence  of  more 
moisture,  more  starch  and  more  albumen. 

The  insects  co-operate  with  the  fungi  to  an  unknown  ex- 
tent. Corky  bark  being  fungus-proof,  many  spores  enter  the 
galleries  of  boring  insects  either  carried  by  the  wind  or  car- 
ried in  the  "fur"  of  borers  and  enemies  of  borers.  It  might 
be  stated  that  the  insects  distribute  spores  in  the  same  man- 
ner in  which  the  birds  or  the  rodents  distribute  seeds.  A  par- 
ticularly interesting  case  is  that  of  "Ambrosia,"  a  fungus 
supposed  to  be  raised  by  the  Ambrosia  beetles.  Cyllene  ro- 
binise  makes  possible  the  inroads  of  Polyporus  rimosus.  Dis- 
coloration of  the  sapwood  coincides  with  the  attacks  of  Den- 
droctonus  frontalis  and  follows  the  "steamships"  in  oak  lum- 
ber.    A  fungus-lawn  is  found  in  the  mines  of  Lymexylon. 

Infection  is  performed 

(a)  most  frequently  by  spores, 

1.  in  dew  or  rain  (notably— the  lower  fungi); 

2.  by  wind  (notably — the  higher  fungi); 

3.  by  insects  (rarely,  after  Tubeuf); 

4.  by  forcible  ejection  of  spores  from  sporocarps,  asci 
and  sporangia. 

(b)  more  rarely  by  mycelium, 

1.  notably  when  the  mycelium  lives  in  the  earth,  or  rather 
in  the  roots  (Trametes  radiciperda,  Agaricus  melleus  "  (Rhizo- 
morphs)"; 

2.  also  above  ground,  the  mycelium  spreading  from  plant 
to  plant  {Trichosphceria,  Herpotrichia). 

Many  fungi  appear  immediately  after  the  affection  of 
the  tree  by  other  detrimental  influences  (e.  g.  after  insects, 
fire,  storm,  drought),  so  that  it  is  possible  to  decide  upon  the 
immediate  cause  of  damage  inflicted  only  by  the  test  of  arti- 
ficial infection.  The  fungi  found  present  upon  a  dead  tree 
can  never  be  considered,  eo  ipso,  as  tree  killers. 

In  many  cases  the  mycelium  of  the  tree  killer  has  dis- 
appeared when  the  tree  is  dead;  and  only  sporocarps  may  be 
still  present.  Many  parasites  on  the  other  hand  develop 
sporocarps  only  saprophytically  on  a  dead  substratum. 

Certain  timber  fungi  stop  work  at  once  when  the  tree  is 
cut,  e.  g.,  the  yellow  rot  fungus  of  black  locust  and  the  peck- 
iness  fungus  of  bald  cypress.  The  progress  of  decay,  in  such 
cases,  ends  with  the  death  of  the  tree. 

The  speed  at  which  a  fungus  disease  spreads  from  a  given 
point  of  attack  is  entirely  unknown.  This  speed  is  very  fast 
in  the  case  of  saprophytes  working  in  dead  sapwood;  it  is  prob- 
ably very  slow  in  the  case  of  parasitic  fungi  attacking  the 
heartwood  of  grown  trees. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  115 


The  tales  of  cruisers  to  the  effect  that  a  tract  will  "be- 
come punky  in  ten  to  fifteen  years"  do  not  seem  to  deserve 
any  credit. 

An  old  tree  is,  ceteris  paribus,   more  readily  affected,  and 
more  apt  to  be  found  affected  by  disease,  than  a  young  one. 
C.     Beneficial  Fungi. 

The  symbiosis  of  certain  fungi  with  certain  trees  (dis- 
covered by  Frank)  seems  to  be  beneficial  to  both;  possibly 
essential  to  both. 

Many  of  our  trees  and  shrubs  are  dependent  upon  cer- 
tain fungi,  at  least  for  such  foods  as  are  derived  from  humus. 
These  fungi  consist  of  delicate,  cobwebby  threads  such  as 
are  seen  on  mouldy  bread.  These  threads  spread  through 
the  soil  and  either  enter  the  outer  cells  of  the  root  or  simply 
form  a  mantle  (Mycorrhiza)  about  the  root.  The  fungi  live 
upon  decaying  animal  and  plant  matter,  and  transfer  a  por- 
tion of  this  food  to  the  root  and  doubtless  secure  in  return 
certain  benefits  from  the  root.  This  mutual  helpful  relation- 
ship of  two  plants  is  termed  connnensalism. 

The  majority  of  our  heaths,  evergreens,  poplars,  willows, 
beeches  and  oaks  have  become  dependent  upon  these  fungi 
and  do  not  thrive  in  soils  where  the  fungi  are  not  found. 

Some  herbaceous  plants,  like  the  Indian-pipe,  have  be- 
come entirely  dependent  upon  these  fungi  for  food  and  have, 
as   a   consequence,   lost    all   their   chlorophyll. 

This    field    of   forest    ecological    study    is    practically    un- 
touched, though  it  will  form  the  basis  of  future  silviculture. 
Certain  fungi  might  be  used,  technologically,  for  the  prepar- 
ation of  pure  cellulose. 
D.    Signs  of  disease. 

The  signs  of  disease  are  visible  only  on  a  tree,  usually, 
when  it  is  too  late  to  save  the  patient. 

These  signs  are: — 

A.  Hypertrophical  swellings,  f.i.,  knots  on  Spanish  oak 

and  tumors  on  yellow  pine  at  Biltmore. 

B.  Exudations  of  rosin  in  galls  or  in  seams. 

C.  Appearance  of  sporophores.   which  are   rare  in  some 

species,  but  are  frequently  seen  on  diseased  red 
oak,  locust,  and  ash.  When  decaying  holes  ap- 
pear on  a  tree,  the  forester  is  apt  to  find  the 
whole  tree  diseased.  Yellow  poplar  trees  are 
sound  within  one  foot,  and  white  oak  logs  are 
sound  within  two  feet  from  the  actual  end  of 
a  cavity. 


116  FOREST  PROTECTION 

The  tree  weeds,  e.  g.,  Halesia  (Mohrodendron),  gum  and 
calmia,  might  be  exterminated  in  days  to  come  with  the  help 
of  their  fungus  enemies. 
E.    Synopsis  of  the  orders  of  damaging  fungi. 

I.     Order  Phycomycetcs.     Family  Peronosporece. 

The  mycelium  is  unicellular.  The  propa- 
gation is  effected  by  numerous  branching  hyphse 
forming  at  their  tips  little  sacs  or  sporangia  in 
clusters  or  chains  (conidia).  These  are  carried 
by  wind  to  other  plants  where  they  germinate 
at  once,  forming  a  tube  that  penetrates  the  leaf. 
If  the  leaf  is  wet,  the  contents  of  the  sporangia 
break  up  into  a  number  of  zoospores  which  de- 
velop the  characteristic  hyphae  of  the  fungi. 
Sexual  reproduction  occurs  in  most  species  and 
consists  of  a  gametangia  cut  off  from  the  ends 
of  the  hyphae  and  fertilized  by  male  gametes 
developed  on  branches  (antheridia)  of  the  game- 
tangia bearing  hyphse.  The  resulting  thick  walled 
gametospore  tides  the  fungus  over  winter. 

American  representatives  are  not  fully  known. 
Some  bad  nursery  fungi  belong  to   this  family 
(notably  Phytophlora  omnivora). 
II.     Order  Ascomycetes. 

1st.      Family — Pyrenomycetes. 

Flask-shaped  frutifications  (peri- 
thecia)  are  characteristic  of  this  fam- 
ily. Within  the  perithecia,  which  are 
open  at  the  top  (angiocarpous),  occur 
numerous  asci,  each  containing  eight 
spores.  Preceeding  the  formation  of 
perithecia,  conidiospores  are  usually 
formed  which  are  especially  efficaci- 
ous in  disseminating  the  fungi.  Ex- 
amples:   Nectria  on  maple  and  beech. 

2nd.     Family — Discomycetes. 

Distinguished  by  open  gymnocar- 
pous  apothecia  (cup-shaped  recepta- 
cles, bearing  freely  exposed  asci). 

The  Discomycetes  are  unimportant 
for  the  American  forester,  none  being 
observed  as  damaging  our  trees.  Rhy- 
tisma  acerintun  frequently  forms  large 
black  incrustations  of  pseudo-paren- 
chyma on  the  leaves  of  maple,  conidia 
developing  in  the  summer  and  mature 


FOREST  PROTECTION  117 

apothecia    in    the    succeeding    spring. 
The  most  important  representative  of 
this  family  in  Europe  is  Peziza. 
III.     Order  Basidiomycetes. 

Spores  carried  on  basidia  of  definite  shape 
and  size,  and  bearing  a  fixed  number  of  spores. 
1st.       Family—  Uredineoe. 

All  are  injurious  parasites,  the 
mycelium  being  in  the  intercellular 
spaces  of  the  tissues  (particularly  in 
the  leaves)  of  higher  plants.  These 
fungi  change  their  hostplants,  showing 
a  double  generation,  and  develop  sev- 
eral kinds  of  asexual  spores,  according 
to  the  season  and  to  the  host;  aecidio- 
spores  and  pycnoconidia  in  spring; 
uredospores  in  summer;  teleutospores 
in  autumn,  which  in  the  following 
spring  develop  basidiospores.  The  my- 
celium from  the  basidiospores  enters 
the  first  host  and  develops  the  seci- 
dium  stage  (formerly  the  genus  Ae- 
cidium)  with  aecidia  and  pycnidia.  The 
next  stage  on  a  different  host  develops 
the  uredospores  (formerly  genus  Ure- 
do),  and  in  autumn  the  thick  walled 
teleutospores. 
2nd.     Family — Hymenomycetes. 

Basidia  imbedded  in  a  common 
hymenium  which  clothes,  in  Agari- 
caceos,  a  series  of  radial  lamellae  on  the 
under  side  of  the  pileus,  and  in  Poly- 
poracece  and  Boletacece,  the  inner  sur- 
face of  pores. 

In  a  few  genera  no  distinctive 
fructifications  are  formed  (Exobasi- 
dium  vaccinii,  parasitic  and  causing 
hypertrophy  on  Ericaceae). 

Another  arrangement  of  the  orders 
and  families  of  fungi  might  be  made 
with  reference  to  pathogeny: 
a.  The  groups  6     J 

Uredine& 

Ustilaginece  contain  parasites  only, 

(so-called  "Smuts")     so    that    no    proof    of 
Peronosporece  [parasitism  is  required. 

Exoascew 
(witch  broom)  J 


118  FOREST  PROTECTION 

b.  The  groups 

Pyrenomycetes 

Ducomycetes  I  contain     parasites     as 

Hymenomycetes  V   well  as  saprophytes  so 

Myxomycetes  /  that   proof   of   parasi- 

And   several   groupsV   tism  is  required. 

of   lower   fungi   and] 

bacteria. 

This  proof  is  obtained  by  artificial  infection  only. 

Infection  reveals, — 

(1)  parasitic  nature  of  a  fungus, 

(2)  exact  species  of  fungus, 

(3)  relationship  of  hetercecious  Uredinece  and 

their  host  plants  (uredinal,  telial  and 
acidial  stages), 

(4)  various  forms  of  reproductive  organs, 

(5)  conditions  favorable  to  attacks. 

The  fungi  might  be  further  divided  into  two 
large  groups,  namely: 

(a)  Physiologically  obnoxious  species  (tree  killers 

and  tree  deformers)  belonging  to  the 
orders  Phycomycetes  and  Ascomycetes  and 
to  the  family  Uredinece  of  the  order 
Basidiomycetes. 

(b)  Technically   obnoxious   species    (wood   disin- 

tegrators) belonging  notably  to  the  fam- 
ily Hymenomycetes;  this  group  may  be 
sub-divided  into  fungi  living  on  dead 
trees  (Saprophytes)  and  fungi  living  on 
live  trees  (Parasites). 

Group  (a)  is  of  greatest  importance 
in  Germany  and  France;  whilst  group 
(b)  is  of  greatest  importance  in  tha 
United  States. 

F.     According  to  parts  attacked,  the  forest  fungi  might  be  subdivided 
as  follows: 

I.     Nursery  fungi  and  plantation  fungi. 
II.     Root  fungi  in  saplings  and  poles. 

III.  Leaf  and  twig  fungi.     (Bulletin  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 

dustry No.  149,  page  18). 

IV.  Fungi     causing     hypertrophical     formations     (witch 

brooms). 
.  V.     Fungi  discoloring  lumber  or  timber. 

K-\f        VI.     Fungi  destroying  the  cambium  and  the  sapwood  of 
standing  trees  or  poles. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  119 

VII.     Fungi  destroying  the  sapwood  of  dead  trees  and  of  logs. 
VIII.     Fungi  destroying  the  heartwood  in  living  trees.    S. 
IX.     Fungi  destroying  timber,  ties,  poles  and  posts  after 
manufacture  and  whilst  in  use. 

Fungus  species  worthy  of  note  which  are  physiologically  obnoxious. 
I-  Agaricus  jmelleus  (honey  fungus)  is  a  champignon 
attacking  and  killing  conifers  four  to  fifteen 
years  old.  White  pine  suffers  very  badly.  The 
disease  spreads  underground  through  the  so- 
called  rhizomorpha  (strong  threads  of  mycel- 
ium). The  soil  at  the  basis  of  affected  plants 
is  charged  with  exuded  rosin.  Comp.  Bull.  Plant 
Industry,  No.  149,  page  23. 
II.  Aecidvum  pint,  attacks  the  needles  and  the  young 
bark  of  pine  saplings.  The  spores  enter  by  a 
wound  and  the  spread  of  the  mycelium  in  the  v-w*"*" 
cambium  causes  hypertrophical  formations,  es- 
pecially on  the  main  stem.  The  teleutosporous 
generation  has  a  Senecio  species  for  its  host 
(Coleosporium  senecionis). 

III.  Peridermium    cerebrum    (family    Uredinece)    kills    two 

year  old  lodgepole  pines  as  well  as  other  pines. 
(Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  p.  200). 

IV.  Peridermium  strobi,  known  as  the  blister  of  the  white 

pine,    has    Purus    ccmbra    for    its    original    host.\ 
Whilst  it  does  not  injure  this  species  seriously, 
its  attacks  are  deadly  to  our  white  pine  during     - 
its  juvenile  stage.     In  old  trees  well  protected 
by  heavy  bark,  the  tops  and  branches  alone  are  ,-p 
affected.     The  disease  is  frequent  abroad;   and     ', 
stringent   measures   should  prevent  it  from   en- 
tering into  the  United  States.      The  uredal  form 
of  the  fungus  (Cronartium  ribicolum)  forms  blotches 
on  the  leaves  of  the  currant  (Ribes).     Compare 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Forestry,  July,  1909,  p.  232. 
V.     A  Gymnosporangium  causes  the   "Cedar  apples"  of    ;        ' 
red  cedar;  see  Bull.  21,  Div.  of  Pathology,  p.  8. 
For.  Bull.  31   (Red  Cedar)  p.  25. 
VI.     Hysterium  pinastri  causes  the  shedding  disease  dreaded 

in  nurseries.  Pine  seedlings  up  to  four  years  ,  >^l./( 
old  drop  the  needles  of  a  sudden  in  spring.  White 
pine  is  little  affected;  strong  seedlings  are  im- 
mune. The  disease  spreads  through  old  needles 
on  which  the  fungus  lives  saprophytically.  Not 
observed  in  America  so  far. 


V 


uMM*  (&L(^ 


120  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Diaporthe  -parasitica  (discovered  by  Dr.  Murrill)  is 
the  worst  treekilling  disease  yet  described  in 
the  United  States.  It  tends  to  exterminate  the  ' 
chestnut  trees  from  New  York  to  Virginia,  and 
is  spreading  southward.  Entering  the  cambial 
layers  of  the  tree  and  notably  those  of  its  branches 
without  the  requirement  of  preceding  wounds, 
the  mycelium  actually  "girdles"  the  living  trees 
(W.  A.  Murrill,  in  Jour.  N.  Y.  Bot.  Garden  7: 
143-153;  Bull.  No  149,  Bureau  of  Plant  Indus- 
try, p.  22). 

VIII.     Hypodcrma  strobicola  is  the   "needle  blight"  of  the 
white  pine  and  appears  to  be  a  dangerous  para- 
site on  Pinus  Strobus.     Compare  Tubeuf's  "Dis- 
eases of  Plants,"  english  edition  by  W.  G.  Smith, 
p.    233.      Tubeuf   claims    that   the   disease   may 
devastate  whole  tracts  of  forests.     A  disease  of 
the  white  pine  similar  to  that  described  by  Tubeuf 
has  been   reported  from   Massachusetts   (various 
articles  in  Woodland  and  Roadside),  from  Wes- 
tern North  Carolina  and  from  eastern  Tennessee, 
and  is  being  studied  by  the  pathological  divis- 
ions of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Compare 
Circular  No.  35,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 
IX.     "  Damping-off "  is  a  disease  of  seedlings  soon  after 
germination    dreaded    by    all    nurserymen,    and 
decimating  many  natural  regenerations  (birch!). 
The  fungi  causing  the  disease  are  undescribed. 
H.    Fungus  species  worthy  of  note  which  are  technically  obnoxious. 
The  genus  Polyporus  (including  Trametes,  Fomes,  Boletus, 
Polystictus,   and   Dcedalea)    is   responsible   for  the   decomposi- 
tion of  heartwood  in   living  trees  frequently   brought  about 
by  the  help  of  an  enzym. 

Overaged  timber  is  almost  invariably  attacked  by  Poly- 
porus. The  sporophores  may  appear  in  branch  holes  or  scars, 
and  are,  although  the  disease  might  be  common,  rare  in  many 
species. 

Most  noteworthy  are  the  following  Polvpori : — 
I.  Polyporus  annosus  (or  Trametes  radiciperda) ,  a  root 
fungus  of  conifers,  attacks  pole  woods.  Sporo- 
phores under  ground  in  roots.  Wood  turns  brown 
to  begin  with  and  is  finally  hollowed  out.  (Agric. 
Year  Book  1900,  p.  207). 
II.  Trametes  pint  causes  the  heartwood  rot  (known  as 
"red  heart")  of  pine;  the  punkiness  and  per- 
haps the  ring  cracks  of  fir,  long  leaf,  short  leaf, 

■ 


FOREST  PROTECTION  121 

and  sugar  pines;  the  speckled  rot  or  red  heart 

of    Douglas    fir;    the    cork    of    western    hemlock. 

A^^\.   ^  is  found  only  in  trfifts  nvej  fnrty   ypars   nlrl 

usually    more    in    the    top    of    the    tree, — but    in 
Pinus  monticola  close  to  the  gound.     The_woQcL 

never  rots  out   entirely  and  the  absence  of  cavi- 


Reference  Bull.  For.  33.  p.  15;  F.  &  I.  1902, 
p.  62;  Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  plate  XXII.  and 
XXIV.  and  page  206. 

III.  Polyporus  juniperinus  creates  long  holes  coated  white 

in  the  heartwood  of  red  cedar.  (For.  Bull.  31, 
p.  25;  Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  p.  20S;  Bull.  21 
of  Div.  of  Vegetable  Pathology). 

IV.  Polyporus   carneus   causes   the   red   rot   of  red  cedar 

and  of  arbor  vitae.  The  wood  splits  into  small 
cubes,  charcoal  like.  (Bull.  21  of  Div.  of  Vege- 
table Physiology  and  Pathology;  For.  Bull.  21, 
p.  26).  . 

V.  Polyporus  versicolor  causes  the  soft  rot  of  live  catalpa, 
Polyporus  catalpce  the  brown  rot  of  the  species; 
Bull.  Bureau  Plant  Industry,  No.  149,  page  47 
and  pp.  53  to  56;  Bull.  37  of  Bureau  of  Forestry, 
pp.  51-58;  also  in  oak  and  hemlock  and  beech  -f  * 
(For.  Bull.  51,  p.  31)  as  a  saprophyte  on  ties.  - 
VI.     Polyporus   rimosus    causes    the    yellow    rot    of   black 

locust,  in  its  heartwood.     Holes  made  by  locust    '' 
borers     (Cyllene    robinice)     serve     as    entrances. 
(Agric.   Year  Book   1900,  p.   207);  Contr.  Shaw  J]  LJh 
School  of  Botany,  No.  17;  Bureau  Plant  Indus-  J 
try  Bull.   No.   149,  p.  45.  4f  ■■>■  ■ 

VII.  Polyporus  schweinitzii  causes  the  "butt  rot,"  "ground 
rot"  or  "root  rot"  of  all  conifers,  notably  of 
Douglas  fir  and  hemlock.  Fungus  enters  at  the 
base  of  the  tree  through  insect  mines.  Trees 
die  in  patches;  sporophores  are  short-lived. 
(Bull.  For.  33,  p.  15;  F.  &  I.  1902,  p.  61;  Agric. 
Year  Book  1900,  p.p  203  and  206,  and  plate 
XXIV). 
VIII.  Polyporus  fraxinophilus  occurs  in  white  ash  having 
over  seven  inches  d.b.h.  The  hypha;  seem  to 
enter  by  the  water  niches  left  by  broken  branches. 
Wood  becomes  straw  colored.  Very  frequent. 
Reference  Bull.  32  and  Bull.  149,  page  46,  of 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry. 


122 


X. 


XI. 


XII. 


XVII. 


XVIII. 


p 


/IX. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 

Polyporus  nigricans  attacks  beech,  birch  and  poplar 
in  the  New  England  States  causing  standing 
timber  to  rot.  (Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  p.  207; 
Bulletin  Bureau  Plant  Industry  No.  149,  p.  42). 

Polyporus  sulfureus  causes  the  brown  rot  of  many 
conifers,  also  of  oak,  walnut  and  cherry.  (Bull. 
Bureau  Plant  Industry  No.  149,  page  37;  Agric. 
Year  Book  1900,  p.  207). 

Polyporus  igniarius  occurs  everywhere  on  beech  and 
oak.  (Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  p.  207;  Bulletin 
Bureau  Plant  Industry,  No.  149,   pp.  25  to  37). 

Polyporus  libocedris  causes  the  peckiness  of  bald 
cypress  and  the  pin  rot  of  incense  cedar.  The 
pecks  consist  of  disconnected  holes  (or  pockets) 
about  4"  long  ending  abruptly  and  partially 
filled  with  brown  powder.  Found  in  trees  over 
100  years  old.  Reference:  Contr.  Shaw  School 
of  Botany,  No.  14. 

Polyporus  pinicola.  Western  conifers,  four  years  after 
death,  are  found  entirely  destroyed  by  Poly- 
porus pinicola.  Reference:  F.  &  I.,  1902,  p.  60; 
Agric.  Year  Book  1900,  pp.  202  and  209  and 
plate  XXV. 

Polyporus  obtusus  is  a  common  cause  of  the  sap  rot 
in  dead  oak  trees  (Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry, p.  41). 

Polyporus  fulvus  causes  the  so-called  "red  heart" 
of  the  birch  (Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
p.  47). 

Polyporus  squamosus  causes  "white  rot"  in  various 
hardwood  trees,  e.  g.  maple,  oak,  beech,  birch 
and  ash.    (Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  p.  48). 

Polyporus  pergamenus  causes  the  "sap  rot"  of  trees 
and  logs — often  after  fires — in  many  hardwoods 
(notably  oak);  its  work  is  particularly  quick,  and 
so  is  the  rapidity  of  its  fruiting  (Bull.  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  No.  149,  p.  56). 
Polyporus  betulinus  and  fomentarius  may  parasiti- 
cally  weaken  living  birches  and  beeches  (Mayr), 
or  may  be  satisfied  to  cause  the  decomposition 
of  weakened  and  of  dead  wood  (Von  Schrenk). 
(Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  No.  149,  p.  49). 

Polyporus  applanatus  is  reported  as  the  killer  (?)  of 
cottonwoods  (Bull.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
No.  149,  p.  58). 


FOREST  PROTECTION  123 

XX.  Polyporus  ponderosus  n.  sp.,  described  in  detail  by 
H.  von  Schrenk  in  Bull.  36  of  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  p.  37  f.f.g.,  causes  the  red  rot  of  Pinus 
ponderosa  killed  by  insect  pests  at  the  lapse  of 
two  years.  The  fungus  is  a  saprophyte  closely 
resembling  Polyporus  pinicola. 
I.  Aside  of  the  Polypori,  the  following  technically  obnoxious  fungi 
deserve  attention. 

I.  Lenzites  sepiaria  is  a  saprophyt  preying  on  hemlock, 
long  leaf  and  short  leaf  pine — notably  on  rail- 
road ties.  (Reference  For.  Bull.  51). 
II.  Schizophyllum  commune  attacks  railroad  ties  of  short 
leaf  pine,  hemlock,  etc.  saprophytically.  (Ref. 
For.  Bull.  51). 

III.  Unnamed  fungus,  the  sporophores  of  which  are  un- 

known, attacks  Sequoia  sempervirens  and  causes 
"brown  rot"  (or  "butt  rot"  or  "pin  rot"),  the 
decay  beginning  in  the  inner  rings  of  heartwood 
near  the  ground.  The  fibre  is  converted  into 
pockets,  usually  twice  as  broad  as  long,  filled 
with  dark  brown  matter.  (Reference:  For.  Bull. 
38,  pp.  29-31,  and  plates  X.  and  XI). 

IV.  Ceratostomella   (Sphceria)  pilifera,  a  saprophyt  of  the 
/V*^  y^Av.  v  I      family   Discomycetes,   causes   the   bluing   of   sap- 
wood  in  the  lumber  and  in  the  dead  boles  (killed 

lt*6*~  by  Dendrodonus)  of  Pinus  ponderosa.  This  fungus 
does  not  interfere  with  the  strength  of  the  tim- 
ber; it  decreases  its  fissibility — a  disadvantage 
in  cutting  of  railroad  ties.  The  spores  seem  to 
enter  through  the  ladder  mines  made  by  the 
Ambrosia  beetles— but  do  not  seem  to  develop 
into  Ambrosia.  Reference:  Bull.  36,  Bureau  of 
^M     Plant  Industry  entire. 

"The  bluing"  of  the  sap  wood  in  logs  and 
v*  »~  '/  '    lumber    is    disastrous    notably    to    the    value    of 
/       poplar  logs  driven  or  rafted  to  destination  dur- 
ing spring  and  summer,   of  poplar  sap   lumber, 
pine  saps,  sap  gum  and  the  like,  sawed  and  slowly 
air  dried  during  spring  and  summer.     These  in- 
juries are  due  to  undescribed  fungi. 
V.     Echinodontium    tinctorium    attacks    western    hemlock 
causing    "cork," — like    Trametes    pint;    also    in 
spruce  and  red  fir.      (Reference:   For.   Bull.   33, 
p.  15). 


124  FOREST  PROTECTION 

J.     General  remedies  against  fungi  on  live  trees. 

I.     Extermination  or  removal  of  the  fungus  itself; 

(1)  in  case  of  seeds,  by  sterilization  with  hot 

water,  or  copper  "steep-mixtures." 

(2)  in  case  of  leaf-fungi,  by  dusting  or  spray- 

ing with  mixtures  containing  copper  or 
sulphur. 

(3)  in  case  of  Agaricacece  and  Polyporaceae,  by 

removal  of  sporophores,  by  excision; 

(4)  in    case    of    dead    parts    of    plants    carrying 

sporocarps,  or  other  reproductive  stages 
of  fungi,   by  dead-pruning,  or  removal 
of  dead  litter  on  ground. 
II.     Extermination  of  living  host  or  of  affected  parts  of 


A 


(1)  Removal  of  living  host. 

(2)  Removal    of    complimentary     (heteroecious) 
host. 

III.     Avoidance  of  conditions  favoring  infect;on. 

(1)  no  wounds,  or  antiseptic  treatment  of  same; 

(2)  avoidance  of  localities  favorable  to  disease; 

(3)  no  large,  even  aged,  pure  forests; 

(4)  no  selection  systems,  no  summer  cutting; 

(5)  rotation  of  crops; 

(6)  no  planting  of  heteroecious   hosts  together; 

(7)  mixed  forests;  short  rotation;  suppression  of 

boring  insects;   no  artificial  pruning  of 
living  branches; 

(8)  raising  strong  trees  of  individual  power  of 

resistence  and  independent  for  help  from 

c  . 


neighbors;  p* 


(9)    improvement  cuttings  and  thinnings, 
K.    General  remedies  against  fungi  in  nurseries. 

(1)  ^Change  of  species,   notably  in   nursery  beds 

(2)  Sterilized  soil  in  nursery  beds. 

(3)  Deep  trenches  between  nursery  beds. 

(4)  Drenching  the  beds  with  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric 

acid  (one  ounce  of  acid  to  one  gallon  of  water) 
prior  to  seed  planting  and  after  the  sprouting 
of  the  seedlings.  Compare  Circular  No.  4,  Bu- 
reau of  Plant  Industry. 

(5)  Production  of  fungus  proof  varieties. 

(6)  Spraying  of  affected   leaves   or  shoots,   or  beds   with 

Bordeaux  mixture,  consisting  of  a  3%  solution 
of  copper  sulphate  and  lime  (Recipe,  Tubeuf 
&    Smith,  page  69). 


FOREST  PROTECTION  125 

L.     General  remedies  against  fungi  in  young  regenerations. 

(1)  Use  very  strong  plants.  Av-tc-vu^  dU\. 

(2)  Do  not  buy  plants Tronf  nurseries  known  to  be  infested. 

(3)  Toungya. 

(4)  Avoid  foreigners. 

(5)  Plant  only  kinds  known  to  suit  the  locality. 

(6)  No  regeneration  from  mother  trees  in  pine  {Hyster- 

iuml)  in  beech  (Phytophtoral)  etc. 

(7)  No  seedlings  of  conifers  near  stumps  of  hardwoods. 
M.    General  remedies  against  fungi  in  lumber,  ties  and  poles. 

(1)  Wet  storage;  preservation  in  ponds  (mill),  saltwater 

(tamarack),  running  water  (Caesar's  Rhine  bridge), 
swamps  (Ky.  walnut).  ^mS 

(2)  Dry  storage  (like  furniture)  under  shelter;  dry  kilnH  J^V-  < 

(3)  "Antistain,"  or  "painting,"  or  exposure  to  sun  and^&U 

wind;   or  else  interruption  of  logging  and  mill-  ^^^. 
ing  from  April  to  September. 

(4)  Impregnation  either  of  the  wood,  or  of  the  medium 

in  which  the  wood  is  kept.  (Compare  H.  von 
Schrenk,  in  Bull.  14,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry; 
further  Lectures  on  "Utilization"  by  C.  A. 
Schenck,  paragraph  XLIV). 


126  FOREST  PROTECTION 


Par.  8.    Protection  Against  Parasites  ©ther  Than  Fungi. 

A.  A  number  of  phanerogams  live  parasitically   upon  various  trees, 

notably  in  the  tropics. 

In  the  United  States,  the  common  mistletoe  (Phwaden- 
dron  flavescens)  and  the  dwarf  mistletoe  (Arceuthobium  cryp- 
topoda  and  pusillum)  are  worthy  of  note.  (Bull.  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry  No.  149,  pp.  14  to  17).  Arceuthobium  occi- 
dcntale  deforms  the  bole  and  the  branches  of  western  hem- 
lock, causing  cancerous  tumors  (Plate  VI,  Forestry  Bulletin 
No.  33,  p.   16). 

The  damage  done  by  these  parasites  is  so  insignificant 
that  remedies  are  nowhere  indicated. 

B.  Tree  mosses,  tree  algae  and  tree  lichens  are  variously  reported  as 

malefactors  when  occurring  in  such  quantities  that  young 
leaves  and  fresh  shoots  are  smothered  by  them.  It  is  possible 
also  that  they  interfere  with  the  function  of  the  "lenticels." 
Tillandsia  usneoides  and  Usnea  barbata  may  be  mentioned 
as  representatives  of  this  group.  The  former  called  "Spanish 
moss"  is  a  flowering  plant,  common  on  trees  in  the  Southern 
States;  the  latter,  a  lichen,  is  abundant  in  northern  swamps 
and  woods.  Compare  Bulletin  No.  149,  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
dustry, page  17. 


Part  B :  Protection  Against  Inorganic  Nature. 


CHAPTER   I:  PROTECTION  AGAINST    ADVERSE 
CLIMATIC   INFLUENCES. 

Par.  9.  Protection  Against  Frost. 

Frost  May  be  Beneficial 

By  checking  insect  plagues  (late  frost),  also  mice  and  other  rodents, 
decimating  them  in  cold  and  protracted  winters; 

By  clipping  back  inferior  species  competing  with  aristocrats  (beech 
vs.  oak  at  Viernheim);  undesirable  coppice  sprouts,  cut  in  Aug- 
ust, are  apt  to  die; 

By  furnishing  ice  on  lakes  and  on  iced  roads,  creating  conditions  favor- 
able to  transportation  by  sleds,  and  steady  weather  for  logging, 
skidding,  etc.; 

By  increasing  the  value  of  firewood,  and  oftentimes  by  forcing  men 
to  take  employment  in  the  woods  when  other  occupations  are  barred 
by  frost. 

A.  Frost  is  Injurious  to  Utilization 

By  Interfering 

1.  in  the  south  with  the  logging  operations, — owing  to  the 

unreliability  of  the  occurrence  of  frost;  the  necessity 
of  shoeing  cattle;  the  formation  of  jams  in  flumes; 
the  interference  by  late  frost  with  tan  bark  peeling, 
etc.;  also  by  bursting  trees,  when  felled  in  frozen  con- 
dition; by  toughness  of  fibre  so  as  to  retard  the  feed 
of  the  saw-carriage;  by  danger  to  water  pipes,  con- 
nected with  engines,  boilers,  locomotives,  donkey 
engines,  etc.;  by  necessity  of  changing  the  setting  of 
the  teeth,  and  the  temper  and  the  speed  of  the  saw. 

2.  in  the  north  with  water  transportation  on  the  lakes   (no- 

tably Great  Lakes)  and  rivers  (notably  St.  Lawrence). 

B.  Frost  is  Injurious  Physiologically  (Sylviculturally) 

By  killing  leaves,  buds,  shoots,  branches  (notably  sappy 
shoots),    flowers    and   fruits,    seedlings    and    (rarely)    saplings. 

There  is  no  proof  at  hand  of  poles  or  trees  of  native  species  being 
killed  by  frost. 

Foreigners  (e.  g.,  palms,  eucalypts  and  many  species  tried  in  nor- 
thern prairies)  are  subject  to  frost. 

127 


128  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Absolute  cold  is  not  injurious,   eo  ipso,  to  native   species,   which 
know  how  to  protect  themselves 

by  leaves  dropped 

by  non-freezing  cell  contents 

by  lignification 

by  cork  layers,  bud  scales,  hairs 

by  color 

by  position  (rolled  up  rhododendron  leaves) 

by  beginning  growth  late  and  by  finishing  it  early. 
The  death  of  a  specimen,  or  of  parts  of  it,  is  brought  about,  in  all 
probability,  by  a  rapid  transition  from  cold  to  warm  (cite 
various  theories,  and  experiments  made  to  support  them). 
Hence  it  is  that  the  severe  frost  of  winter,  or  frost  occurring 
at  a  time  at  which  plants  are  protected,  is  less  injurious  than 
a  light  early  frost  in  fall  or  a  light  late  frost  in  spring. 
Frost  occurring  unexpectedly  is  most  injurious, — and  particularly 
eo  to  the  young  parts  of  an  old  plant  or  to  a  plant,  all  parts 
of  which  are  young  and  tender  (e.  g.,  germinating  seedlings). 

(a)  Influencing  factors  are: 

Locality  (frost  holes),  latitude,  altitude,  exposures 
(eastern) ; 

Atmospheric  conditions  preceding  and  following 
a  cold  spell; 

Snow  cover; 

Condition  of  plant  (germs  sprouting;  buds  open- 
ing; shoots  lengthening;  lignification  unfin- 
ished) ; 

Size  (age)  of  plants; 

Presence  or  absence  of  wind. 

(b)  Consequences  of  frost  are: 

Failures  of  nursery  beds; 

Failure  of  natural  seed  regenerations; 

Failure  of  seed  years; 

Failure  of  seedlings  to  compete  with  weeds  (e.  g., 
sedgegrass  and  walnut  at  Biltmore),  and  with 
rabbits  (e.  g.,  maple  and  chestnutoak  at 
Biltmore); 

Saplings  and  seedlings  growing  bushy  or  forking 
(cherry,  loosing  tips  of  shoots  incessantly; 
larch,  at  Biltmore,  on  Bradley  Plantation, 
due  to  September  frost,  1906;  echinata  at 
Biltmore,  everywhere,  due  to  September  frost, 
1906); 

Aristocrats  smothered  by  mob  (walnut  at  Bilt- 
more overtopped  by  hard  maple,  owing  to 
frost); 


FOREST  PROTECTION  129 

Shortened  growing  season; 

Restricted  number  of  species  locally  producible; 

Double  rings  of  wood,  and  possibly  windshakes 
in  wood; 

Weakened  condition  of  a  tree,  subjecting  it  to 
ir.sects  and  fungi,  and  also  to  breakage  by 
storm,  snow  and  sleet,  owing  to  the  reduced 
elasticity  of  the  fibre, 
(c)    Sr-EOES  afflicted: 

The  species  known  to  suffer,  in  one  way  or  an- 
other, from  frost  are  called  "sensitive;"  the 
others  are  known  as  "hardy"  species. 

HARDY  SENSITIVE 

AT  BlLTMORE 

Chestnut  Beech 

Maples  Oaks 

Black  Gum  Catalpa 

Scotch  Pine  Oregon  Ash 

White  Pine  Oregon  Maple 

Rigid  Tine  Box  Elder 

Halesia  Pinus  ponderosa 

Cottonwood  Pinus  lambertiana 

Hickories  Pinus  echinata 

Spruces  Edgeworthia 

Douglasia  Walnut 

Yellow  Poplar  Buckeye 


(d)   The  remedies  against  frost  are  almost  entirely 

FREVENTIVE  I 

(Restrictive  measures  are  possible  only  in  nur- 
series, and  consist  in  watering  the  beds  after 
very  cold  nights). 
1.      In  nurseries: 

Late  planting  of  seeds  in  spring,  where  late  frcst 
is  dreaded;  or  else  early  planting  where  early 
frost  is  feared  in  fall; 

Lath  screens,  or  nursery  under  cover  (unless 
lignificat ion  is  handicapped) ; 

Clouds  of  smoke  on  frosty  mornings; 

Avoidance  of  east  aspects; 

Heeling-out  transplants,  so  as  to  retard  sprout- 
ing in  spring; 


130  FOREST  PROTECTION 


Avoidance  of  dense  stands  in  seed  beds  (ash  seed- 
lings at  Biltmore  failed  to  lignify  in   1905, 
excepting  those  at  outer  edge). 
In  plantations: 

Remark:  A  seedling  once  crippled  by  frost  is 
apt  to  be  crippled  again,  and  again,  and 
again,  owing  to  the  fact,  that  the  replace- 
ment of  organs  once  lost  takes  time;  so  that 
the  growing  season  is  shortened.  The  wal- 
nuts and  buckeyes  at  Biltmore,  once  clipped 
back  by  frost  have  been  clipped  back  an- 
nually. 

Early   planting   in   spring  to   avoid   early   frost; 

Late  planting  in  spring  to  avoid  late  frost; 

No  experimenting  with  the  introduction  of  new 
species; 

Natural  regeneration  of  Pinus  echinata  (also 
White  Pine  in  Adirondacks)  to  avoid  for- 
mation of  double  whirls; 

Planting  sensitive  species  beneath  a  light  cover 
overhead,  so  as  to  prevent  excessive  height 
growth,  or  premature  formation  of  spring 
shoots. 

Use  of  strong  stocky  seedlings,  since  minute 
plants  are  prevented  from  lignification  by 
shading  weeds. 

Selecting  species  suiting  the  soil  (walnut  on  best 
soil,  where  it  will  lignify;  echinata  on  poor 
soil,  where  it  will  form  one  shoot  only), 
the  exposure,  and  the  climate  (prairie  plant- 
ing); 

Cultivation,  so  as  to  stimulate  insolation  and 
lignification;  possibly  pruning  to  same  end; 
or  else  to  give  the  lead  to  one  side  shoot 
amongst  several  when  the  leader  is  frost- 
killed. 
In  natural  seed  regeneration: 

Progress  of  the  axe  in  shelterwood-types  accord- 
ing to  the  requirements  of  the  seedlings, 
viz.,  slow,  where  late  frost  is  feared,  so  as 
to  retard  the  act  of  sprouting  in  spring; 
or  else  rapid,  where  early  frost  is  feared, 
so  as  to  allow  of  lignification; 

Untimely  and  sudden  removal  of  mother  trees 
may  shock  tender  plants  (even  spruce  5' 
high),  on  the  other  hand. 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


131 


D. 


Frost  may  be  invited  on  purpose  to  check  a  less 
desirable  species  in  mixture  with  a  hardier 
and  more  desirable  species. 
Frost  is  Injurious 

by  lifting  (uprooting)  seedlings  ln  nurseries  and  plantations. 
Subject  to  damage  are: 

Flat  rooted  species  growing  slowly  in  early  youth,  notably 
conifers  (yellow  pine  yearlings,  white  pine  yearlings, 
spruce,  hemlock); 
Moist  localities  and  loose  soil; 
East  exposures,  and  notably  steep  east  aspects. 

(a)  Remedial  measures  are: 

Pressing  seedlings  back,  soon  after  accident. 

(b)  Restrictive  measures  are : 

1.  In  nurseries: 

Drainage  by  deep  paths  (middlings)  between  the 

beds; 
Proper  deration  of  soil; 
Seedbeds  planted  broadcast; 
Strong  seedlings,  and  long  roots; 
Shading  beds,   and  covering  space  between  the 

rows  of  plants; 
No  weeding  in  early  fall. 

2.  In  plantations: 

Planting  on  reversed  sods; 
Mound  planting: 

Planting   three    year-olds    (two   year    old   trans- 
plants in  case  of  yellow  pine); 
Planting  ball  plants; 
Planting  under  shelter  overhead. 
Frost  is  Injurious 

by  causing  frost  cracks 

in  hardwoods   only,   notably   in   case   of  injured   trees   and   of 

species  having  strong  medullary  rays. 
Insect  disease  and  fungus  disease  follow  in  the  cracks. 
Remedy:     Timely  thinning  or  improvement  cutting. 
Cracks  occur,  notably, 

along  lower  part  of  bole; 

on  standards  over  coppice; 

on  south  side  of  trees; 

on  medium  sized  trees  (1^2 '-3'). 

in  moist  localities. 


132  F0REST  PROTECTION 


Par.  10.  Pr«tectien  Against  Heat. 

A.  Heat  Causes  Harm  ®nly  : 

When  it  invites  forest  fires; 

When  it  fails  to  be  balanced  by  the  moisture  in  the  air  or  soil  (wood 
lots  in  the  prairies;  old  park  trees); 

When  it  occurs  suddenly,  striking  the  trees  in  a  state  of  non-pro- 
tection (e.  g.,  new  plantations  and  trees  isolated  of  a  sudden). 

B.  The  Plants  Protect  Themselves  Ordinarily  Against  Heat: 

By  dropping  leaves; 

By  resinous  cell  contents; 

By  closed  stomata; 

By  color  and  position  of  leaves; 

By  coverings  of  cork,  hair  and  that  like. 

C.  Remedies: 

1.  In  infant  forests: 

(a)  in  nurseries: 

Secure  irrigation} 

Provide  lath  screens  or  cloth  screens; 
Maintain  a  cover  of  mould  on  the  soil; 
Cultivate  so  as  to  increase  the  porosity  of  soil; 
Plant  the  seeds  early  in  spring  before  the  winter 

moisture  has  vanished; 
Transplant  early  and  transplant  deeply.   ^-^. -     , 

(b)  in  plantations: 

Use  strong  transplants; 

Adopt  mound  planting;  J.        . .     • 

Plant  under  cover; 

Adopt  ball  planting; 

Avoid  loss  of  root  fibres  during  act  of  out-planting; 

Cultivate. 

(c)  in  natural  seed  regenerations: 

Remove  mother  trees  slowly; 

Remove  trees  reflecting  heat  unto  young  growth. 

(d)  Generally : 

Maintain   a   dense   cover  overhead,   and   a  good 
layer  of  humus  underneath. 

2.  In  pole  forests  and  tree  forests: 

Characteristic  for  damage  (so-called  sunscald)  is: 

Bark  scaling  off; 

Sap  wood  turning  brown; 

Discoloration  and  decay  within  a  distinct  sector  of  bole, 
(a)    Prevent  sunscald  by  avoiding  sudden  changes  of  the 

influx  of  light; 


FOREST  PROTECTION  133 

Notably  so  in  the  case  of  dense  stands  of  beech, 
spruce,  white  pine,  ash; 

Notably  on  the  West-South-West  edge  of  a  wood 
lot. 

At  Biltmore,  Oak  saplings  along  the  macada- 
mized roads;  chestnuts  on  the  arboretum 
road;  and  hickories  of  small  diameter  have 
been  visited  by  the  disease. 

(b)  Do  not  remove  the  trees  affected  by  sunscald;  their 

removal  will  merely  expose  the  trees  in  the  rear, 
and  the  damage  will  continue. 

(c)  Do  not  remove,  from  endangered  trees,  by  pruning, 

any  living  branches. 

(d)  Time  the  progress  of  the  axe  properly  in  thinnings, 

preparatory  cuttings,  seed  cuttings  and  removal 
cuttings. 


134  FOREST  PROTECTION 


Par.  11.  Protection  Against  Snow  and  Sleet. 

Snow  is  Beneficial: 

By  preventing  fires; 

By  storing  water  and  by  preserving  soil  moisture; 

By  facilitating  the  logging  operations; 

By  covering  sensitive  plants; 

By  removing  dead  side  branches; 

By  preventing  frost  from  entering  deeply  into  soil; 

By  reducing  the  felling  damages. 

A.  Snow  is  Technically  Obnoxious: 

By  preventing  the  use  of  wagons  or  railroads; 
By  endangering  skidding  on  steep  slopes; 
By  increasing  sledding  expenses  (when  snow  is  too  deep); 
By  causing  extra  outlay  in  cutting  stumps  low  to  the  ground; 
By  reducing  the  accessibility  of  the  woods. 

Remark:     Winters  of  excessive  snow  are  known  as  winters  of  re- 
stricted output  of  lumber. 

B.  Snow  is  Physiologically  Obnoxious: 

By  bending  down  saplings  and  poles  with  or  without  their  roots; 
By  breaking  off  branches  and  crowns  or  by  breaking  down  poles 

and  trees  with  the  roots; 
By  causing  rodents  and  game  to  attack  trees  and  saplings  for  food; 
By  exposing  trees  after  breakage  to  the  attacks  of  insects  and  fungi; 
By  increasing  storm  damage  at  a  time  when  the  trees  are  loaded 

with  snow  or  sleet. 

C.  Factors  of  Damage. 

Species  and  mixture  of  species; 

Age  and  size  of  trees; 

Method  of  regeneration  and  notably  the  density  thereof; 

Climatic  constellations   (e.  g.,  coincidence  of  storm;  succession  of 

thaws  and  snows;  occurrences  of  snow  in  Octover,  before  the 

fall  of  the  leaves); 
Preceding  treatment  by  thinning;  by  removal  cuttings;  by  leaving 

standards  after  coppiceing;  by  road  making. 
Locality,  elevation  and  aspect: 
Steepness  of  slope; 
Depth  of  soil  (Coxehill); 
Rate  of  growth  (fast  grown  yellow  pine  and  top  whirls  of  fast  grown 

white  pine  at  Biltmore;) 
Prior  injuries  by  fire,  by  boxing,  by  insects  and  fungi  (black  locusts). 
Remark:     Remember  the  following  illustrations: 
White  cedar  in  swamps  of  South  Carolina; 
Cuban  pine  in  Alabama; 


FOREST  PROTECTION  135 

Poplar  tops  in  Pisgah  Forest; 

Topped  white  pines  in  the  Pink  Beds; 

Black  locusts  and  hickory  on  mountain  tops; 

Plantations  of  rigid  pine  in  Black  Forest; 

Spruce  saplings  in  the  Balsams,  in  the  early  spring  of  1908. 
Remedies  : 

Selecting  the  proper  species  for  planting  or  for  natural  seed  re- 
generations, in  keeping  with  the  requirements  of  the  locality 
and  of  the  climate; 

Group  system  of  natural  seed  regeneration; 

Planting  in  rows  instead  of  planting  in  triangles  (Hess); 

Thinnings  properly  made  beginning  early  in  very  dense  regenerations; 

Pollarding; 

Readiness  of  permanent  means  of  transportation  so  as  to  make 
possible  the  salvage  of  broken  timber. 


CHAPTER  II:  PROTECTION  AGAINST  STORM,  EROSION, 
SANDDRIFTS,  NOXIOUS  GASES. 


Part  12.  Protection  Against  Wind  Storms. 

Wind  is  Beneficial: 

By  restoring  the  chemical  balance  of  the  atmosphere; 

By  distributing  pollen  and  seeds; 

By  preventing  excessive  formation  of  side  branches; 

By  bringing  rain. 
A.     Damage  is  Caused  by  Wind  Storm  (aside  of  forest  fires  spread  or  fanned) : 

(a)  in  plantations: 
By  loosening  the  anchorage  of  tall  seedlings  and 

saplings;  (notably,  after  planting  in  furrows, 

in  the  prairies,  on  sand  dunes); 
By  drying  out  roots  and  shoots  and  leaves  and 

soil  (notably  in  the  early  spring); 
By  removing  the  protecting  cover  of  snow; 
By  allowing  the  "mob"  to  whip  the  top  shoots 

of  "aristocrats." 

(b)  in  exposed  localities: 
By  one-sided  (seashore  or  Pisgah  ridge)  or  stunted 

growth. 

(c)  IN  TREE  FORESTS  AND  IN  LARGE  POLE  WrOODS: 

By  breakage  of  crowns  or  branches,  thus  allow- 
ing access  to  fungi  and  to  insects; 

By  breakage  of  stems  at  their  point  of  least  re- 
sistence; 

By  uprooting  trees  singly,  in  avenues,  or  in  large 
blocks; 

By  endangering  the  logging  operations. 
Factors  of  Damage  are  : 

(a)  Species: 
Flat-rooted  conifers  are  most  endangered;  a  mix- 
ture of  species  in  advisable. 

(b)  Size  class: 
Poles  and  trees  over  8"   in  diameter  are  most 

subject  to  damage. 

(c)  Locality: 
Leeward  sides  of  lakes; 
Mountain  slopes  and  mountain  tops  on  leeward 

side; 
Moist  spots; 
Shallow  soil. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  137 

(d)  Prior  Treatment: 

Partial  logging,  leaving  a  freshly  bared  front 
exposed  to  the  prevailing  storm; 

Standards  over  coppice; 

Single  seedtrees  over  regeneration; 

Borggreve  thinnings; 

Turpentining  by  the  box  system; 

Interference  with  anchorage  of  roots  by  making 
ditches  or  roads. 

(e)  Shape  of  trees: 

Cylindrical  trees  are  more  top  heavy  than  coni- 
cal trees. 

(f)  Accompanying  circumstances: 

Heavy  rains  soaking  the  soil; 

Heavy  seed  years  when  the  tops  of  the  trees  are 

loaded  with  cones; 
Sleet; 
Snow. 

Preventive  measures: 

(a)  Sylviculturally: 

Ball   planting,    deep    planting,    sod   covering   on 

shifting  sand. 
Fostering  hardwoods  or  mixture  therewith; 
Early  and  moderate  and  regular  thinnings; 
Pruning  or  lopping  to  reduce  top-heaviness; 
No  standards; 

No  single  tree  method  of  natural  seed  regeneration; 
Proper  preparation  in  due  time  of  frees  intended 

for  an  isolated  position; 

(b)  Technically: 

Avoidance    of    logging    methods    leaving    points 

favorable  to  the  attack  of  storms; 
Progress  of  the  axe  against  the  direction  of  the 

barometric  minima; 
Herty  method  of  terpentining; 
Proper  "cutting  series;" 
Timely  "severance  cuttings." 
Restrictive  Measures: 

Readiness  of  means  of  transportation  (railroads  and  roads)  after 

wind  falls; 
Removing  the  bark  from  wind  falls; 
Throwing  wind  falls  in  water. 


138  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Par.  13.  Protection  Against  Erosion. 

The  adult  forest  does  not  require  any  protection  from  erosion — usu- 
ally so. 

It  must  be  remembered,  on  the  other  hand,  that  "civilization"  (by 
ditching  the  slopes  on  the  hills;  by  cutting  roads  and  railroads  into  the  soil; 
by  draining  the  bottom-lands  for  farming  purposes)  increases  the  rapidity 
of  the  subterranean  and  of  the  superficial  drainage;  that  it  results  in  a  par- 
tial destruction  of  the  soil  on  the  hill  sides. 

Erosion,  in  the  present  geological  acra,  is  not  so  active,  nevertheless, 
as  it  was  in  prior  periods. 

A  forest  plantation  on  the  hill  side  suffers  during  its  early  stages  from 
erosion  where  the  soil  consists  of  clay,  and  where  the  plough  has  preceded 
the  establishment  of  the  embryo-forest. 

Some  seedlings  are  washed  out  of  the  soil  whilst  others  are  covered 
by  detritus. 

At  Biitmore,  erosion  has  harmed  particularly  the  so-called  "old  school 
house"  plantation,  in  its  earliest  stage  of  development. 

As  soon  as  the  forest  covers  the  ground  fully,  viz.:  when  the  branches 
of  neighboring  specimens  interlace,  all  erosion  is  usually  stopped  and  stopped 
for  good. 

Oftentimes  deep  gullies  are  cut  into  the  side  slopes  during  and  after 
agricultural  occupancy  of  the  soil;  in  such  cases,  the  stopping  of  the  gullies 
by  wicker  works  or  hurdles  can  be  recommended. 

These  wicker  works  should  not  protrude  more  than  one-half  foot  above 
the  surface  of  the  soil. 

They  should  be  made,  particularly,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  gully.  It 
is  useless  to  make  them  at  the  lower  end  alone. 

These  wicker  works  will  hinder  erosion  to  a  certain  extent;  will  quiet 
the  soil  within  the  gully;  and  will  allow  the  grasses  and  the  weeds  to  occupy 
the  sides  of  the  gully. 

The  most  interesting  case  of  erosion  met  in  Eastern  America  is,  pos- 
sibly, the  erosion  exhibited  in  the  immediate  proximity  of  the  smelter  works 
at  Ducktown,  Tenn. 

Here,  the  hillsides  were  laid  bare  entirely  at  a  time  at  which  the  smelters 
used  the  timber  for  charcoal. 

Following  this  deforestation,  the  bared  areas  were  used  for  roasting 
(by  the  open  heap  method)  of  the  copper-bearing  ores.  As  a  consequence, 
every  vestige  of  vegetation  has  been  annihilated  on  the  hillsides  and  eros- 
ion has  had  a  chance  to  work  in  an  amazing  degree  of  intensity. 

Erosion  may  be  checked  by  horizontal  ditches — or  ditches  running 
at  a  very  light  grade;  by  the  planting  of  grasses  or  weeds  between  horizon- 
tal ditches;  and  finally,  by  afforestation. 

There  is  no  means  better  than  successful  afforestation  by  which  the 
soil  can  be  fastened  or  anchored  to  the  underlying  rock. 

Afforestation  as  a  topic  of  lectures  belongs  into  "Sylviculture"  and 
into  "Forest  Policy." 


FOREST  PROTECTION  139 


Par.  14.  Protection  Against  Shifting  Sands. 

Instances  are  rare  in  which  the  forest  requires  any  protection  against 
shifting  sands. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  forest  frequently  tends  to  protect  from  damage 
the  farms,  the  railroads  and  other  human  interests. 

In  other  words:  The  forest  requires,  rarely,  protection  against  shift- 
ing sands;  and  it  acts  frequently  as  a  protector  against  shifting  sands. 

Famous  instances  of  the  role  which  the  forest  plays  in  this  connection 
are  those  of  Cape  Cod,  Mass.;  of  Hatteras  Island,  N.  C.  (Compare  Collier 
Cobb's  article  in  the  National  Geographic  Magazine  entitled  "Where  the 
wind  does  the  work");  in  Central  Hungary;  in  the  Landes  of  Gascogny, 
France;  in  the  Rhine  Valley  near  Darmstadt,  Germany;  along  the  Colum- 
bia River  in  Oregon  and  Washington;  and  so  on). 

A.     Shifting  sand  along  the  seashore  is  found  notably  in  the  form  of  sand 
dunes  moving  landward,  fed  and  driven  by  ocean  winds. 

It  would  be  unwise  to  attempt  any  afforestation  of  the  dunes  nearest 
the  ocean.  Afforestation  may  set  in  at  some  distance  from  the 
ocean  in  protected  depressions  found  between  parallel  dunes. 

The  dunes  are  fixed,  to  begin  with,  by  rough  palings  forming  the  heart 
of  the  dunes  and  causing  a  constant  growth  of  the  height  of  the 
dunes.  The  sides  of  the  dunes  are  fortified  by  sandgrasses  and 
sandweeds. 

The  species  used  for  afforestation  belong  to  particularly  modest  genera: 
Cottonwoods,  willows  and  pines  are  recommended. 

Obviously,  the  forester  restocking  shifting  sands  is  interested  in  the 
fixation  of  the  sands  more  than  in  a  direct  revenue  derivable  from 
plantations  made  at  a  very  high  expense  on  very  sterile  soil. 
B.  The  case  lies  somewhat  different  on  sand  areas  found  inland.  Here, 
afforestation  is  frequently  indicated  as  a  means  toward  a  revenue 
obtainable  from  soil  lying  otherwise  unproductive  and  threaten- 
ing, at  the  margins  of  the  sand  fields,  destruction  to  adjoining  farm- 
land. 

The  usual  method  of  proceeding  is  the  following: 

Sods  of  grasses  or  else  sods  of  heather  are  laid  on  the  soil,  checker-board 
fashion.  Within  the  sods  are  planted  longrooted  yellow  pines, 
preference  being  given  to  transplants  two  years  old  or  else  to  ball 
plants  one  year  old.     There  is  no  harm  in  "deep  planting." 

Afforestation  should  begin  on  the  windward  side  of  the  sand  area,  in 
protected  spots. 

The  most  famous  attempt  made  in  America  toward  the  afforestation 
of  inland  sands  is  that  of  the  Forest  Service  trying  to  establish, 
on  the  "Bad  Lands"  of  Nebraska,  a  planted  forest  on  a  large  scale. 


140 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


It  is  obvious  that  small  plants  are  pulled  out  of  a  loose  soil  readily  by 
the  wind — notably  so  in  the  case  of  evergreens;  and  that  large 
transplants  suffer  badly  from  the  shock  of  outplanting  and  from 
the  inadequacy  of  the  water  supply  available  on  sterile  sand. 

Wheresoever  the  soil  is  apt  to  become  shifting,  the  law  should  prohibit 
the  removal  of  the  trees  by  their  owners. 

The  influence  in  that  direction  exercised  by  a  commonwealth  is  dealt 
with  in  the  lectures  on  "Forest  Policy." 


ts^ 


FOREST  PROTECTION  141 


Par.  15.  Protection  Against  Noxious  Gases  (Sulphurfumes). 

By  the  term  "sulphurfumes"  are  understood  certain  gases  formed  by 
the  oxidation  of  sulphur.  Huge  amounts  of  these  gases  are  produced  wher- 
ever sulphur-bearing  minerals  are  treated  in  the  presence  of  atmospheric  air. 

Contamination  of  the  atmosphere  is  one  of  the  evils  adherent  to  civili- 
zation, or,  which  is  the  same,  adherent  to  an  increase  of  population  at  cer- 
tain centers.  The  breath  of  any  man  or  any  animal  and,  more  than  that, 
the  smoke  rising  from  any  building  (dwellings  as  well  as  factories)  contami- 
nate the  air. 

After  Angus  Smith,  the  atmosphere  at  Manchester,  England,  contains 
a  little  less  than  the  one-millionth  part  of  S02  on  the  average  of  the  year. 

The  rain  water  investigations  made  by  the  same  English  author  show 
the  rapid  increase  of  sulphuric  acid  in  rain  water  near  industrial  centers. 

The  sulphur  contained  in  common  coal  averages  1.7%,  of  which  1.2% 
develop  into  noxious  sulphurfumes.  In  other  words,  85  tons  of  coal  will 
develop  on  the  average  2  tons  of  noxious  S02. 

Since  the  consumption  of  bituminous  coal  in  the  United  States  is  in 
excess  of  200,000,000  tons  per  annum,  it  appears  that  we  send  into  the  at- 
mosphere (pre-eminently  in  the  northeast)  annually  about  4,700,000  tons 
of  sulphurous  acid. 

A.    Nature  of  Damage  to  Leaves. 

There  is  not  at  hand,  at  the  present  time,  any  scientific  explana- 
tion of  the  strange  physiological  effect  which  sulphur  fumes 
exercise  upon  vegetation. 

After  Prof.  Naegeli,  S02  checks  the  normal  movement  of  the  live 
plasma  in  the  leaves. 

Von  Schroeder  finds  that  the  transpiration  from  the  leaves  is  that 
function  which  is  most  vitally  reduced  by  inhalation  of  SO». 

During  night,  transpiration  from  the  leaves  is  naturally  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  there  is  little 
difference  in  the  evaporative  function  of  leaves  during  night, 
whether  they  be  exposed  to  S02  or  whether  they  be  left  in 
an  atmosphere  free  from  S02. 

When  the  sun  shines,  the  difference  between  the  evaporation  in 
leaves  exposed  to  S02  and  in  leaves  exposed  to  a  pure  atmos- 
phere is  very  striking. 

Reduced  transpiration  appears  to  be  noticeable  before  discolora- 
tion of  leaves  occurs  in  a  sulphurous  atmosphere. 

After  von  Schroeder,  very  small  quantities  of  S02  continuously 
acting  produce  the  same  final  result  (always  in  the  glass  case) 
which  large  quantities  will  produce  acting  for  short  periods 
only.  This  observation  does  not  tally  with  the  results  of 
Freytag's  experiments  made  in  the  open  air. 


142  FOREST  PROTECTION 

Darkness  reduces  the  damage  by  S02  more  than  dryness.  In  the 
presence  of  light,  heat  and  humidity,  the  discoloring  and  dead- 
ening action  of  S02  is  most  intense;  which  is  to  say:  It  is 
strongest  when  the  vital  functions  of  the  leaves  are  most  active. 

Parallel  experiments  show  no  discoloration  as  a  consequence  of  the 
absorption  of  S02  in  the  dark  room  (at  night),  although  such 
absorption  takes  place  actually. 

Wet  leaves  show  much  more  discoloration  than  dry  leaves  in  the 
same  sulphurous  atmosphere. 

The  main  difficulty  met  in  ascertaining  the  dilution  at  which  SO  2 
becomes  innocuous  lies  in  the  disturbing  influence  of  light 
and  moisture. 

After  Freytag  (experiments  in  the  open  air)  damage  is  possible 
only  in  humid  air,  or  when  the  leaves  are  slightly  wet  from 
drizzling  rain  and  from  dew. 

Again,  after  Freytag,  air  containing  less  than  0.003%  (of  weight) 
of  S02  is  innocuous,  even  under  adverse  hydrographic  con- 
ditions and  in  spite  of  continuous  fumigation,  applied  during 
a  number  of  weeks. 

Freytag's  experiments  are  the  only  open-air  experiments  which 
have  been  conducted  with  scientific  correctness. 

S02  and  S03  are  absorbed  in  the  same  absolute  quantities  by  the 
leaves  when  present  in  the  air  in  equal  proportions.  Discol- 
oration of  leaves,  however,  and  decrease  in  transpiration  from 
leaves  are,  simultaneously,  much  smaller  in  an  atmosphere 
of  SO  3  than  in  an  atmosphere  of  S02.  Consequently,  all 
conditions  which  favor  the  formation  of  SO  3  in  the  air  before 
the  air  touches  the  leaves  must  decrease  the  damage — espec- 
ially so  in  the  case  of  chronic  affections. 

The  assumption  that  clouds  of  smoke  interfere  with  the  admis- 
sion of  light  and  hence  with  the  assimilation  of  the  leaves  is 
erroneous. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  the  "stuffing  up"  of  the  so-called  stomata 
found  on  the  leaves  (through  which  inhalation  and  transpira- 
tion takes  place)  caused  by  soot  or  solid  particles  contained 
in  the  fumes. 

Experiments  made  by  Stoeckhardt  prove  this  thesis  beyond  a  doubt. 

B.     Chemical  Remarks. 

Sulphurous  acid  (II2S03)  is  unknown  in  the  free  state;  it  is  likely 

to  be  contained  in  the  solution  of  gaseous  S02  in  the  water. 
Sulphurous  acid  forms  primary  and  secondary  sulphites;  its  salts 

are  obtained  by  saturating  a  base  with  a  watery  solution  of  SO  2. 
If  sulphurous  acid  is  eliminated  from  its  salts  by  the  action  of  stronger 

acids,  then  it  forms  its  anhydrid  and  water. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  143 

Since  a  large  number  of  calories  of  heat  are  set  free  by  the  union 
of  S  and  O,  in  forming  the  S02,  the  anhydrid  is  a  constant 
combination. 

S02  is  readily  reduced,  by  H2S,  into  water  and  sulphur. 

In  watery  solutions  as  well  as  in  gaseous  form  S02  readily  oxidises 
into  SO  s,  when  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere, 
32  calories  of  heat  being  liberated  by  such  oxidation. 

On  the  other  hand,  S03  at  red  heat  dissolves  into  oxygen  and  S02. 
It  stands  to  reason  that  with  increasing  distance  from  the 
smoke-stack  the  contents  of  the  smoke  are  more  S03  than  S02. 

After  von  Schroeder,  the  gases  of  S03  are,  without  a  doubt,  less 
damaging  to  vegetation  inhaling  them  than  the  gases  of  S02. 

Within  the  leaves  S02  is  very  quickly  converted,  by  oxidation, 
into  SO  3. 

A  few  hours  after  gas-poisoning,  only  S03  (not  S02)  can  be  proven 
to  be  present  within  the  leaves. 

Chemical  analysis  of  leaves  can  only  fix  the  territory  infested  in 
a  random  way.  It  can  never  be  used  as  a  measure  of  damage 
locally  found.  The  damage  can  be  assessed  only  according 
to  the  effects  discernible  with  the  naked  eye.  So-called  "in- 
visible  damages"   have   never   been   allowed   by   the   Courts. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  leaves  suspected  to  be  poisoned  deals 
only  with  an  abnormal   (unnatural)   surplus  of  S03. 

All  leaves  contain,  in  nature,  certain  amounts  of  S03,  the  amounts 
depending  on  the  composition  of  the  soil  and  on  the  species. 

Hence  a  comparative  analysis  of  the  leaves  is  absolutely  necessary 
where  it  is  intended  to  establish  the  influence  of  sulphurfumes 
on  vegetation.  This  analysis  must  allow  for  the  difference 
in  the  soil  and  the  difference  in  the  distance  from  the  smelters. 
At  the  same  time,  the  leaves  examined  must  be  taken  from 
the  same  part  of  the  tree  and  from  the  same  side  of  the  tree; 
further,  the  leaves  must  be  in  the  same  stage  of  development. 

After  recent  experiments  the  sulphuric  contents  in  the  leaves  within 
the  lower  part  of  the  crown  are  much  higher  than  the  sulphuric 
contents  in  the  upper  part  of  the  crown. 

The  ashes  obtained  from  trees  growing  in  low  lands  are  relatively 
poorer  in  SO  3  than  the  ashes  from  trees  growing  on  mountains. 
Weak  limbs  show  more  S03  than  strong  limbs. 

The  Merits  of  the  Chemical  Analysis. 

Science  has  not  established  any  absolutely  reliable  means  to 
connect  death  or  injury  of  trees  with  a  poisoning  effect  of 
S02  or  S03  suspended  in  the  air  surrounding  such  trees. 


144  FOREST  PROTECTION 

An  anatomic — microscopic  proof  of  injury  due  to  S02  or  SO,  can- 
not be  given  (Haselhoff  and  Lindau,  p.  93  and  p.  37). 

A  number  of  injurious  influences  (frost,  heat,  desiccation  of  soil, 
insects,  fungi  (Schroeder  and  Reuss,  p.  110)  fire,  etc.)  bring 
about,  within  the  leaves  and  needles,  identical  or  similar  al- 
terations of  the  cell-structure  (Haselhoff  and  Lindau,  p.  12  ff). 

The  consensus  of  opinion,  amongst  scientific  specialists  (R.  Har- 
tig,  p.  6;  Winkler,  p.  379;  Schroeder  and  Reuss,  p.  126)  is  to 
the  effect  that  excessive  contents  of  SOs  within  the  leaves 
are  not  necessarily  injurious. 

Injury  due  to  sulphurfumes  can  be  assumed  only  when  there  are 
at  hand 

A.  death  visible  to  the  naked  eye; 

B.  no  other  plausible  cause  of  such  death; 

C.  contents  of  SOs  in  the   leaves   which   are   unmistak- 

ably increased    by    the    reaction    of    the    leaves 
and  needles  on  sulphur  fumes. 

Unmistakably  increased  contents  of  SOt 
proven  chemically  within  the  leaves  are 

a.  not    identical    with    abnormal    con- 

tents; 

b.  not  such  contents  as  exceed  the  av- 

erage contents  of  leaves  within 
territories  acknowledged  to  be 
beyond  the  reach  of  sulphur 
fumes;  in  other  words, 

c.  not  particularly  high  percentages  of 

SO  s   found   within   the   leaves. 
General  averages  holding  good 
for  the  contents  of  SO»  within 
the  leaves  of  healthy  trees  do 
not  exist  (Haselhoff  and  L  ndau, 
p.  67). 
If  the  contents  of  SO»  found  within  the  in- 
jured or  uninjured  leaves  and  needles  of 
a  given  tree  exceed  those  obtained  by 
averaging  a  large  number  of  analytic  re- 
sults obtained  from  the  tests  of  healthy 
leaves  and  needles,  then  and  in  such  case 
the  excess  is  frequently  due  to  any  one, 
or   to   a   combination    of   the   following 
:es: 

(a)  Soil:  A  soil  naturally  rich  in 
SO  s  or  irrigated  with  water 
containing    SO«,    produces 


FOREST  PROTECTION  145 

leaves  and  needles  sur- 
charged with  S0».  Such 
surcharge  has  no  detrimen- 
tal influence  on  the  state  of 
health  of  the  trees  (Hasel- 
hoff  and  Lindau,  p.  46,  p. 
51,  p.  55,  p.  56). 

(b)  Age:    Old  needles  contain  more 

SO »  than  young  needles. 
(Haselhoff  and  Lindau,  p. 
67;  Schroeder  and  Reuss,  p. 
128). 

(c)  Season:    Young  leaves  contain 

more  SOs  than  old  leaves. 

(d)  Position  :    On  the  same  healthy- 

tree,  the  sulphur  contents 
of  the  leaves  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  position  of  the 
leaves,which  position  might 
be 

at  the  base  or  at  the 
top  of  the  crown, 
on  the  inside  or  on 
the  outside  of  the 
crown. 

(e)  Elevation:    On  the  slope  of  a 

hill,  the  sulphur  contents  in 
the  healthy  leaves  of  the 
same    tree-species    exhibit 
variations  depending  on  the 
elevation    above    sea-level 
(Schroeder   and   Reuss,   p. 
126). 
The  sulphur  contents  of  given  leaves  and  need- 
les    are    "unmistakably     increased"    by 
the  reaction  on  sulphur  fumes  in  all  cases 
where  it  can  be  proven  that  none  of  the 
causes  of  increase  above  enumerated  has 
or  have  brought  about  such  increase.    It 
is  advisable,  as  a  consequence, 

(1)  to  back  the  chemical  analysis  of 
the  leaves  by  the  chemical 
analysis  of  the  soil  on  which 
such  leaves  were  produced, 
so  as  to  prove  that  an  in- 


146  FOREST  PROTECTION 

crease  of  leaf-sulphur  is  not 
due  to  an  increase  of  soil- 
sulphur  (Haselhoff  and  Lin- 
dau,  p.  378); 
(2)  to  compare  the  analytic  results 
of  such  leaves  and  needles 
only  which  were  picked 
equally  old; 

equally  situated   with- 
in the  crown  of  the 
trees; 
equally   situated    with 
reference  to  eleva- 
tion. 
All  experts  agree  that  short,  sudden,  strong 
attacks  by  sulphur  fumes  are  apt  to  be 
deadly;  still,  such  attacks  do  not  cause 
a  very  marked  increase  of  S03  in  the 
leaves. 
On  the  other  hand,  long-continued,  but  slight 
attacks   by   sulphur   fumes    result   in   a 
heavy   increase    of   S03    in   the   leaves; 
still,  such  attacks  do    not    cause  a  very 
marked  injury   to  the  trees  (Wislicenus, 
Journal  of  Applied  Chemistry,  1901,  p. 
28). 
It  is  evident,  consequently,  that  conclusions 
based  on  the  chemical  analysis  of  leaves 
and  needles  are  apt  to  be  rash;  and  that 
so-called  chemical  proofs  must  be  viewed 
with  great  precaution  (Wieler,  p.  380). 

D.    Unreliability  of  Glass-Case  Experiments. 

Experiments  touching  the  poisonous  effect  of  fumes  made  with 
plants  placed  in  a  glass  case  cannot  be  so  telling  as  experi- 
ments made  in  the  open,  because: 

a.  In  the  glass  case,  the  gas  is  admitted  from  below  so 

as  to  infest  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves,  which 
lower  surface  is  known  to  be  more  subject  to 
sulphur  attacks  than  the  upper  surface. 

b.  Sulphurous   anhydrid,   in   statu   nascendi,   is   increas- 

ingly active  and  pre-eminently  corrosive. 

c.  The  discoloration  of  the  leaves  in  nature  differs  from 

the  discoloration  usually  observed  in  glass  case 
experiments. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  147 

d.  In  nature,  S03  is  largely  mixed  with  S02,  the  former 
being  less  active  than  the  latter.  In  the  glass 
case,  usually,  only  S02  is  developed. 

E.    Factors  of  Dama3e. 

Without  a  doubt,  a  slight  admixture  to  the  atmosphere  of  either 
SO  2  or  SO  3  has  a  certain  influence  on  vegetation;  such  in- 
fluence being  irregularly  proportioned  to  the  amount  of  the 
admixture. 

After  Stoeckhardt,  the  one-millionth  part  of  the  air  consisting  of 
SO  2  results,  in  the  course  of  time,  in  discoloration  (335  fumi- 
gations discolor  wet  leaves  in  six  weeks,  dry  leaves  in  eight 
weeks). 

The  degree  of  injury  depends  on 

a.  The  continuity  of  the  fumigation  which  is  governed 

by  the  steadiness  of  the  wind  direction  and  which 
decreases,  step  by  step,  with  increasing  distance 
from  the  smelters. 

b.  The   sensitiveness   of   the   plants   which   is   governed 

by  species,  quality  of  the  soil,  preceding  injury 
by  fire,  pasture  or  general  neglect. 

c.  The  number  of  months  per  annum  during  which  the 

leaves  show  physical  activity.  In  the  case  of 
hardwoods,  this  number  is  about  3J/£,  extend- 
ing from  May  1  to  August  15. 

d.  Atmospheric  conditions  which  may  allow  the  gases 

to  remain  in  bulk  after  emission  from  the  smoke- 
stack,  thus   concentrating  the  damage   on  such 
parts   of  the   country  toward  which  the  smoke 
happens  to  drift  in  bulk. 
It  has  been  proven  by  experiments  as  well  as  by  the  experience 
of  all  observers  in  nature,  that  days  of  great  atmospheric  hu- 
midity, days  on  which  fog  forms  and  days  following  nights 
of  heavy  dew  are  particularly  prolific  in  breeding  acute  dis- 
coloration or  damage.     On  the  other  hand,  very  bright  weather 
as  well  as  heavy  rains  seem  to  minimize  the  damage  by  inten- 
sive dilution  and  may  prevent  damage  entirely. 
The  toxic  influence  of  sulphur  gases  might  be  considered  either 
as  an  acute  or  as  a  chronic  disease.     Acute  cases  appear  only 
in  the  near  proximity  of  smelters  where  clouds  of  smoke  kept 
in  bulk  under  certain  atmospheric  constellations  actually  ex- 
ercise a  corroding  influence  on  the  leaves. 
On  the  other  hand,  where  the  diluted  gases  are  inhaled  by  the  plants 
during  a  long  number  of  days  under  the  influence  of  a  steady 
wind,  there  chronic  discoloration  and  chronic  disease  will  enter 
an  appearance. 


148  FOREST  PROTECTION 

F.  Damage  to  the  Soil. 

Conclusive  experiments  prove  that  soluble  sulphuric  salts  of  cop- 
per (like  blue  vitriol)  fail  to  cause  any  damage  to  the  plants, 
whether  applied  in  the  form  of  dust  or  in  the  form  of  watery 
solution.  Very  concentrated  solutions,  however,  cause  cor- 
rosion; also  dust  falling  on  leaves  wet  with  dew. 

Although  the  roots  of  plants  are  unable  to  refuse  entrance  to  dam- 
aging liquids,  it  has  been  found  that  soluble  salts  of  copper, 
when  entering  the  soil,  form  at  once  an  insoluble  chemical 
combination  with  the  bases  of  the  soil.  It  is  possible,  how- 
ever, that  poor  quartz-sand,  in  the  immediate  proximity  of 
the  smelters,  can  be  affected  by  soluble  salts  of  copper. 

Insoluble  salts  of  copper  are,  obviously,  harmless  in  the  soil. 

Absolute  proof  for  or  against  soil-poisoning  can  be  obtained  only 
by  planting  seeds  and  seedlings  into  soil  supposed  to  be  poi- 
soned, after  removal  to  a  point  far  from  the  smelters.  Plant- 
ing experiments  made  by  Reuss  have  failed  to  prove  any  posion- 
ing  of  the  soil,  even  under  extreme  conditions. 

The  sulphuric  acid  contained  in  the  soil  is  by  no  means  propor- 
tioned to  the  damage  appearing  in  the  trees.  On  the  other 
hand,  trees  stocking  on  sulphuric  soil  (e.  g.  gypsum  soil)  show 
invariably  a  high  percentage  of  sulphuric  acid  within  the  leaves. 
It  seems  as  if  sulphuric  acid  obtained  through  the  roots  is 
innocuous,  whilst  sulphuric  acid  inhaled  through  the  leaves 
is  noxious. 

If  by  condensation  of  the  gases  at  the  smelters  the  atmosphere 
is  purified,  the  soil  in  the  proximity  of  the  smelters  is  as  ready 
to  produce  as  ever.  In  other  words,  there  is  no  such  thing 
as  irreparable  damage  caused  by  smelterfumes. 

Experiments  with  plants  watered  with  a  solution  of  S02  prove 
conclusively  that  no  damage  results  from  such  watering.  On 
the  contrary!  After  Freytag,  plants  watered  with  a  solu- 
tion of  SOj  have  shown  better  yields  than  those  which  were 
not  watered  with  S02. 

In  other  words,  sulphuric  acid  has  a  chance  to  become  a  blessing 
to  agriculture,  especially  where  the  soil  contains  insoluble 
phosphates;  and  there  is,  decidedly,  no  such  thing  as  (he  "poi- 
soning of  the  soil"  through  S02  or  S03,  applied  in  gaseous 
form  or  liquid  form,  as  salt  or  acid. 

G.  Damage  to  Farm  Crops  and  Fruit  Trees. 

Within  the  vegetation  economically  used,  farm  crops  suffer  less 
from  fumes  than  trees.  In  the  case  of  farm  crops  potatoes 
seem  to  be  least  sensitive,  cereals  follow  next,  whilst  legumi- 
nous plants  are  more  sensitive. 


FOREST  PROTECTION  149 

Fanning  can  be  carried  on  remuneratively  in  closer  proximity  of 
the  smelters  than  forestry.  Obviously,  in  the  case  of  annual 
plants,  there  is  no  cumulative  influence  of  SOj  due  to  many 
a  year's  exposure. 

The  fact  that  farm  crops  are  more  resistant  to  smoke  than  forest 
crops  may  be  explained  ,also,  by  the  higher  reproductive  power 
of  the  former  and  by  the  greater  height  of  the  latter,  the  leaves 
of  which  are  exposed  to  more  concentrated  gases  of  SOs. 

In  case  of  fruit  trees,  mulberries  seem  to  be  least  sensitive;  then 
follow  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  with  cherries  as  the  most 
sensitive  fruit  trees  at  the  rear  end. 

Wherever  fruit  trees  are  well  attended  by  cultivation  and  by  fer- 
tilizing, the  damage  by  sulphur  fumes  is  minimized. 

The  "floral  organs"  of  the  fruit  trees  seem  to  be  less  affected  by 
smoke  than  the  "pulmonary  organs,"  which  means  to  say 
the  fruiting  of  the  trees  is  not  badly  interfered  with  by  SOt 
and  SO  3. 

H.    Damage  to  Forests. 

The  forest  trees,  according  to  species  and  individuality,  exhibit 
a  very  varying  degree  of  sensitiveness  to  the  influence  of  sul- 
phur fumes.  The  degree  of  liability  to  damage  is  in  no  way 
proportioned  to  the  readiness  with  which  the  trees  inhale  sul- 
phuric fumes.  For  instance,  the  conifers  are  more  affected 
by  sulphur  fumes  than  are  the  hardwoods.  Still,  exposed  to 
the  same  atmosphere  charged  with  sulphuric  fumes,  the  coni- 
fers will  inhale  smaller  quantities  of  toxic  gases  than  the  hard- 
woods. 

The  power  of  resistence  which  the  various  species  show  to  the  in- 
fluence of  sulphur  fumes  is,  on  the  other  hand,  directly  pro- 
portioned to  the  power  of  reproduction  (power  of  recovery) 
which  the  various  species  show.  It  is  obvious  that  this  power 
of  recovery  is  particularly  good  in  hardwoods,  which  must 
recover,  every  spring,  from  the  natural  loss  of  foliage  sustained 
in  the  preceding  fall. 

In  the  case  of  broad-leaved  species,  any  loss  of  vital  organs  is  readily 
made  up,  whilst  in  the  case  of  conifers  the  reproductive  power 
is  comparatively  low. 

Amongst  the  conifers,  those  which  retain  their  needles  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  are  more  apt  to  suffer  from  sulphuric  fumes  than 
those  which  retain  their  needles  for  one  or  two  years  only. 

Inasmuch  as  the  resistence  which  the  trees  offer  to  injury  by  sul- 
phurf times  is  proprotioned  to  their  power  of  reproduction, 
and  inasmuch  as  this  power  of  reproduction  largely  depends 
on  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  it  is  obvious  that  all  species  suc- 
cumb on  impoverished  soil  more  rapidly  than  on  good  soil. 


150  FOREST  PROTECTION 

This  observation  is  backed  by  the  facts  exhibited  near  Ducktown, 
Tenn.,  where  the  shade  trees  in  the  gardens  seem  to  do  re- 
markably well  in  close  proximity  to  the  smelters. 

Ceteris  paribus,  the  following  schedule  has  been  arranged  as  the 
result  of  investigations  for  the  trees  in  the  Ducktown  region 
having  over  7"  diameter,  the  trees  most  easily  killed  by  SOa 
being  placed  at  the  top  of  the  schedule: 

Susceptibility  to  Actual  Injury. 
White  Pine 
Hemlock 
Scrub  Pine 
Pitch  Pine 
Birch 
Chestnut 
Hickory 
Oaks 

Yellow  Poplar 
Maple 
Black  Gum 
This  schedule  tallies  well  with  the  schedule  given  by  European 

authors  for  closely  related  species. 
If  a  similar  schedule  is  formed  according  to  the  ease  of  discolor- 
ation, entirely  different  results  are  obtained: 
Susceptibility  to  Discoloration. 

very  easily  medium  not  apt  to  be 

discolored  discolored  discolored 

Black  Oak  Poplar  Black  Gum 

Hickory  White  Oak  White  Pine 

Scarlet  Oak  Chestnut  Oak  Maple 

Chestnut  Post  Oak  Pitch  Pine 

Spanish  Oak  Hemlock 

Noteworthy  it  is  that  the  power  of  resistance  to  fumes  is  more 
increased   by   the   power   of   reproduction   than   decreased  by 
the  sensitiveness  of  the  leaves. 
In  nature,  wherever  grave  deviations  from  exact  schedules  of  sen- 
sitiveness are  found,  it  stands  to  reason  that  other  influences, 
aside  from   sulphurfumes,   are  simultaneously   responsible  for 
the  death  or  for  the  discoloration  of  the  trees. 
The  best  time  for  any  observations  in  the  forest  is  the  late  sum- 
mer or  early  fall  (the  time  between  August  15  and  October  1). 
Sulphurfumes  cannot  be   held   responsible  for  the  local  death  of 
trees  within  a  "smoke  region," 

(1)    if  species  known  to  be  more  sensitive  are  less  affected 
than  species  known  to  be  more  resistent; 


FOREST  PROTECTION  151 

(2)  if  tall   specimens   are   no   more   affected   than   short 

specimens;  or  if  the  trees  die  from  below; 

(3)  if  the  dying  trees  are  affected  with  a  fungus-disease 

(e.  g.  White  Pine  blight  and  Chestnut  blight) 
or  an  insect  disease  causing  the  death  of  the 
trees  outside  the  smoke  region; 

(4)  if  death  and  discoloration  are  confined  to  one  species 

only; 

(5)  if  the  owner  of  the  forests,  allowing  indiscriminate 

logging,  or  allowing  forest  fires  to  rage,  is  guilty 
of  contributory  negligence; 

(6)  if  discoloration  is  caused  by  late  frost,  or  draught, 

or  leaf  fungi; 

(7)  if  the  death  rate  within  the  smoke  region  is  no  greater 

than  the  death  rate  without,  under  otherwise 
equal  conditions  (of  geology,  soil-fertility,  as- 
pect, forest  fires,  desiccation,  storms,  insects, 
fungi  and  prior  treatment  of  forests); 

(8)  if  dying  and  living  trees  are  normally  covered  with 

tree  mosses,  algae  and  lichens; 

(9)  if  the  death  rate  at  the  windward  edge  of  the  for- 

ests is  not  larger  than  the  death  rate  in  the  in- 
terior; 

(10)  if  the  size  of  the  annual  rings  of  accretion  is  not  ab- 

normally small; 

(11)  if  there  are  at  hand,   in  the  affected  region,   other 

plausible   causes   of  discoloration   and   of  death. 

I      Preventive  Measures. 

1.      In  the  source  of  damage: 

(a)  Dilution  of  fumes 

by  emission  into  the  upper  atmosphere  from 
mountain  tops  or  from  high    smoke-stacks; 

by  accelerated  conversion  of  S02  into  SO*; 

by  artificial  draught  increasing  the  rapidity  of 
dilution; 

by  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 

(b)  Other  means  suggested: 

by  running  smelter  plants  at  night  (possible  in 
pygmean  operations  only); 

by  discontinuing  operations  in  May,  June  and 
July  (impossible  where  hundreds  of  workmen 
depend  on  continued  employment); 


152  FOREST  PROTECTION 

by  smelting  in  the  regions  where  the  hardwoods 
prevail;  where  the  forest  has  little  value;  on 
islands;  in  deserts  or  prairies. 
2.      In  woodlands  adjoining: 

(a)  Conversion  of  woodlands  into  farms  or  pastures;  oJ 

of  high  forest  into  low  forest; 

(b)  Cutting  affected  and  dying  trees; 

(c)  Maintaining  the  fertility  and,  notably,  the  water  con- 

tents of  the  soil  through  protection  from  fire  and 
by  keeping  a  dense  undergrowth; 

(d)  Avoidance  of  partial  logging. 


I.     Index  to  Malefactors. 


Acanthocinus  nodosus  Fab.,  48. 

Acanthocinus  obsoletus  Oliv.,  48. 

AcmcEo  pulchella  Hbst.,  57. 

Aecidium  pini,  119. 

Aegeria  acerni  Clem.,  88. 

Agaricacece,  117. 

Agaricus  melleus,  114,  119. 

Agrilus  anxius  Gory,  64,  65. 

Agrilus  bilineatus  Web.,  67,  68. 

Agrilus  otiosus  Say,  73. 

alder  111. 

Allorhina  nitida  Linn.,  62. 

Ambrosia,  114. 

Ametabola,  21. 

Ampelopsis,  112. 

Andromeda,  111. 

animals,  12. 

Anisota  rubicunda  Fab.,  88. 

Anisota  senatoria  S.  &  A.,  85. 

Anisota  stigma  Fab.,  85. 

Apatela  americana  Harr.,  86,  88. 

Aphididce,  21,  29,  34,  101,  102,  103, 

105,  106. 
Aphrophora  paralella  Say,  101. 
Apion  nigrum  Hbst.,  73. 
Arceuthobium  cryptopoda,  126. 
Arceuthobium  occidentale,  126. 
Arceuthobium  pusillum,  126. 
Ar chips  fervidana  Clem.,  85. 
Arctiidce,  21,  77,  82,  85,  86,  87,  88. 
Arhopalus  fulminans  Fab.,  43,  67, 

68. 
Ascomycetes,  116,  118. 
Asemum  mozstum  Hald.,  43,  48,  50. 
Asemum  nitidum  Lee,  53,  54. 
Asilidm,  20. 

Aspidiotus  perniciosus  Comst.,  104. 
Aspidiotus  tenebricosus  Comst.,  106. 
Asterolecanium     variolosum     Ratz., 

104. 
Attelabus  analis,  Web.,  62. 
Automeris  io  Fab.,  88. 
Azalea,  112. 
Balaninus,  67. 

Balaninus  nasicus  Say,  63,  68. 
Balaninus  proboscidus  Fab.,  67. 
Balaninus  rectus  Say,  63,  67. 
Basidiomycetes,  117. 
Basilona  imperialis  Dru.,  77,  82. 
beaver,  18. 
beech,  111. 

Bellamira  scalaris  Say,  65. 
birds,  18. 


blackberry,  109,  111,  112. 

Blastobasidce,  85. 

blueberry,  109. 

bluejay,  18. 

boar,  wild,  15. 

Bombycidw,  21. 

Bostrichido?,  29,  34. 

box-elder,  109. 

Brachys  aeruginosa  Gory,  66. 

Brenthidce,  21,  29,  33,  57,  66,  67,  68, 

69. 
Buprestidoe,  21,  29,  32,  43,  48,  49, 

50,  52,  53,  54,  56,  57,  63,  65,  66, 

67,  68,  73,  74. 
Buprestis  apricans  Hbst.,  48. 
Buprestis  aurulenta  Linn.,  43,  48, 

50,  56. 
Callidium  areum  Newm.,  67. 
Callidium  antennatum  Newm.,  48, 

61. 
Callidium  janthinum  Lee,  59. 
Callivterus  ulmifolii  Monell,  105. 
Callosamia  promethea  Dru.,  90. 
Camponotus  herculeanus  Linn.,  97. 
Carabida,  20. 

Carphoborus,  44,  47,  51,  54. 
caterpillars,  Lepidopterous,  34. 
Catocala  spp.,  85. 
Cecidomyia  carywcola  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  clavula  Beuten,  100. 
Cecidomyia  holotricha  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  liriodendri  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  niveipila  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  piluloz  Walsh,  100. 
Cecidomyia  pinirigidoz  Pack.,  99. 
Cecidomyia  pocidum  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  resinicola  O.  S.,  99. 
Cecidomyia  tubicola  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyia  tidipifera  O.  S.,  100. 
Cecidomyiidae,  21,  29,  99,  100. 
Cedar  apples,  119. 
Cerambycidce,  21,  29,  32,  33,  35,  43, 

45,  47,  48,  50,  52,  54,  55,  56,  57, 

58,  59,  61,  62,  63,  65,  66,  67,  68, 

69,  70,  71,  72,  73,  74,  75,  76. 
Ceratocampidce,  77,  82,  85,  88. 
Ceratogr aphis  pusillus  Kby.,  48. 
Ceratomia  amyntor  Geyer,  86. 
Ceratomia  catalpos  Boisd.,  91. 
Ceratomia  undulosa  Walk.,  90. 
Ceratostomella  pilifera,  123. 
Chaitophorus  aceris  Linn.,  106. 
Chalcidoidea,  20. 


154 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


Chermes  abietis  Linn.,  102. 
Chermes  pinicorticis  Fitch.,  101. 
Chermes  sibiricus  Chold.,  102. 
Chertnes  strobi  Hart.,  101. 
Chion  ductus  Dru.,  63,  67,  68. 
Chionaspis  americana  Johns,  105. 
Chionaspis  pinifolice  Fitch.,  101. 
chinquapin,  110,  111,  112. 
chipmunk,  16. 
Cfialcipfwra   virginiensis    Dru.,    43, 

48,  50. 
Chramesus  icorice  Lee,  63. 
Chrysobothris  dentipes  Germ.,  48. 
Chrysobothris  femorata  Fab.,  63,  67, 

68,  74. 
Chrysobothris  6-signata  Say,  65. 
Chrysomela  scalaris  Lee,  75. 
Chrysomelidce,  21,  29,  48,  63,  68,  69, 

73,  75. 
Cercopidce,  101. 
Cicada,  104,  106. 
Cicadidce,  21,  30,  35,  104,  106. 
Cicindelidtt,  20. 
Cimbex  americana  Leach,  97. 
Citheronia  regalis  Fab.,  82. 
Clematis,  112. 
Cleridce,  20. 
climbers,  112. 
Coccida,  21,  29,  34,  101,  102,  103, 

104,  105,  106. 
Coccinellidoz,  20. 
Cocldidiidw,  85. 
Coleoptera,  20,  21,  38,  43-76. 
Colopha  ulmicola  Fitch.,  105. 
Colydiidce,  20. 
Componotus    pennsylvanicus    Deg., 

94 
Conotrachelus  elegans  Say,  63. 
Conotrachelus  fuglandis  Lee,  62. 
Conotrachelus  nenuphar  Herbst.,  63. 
Convolvulus,  110. 
Corthylus  columbianus  Hpk.,  66,  68, 

70. 
Corthylus  punctatissimus  Zm.,  74. 
Cossidce,  21,  29,  85,  86,  87,  88. 
Cotalpa  lanigera  Linn.,  64,  68. 
cottonwoods,  111. 
Crepidodera  rufipes  Linn.,  73. 
Cressonia  juglandis  S.  &  A.,  82. 
cross-bills,  18. 
crows,  18. 

Cryphalus,  50,  55,  56. 
Cryptorhynchus,  67. 
Cryptorhynchus  parochus  Hbst.,  62. 
Crypturgus  atomus  Lee,  43,  50. 
Crypturgus  pusillus,  48. 
Curculionidce,  21,  29,  30,  32,  35,  36, 


37,  43,  44,  48,  50,  51,  56,  57,  62, 

63,  67,  68,  69,  73. 
Curius  dentalus  Newm.,  57. 
Cynips  spp.,  96. 
Cyllene  picta  Dru.,  63. 
Cyllene  robince  Forst.,  73,  114,  121. 
Cynipida;,  30,  96. 
Cynipoidea,  21,  29, 
damping-off,  120. 
Dantana  angusii  G.  &  R.,  85. 
Dantana  integerrima  Dru.,  82. 
Dantana  ministra  G.  &  R.,  82,  83, 

85,  89. 
deer,  15. 

Dendroctonus,  44,  45,  46,  47,  49. 
Dendroctonus  approximatus  Dtz.,  47. 
Dendroctonus    brevicomis    Lee,    44, 

47. 
Dendroctonus  engelmanni  Hopk.,  51. 
Dendroctonus  fontalis ,  31,  43,  48,  50, 

114. 
Dendroctonus  monticoloz  Hopk.,  44, 

45,  46,  47. 
Dendroctonus  obesus  Mann.,  48,  51. 
Dendroctonus  piceaperda  Hopk.,  31, 

50. 
Dendroctonus  ponderosce  Hopk.,  47. 
Dendroctonus  pseudotsuga  Hopk.,  54. 
Dendroctonus  similis  Lee,  49,  54. 
Dendroctonus  terebrans  Oliv.,  43,  48. 
Dendroctonus  valens  Lee,  43,  46,  47, 

48. 
Diapheromera  femorata  Say,  108. 
Diaporthe  parasitica  Murrill,  120. 
Dicer ca  lurida  Fab.,  63. 
Dicerca  obscura  Fab.,  63,  74. 
Dioryctria  reniculella  Grote,  78. 
Diptera,  20,  21,  38,  99,  100. 
Discomycetes,  116,  118. 
dogwood,  110,  111,  112. 
Dolurgus  pumilis  Mann.,  51. 
doves,  18. 

Drepanosiphum  accrifolii  Thos.,  106. 
drought,  114. 
Dryocartes,  43,  50. 
Dryocartes  affaber  Mann.,  51. 
Dryocartes  autoyraphus  Ratz.,  50. 
Dryocartes  eichhoffi  Hopk.,  65. 
Dryocartes  granicollis  Lee,  50. 
Dryophilus,  59. 

Eburia  quadrigeminata  Say,  63,  76. 
Ecdytolopha  iyisiticiana  Zell.,  87. 
Echinodontium  tinctorium,  123. 
Elaphidion  villosum  Fab.,  63,  68,  74. 
Elaieridce,  20,  21,  30. 
Enarmonia  bracteatans  Fern.,  77. 
Enarmonia  car y ana  Fitch.,  82. 


INDEX  TO  MALEFACTORS 


155 


Epargyreus  tityrus  Fab.,  87. 
Er aunts  tiliaria  Harr.,  89. 
Eryates  spicidatus  Lee,  47,  48. 
Ericacce,  110,  117. 
erosion,  138. 

Endocimus  mannerheimii  Boh.,  57. 
Euclea  delphinii  Boisd. ,  85. 
Eulecanium  tulipiferce  Cook,  105. 
Eulia  politana  Haw.,  77. 
Eunomos  magnarius  Guen.,  84. 
Euproctis  chrysorrhea  Linn.,  85. 
Eupsalis  minuta  Dru.,  57,  66,  67, 

68,  69. 
Euschausia  argentata  Pack.,  77. 
Euvanessa  antiopa  Linn.,  86. 
Evetria  comstockiana  Fern.,  77. 
Evetria  frustrana  Comst.,  77. 
Evetria  rigidana  Fern.,  77. 
Exoasceaz,  117. 
Exobasidium  vaccinii,  117. 
ferns,  111,  112. 
finches,  18. 
fire,  8,  114. 
Formicidos,  94,  97. 
Formicoidea,  20. 
frost,  127. 
fungi,  113,  115. 
Galerucella  luteola  Mull.,  69. 
Gaurotes  cyanipentiis  Say,  62. 
Gelechiida>,  77,  78. 
Geometrida,  78,  84,  86,  89. 
Glyptoscelis  pubescens  Fab.,  48. 
Gnathotrichus,  47. 
Gnathotrichus  materiarius  Fitch.,  43, 

48,  50. 
Gnathotrichus  sidcatiis  Lee,  53,  54, 

55,  59. 
Goes  oadatus  Lee,  63. 
Goes  pidchra  Hald.,  63. 
Goes  pidrcrulcntus  Hid.,  66. 
Goes  tesselata  Hald.,  68. 
Goes  tigrina  DeG.,  63,  68. 
Gossyparia  spuria  Mod.,  105. 
grapevine,  109,  110. 
Graphisurus  fasciatus  DeG.,  68. 
ground-hog,  18. 
grouse,  18. 
Gryllidai,  30,  36,  107. 
Gryllotalpa  borealis  Burm.,  107. 
Gryllus  spp.,  107. 
gum,  black,  109,  110,  111,  112. 
Gymnosporangium,  119. 
Halesia   (Mohrodendron),   109,   111, 

116. 
Halisidota  caryoe  Harr.,  82. 
Halisidota  maculata  Harr.,  86. 


Halisidota  tesselaris  S.  &  A.,  85,  86, 

88. 
hazel,  112. 

hazel,  witch,  109,  110. 
heat,  132. 
heather,  109. 
hedge-hog,  18. 
Hemerocampa  leucostigma  S.  &  A., 

86,  87,  88,  89. 
Hemileuca  maia  Dru.,  85. 
Hemimetabola,  21. 
Herniptera,  20,  21,  38,  101-106. 
Hepialidce,  84,  87. 
Herpotrichia,  114. 
Hesperidoe,  21. 

Heterocampa  bilineata  Pack.,  89. 
Holcoccra  glandulella  Riley,  85. 
Homoptera  lunata  Dru.,  88. 
huckleberry,  111. 
Hylastes  cavernosus  Zimm.,  43. 
Hylastes  porosus  Er.,  47. 
Hylastinus  rufipes  Eichh.,  69. 
Hylecatus  americanus  Harr.,  68. 
Hylecaitus  lugubris  Say,  67. 
Hylesinus,  53,  54,  55. 
Hylesinus  aculeatus  Say,  76. 
Hylesinus  granidatus  Lee,  55. 
Hylesinus  nebulosus  Lee,  54. 
Hylobius  pales  Hbst.,  43,  48. 
Hylotrupes  amethystinus  Lee,  59. 
Hylotrupes  ligneus  Fab.,  61. 
Hylurgops  glabratus  ZerL,  43. 
Hylurgops  pinifex  Fitch.,  48. 
Hylurgops  rugipennis  Mann.,  51. 
Hylurgops  subcostulatus  Mann.,  44, 

45,  46,  47. 
Hymenomycetes,  117,  118. 
Hymenoptera,  20,  21,  38,  92-98. 
Hyphantria  cunea  Dru.,  87,  90. 
Hyphantria  textor  Harr.,  85. 
Hypoderma  strobicola,  120. 
Hysterium  pinastri,  119. 
Ichneumonoidea,  20. 
Incurvaria  acaifoliella  Fitch.,  88. 
insects,  20. 
Isoptera,  107. 

Ithycerus  noveboracensis  Fst.,  68. 
J  units  integer  Nort.,  95. 
Kaliosphinga  dohrnii  Tischb.,  95. 
Kaliosphinga  idmi  Sund.,  97. 
Kalmia,  109,  111,  112. 
Kermes,  104. 

Lachnus  strobi  Fitch.,  101. 
Lagoa  crispata  Pack.,  85. 
Lapara  bombycoides  Walk.,  77. 
Lapara  coniferarum  S.  &  A.,  77. 


156 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


Lasiocampidce,  85,  88. 

Lecanium,  101,  103. 

Lecanium  nigrofasciatum  Prg.,  106. 

Lenzites  sepiaria,  123. 

Lepidoptera,  21,  29,  34,  38,  77-91. 

Leptostylus  aculiferus  Say,  70. 

Leptura  canadensis  Fab.,  50,  52. 

Leucotermes  flavipes  Koll.,   107. 

Liparida',  21,  85,  86,  87,  88,  89. 

Lithocolletes  hamadryella  Clem.,  85. 

Locustidoe,  21,  108. 

Lophyrus  abbotii  Leach,  92. 

Lophyrus  lecontei  Fitch,  92. 

Lyctidoe,  29,  34. 

Lyctus  spp.,  63,  76. 

Lyda,  92. 

Lygaonematus  ericJtsonii  Hart.,  93. 

Lymexilonidce,  29,  33. 

Lymexylidce,  67,  68. 

Lymexylon  sericeum  Harr.,  67,  68. 

Magdalis  armicollis  Say,  69. 

Magdalis  barbata  Say,  69. 

Magdalis  olyra  Herbst.,  66. 

Malacosoma  disstria  Hubn.,  85,  88. 

Mallodon  dasystomus  Say,  63,  68. 

Mallodon  melanopus  Linn.,  68. 

man,  7. 

Mantidce,  20. 

maple,  111. 

Mecas  inornata  Say,  64. 

Megalopygidce,  85. 

Melandryidoe,  50,  56. 

Melanophila,  49. 

Melanophila  drummondi  Kby.,  53, 

54. 
Melanophila  fulvogidtata  Harr.,  52. 
Melasoma  lapponica  Linn.,  64. 
Melasoma  scripta  Fab.,  64. 
Metabola,  21. 
mice,  16. 

Microcentrum  laurifolium  Linn.,10S. 
Mohrodendron  (Halesia),  116. 
Monohammus    confusor    Kby.,    48, 

50. 
Monohammus  scutellatus  Say,  43,  45, 

48. 
M ycelophilido' ,  100. 
Mytilaspis,  101,  103. 
Myxomycetes,  118. 
Nectria,  116. 
Nematus,  34. 
Nematus  erichsonii,  35. 
Nematus  integer  Say,  94. 
Neoclytus  capraza  Say,  76. 
Neoclytus  erythrocephalus  Fab.,  57, 

71,  74,  76. 
Neophobia  menapia  Feld.,  77,  79. 


Neuroptera,  20. 

Noctuidce,  21,  29,  36,  85,  86,  88. 

Notodontida,  82,  83,  85,  89. 

Nototophus  antiqua  Linn.,  85. 

Nymphalidce,  86. 

oak,  black  jack,  110. 

Odontota  dorsalis  Thunb.,  73. 

Odontota  rubra  Web.,  75. 

Odontota  scutellaris  Oliv.,  73. 

Oecaidhus  pini  Beut.,  107. 

Oeme  rigida  Say,  57. 

Oncideres  cingulata  Say,  63,  68. 

Orthoptera,  20,  21,  38,  107,  108. 

OrOiosoma  brunneum  DeG.,  48. 

Pachylobius  picivorus  Germ.,  43,  48. 

Pachyta  monticola  Rand,  56. 

Paleacrita  vernata  Peck,  86. 

Pantographia  limata  G.  &  R.,  89. 

Papilionidce,  21. 

Paralechia  pinifoliella  Cham.,  77. 

Parharmonia  pini,  Vrell.,  77. 

pasturage,  12. 

Paururus  hopkinsi  Ashm.,  92. 

Paururus  pinicola  Ashm.,  92. 

Pemphigus  tessellatus  Fitch.,  103. 

Peridermium  strobi,  119. 

Peronosporeoe,  116,  117. 

Peziza,  117. 

PJiasmidoe,  21,  108. 

Phenacoccus  acericola  King,  106. 

Philedia  punctomacularia,  78. 

Phlarosinus,  57. 

Phlarosinus  cupressi  Hopk.,  58,  60. 

Phlarosinus  dentatus  Say,  61. 

Phlarosi?ius  punctatus  Lee,  59,  60. 

Phlarosinus  sequoiaj  Hopk.,  58,  59. 

Phoradendron  flavesccns,  126. 

Phycitidce,  30,  37,  77,  78. 

Phy  corny  cetes,  116. 

Phylloxera  pallida  Linn.,  64. 

Phymatodes  decussatus  Lee,  58. 

Phymatodes  variabilis  Linn.,  64. 

Physwnemum  andreoz  Hald.,  57. 

Phytophtora  omnivora,  116. 

Pieridce,  77,  79. 

Pinipestis  zimmermanni  Grte.,  77. 

pigeons,  18. 

Pissodes,  44.  51. 

Pissodes  dubius  Rand,  56. 

Pissodes  strobi  Peck,  43,  48,  50. 

Pityogenes,  43,  45,  55. 

Pityogenes  carinulatus  Lee,  47. 

Pityogenes  cariniceps,  47. 

Pityogenes  plagiatus  Lee,  48. 

Pityophthorus,   43,   45,   46,   47,   48, 

50,  55,  65. 
Pityophthorus  cariniceps  Lee,  50. 


INDEX  TO  MALEFACTORS 


157 


Pityophthorus  confinis  Lee,  47. 

Pityophthorus  minutissimus  Zimm., 
68. 

Pityophthorus  nitidulus  Mann.,  45, 
51,  54. 

Pityophthorus  pruinosus  Eichh.,  68. 

Pityophthorus  pubipennis  Lee,  68. 

Pityophthorus  puncticollis  Lee,  45, 
47,  51. 

Pityophthorus  querciperda  Schw.,  68. 

Plagionotus  speciosus  Say,  74. 

Platypus,  43,  53,  54. 

Platypus   compositus   Say,     57,   67, 
68. 

Polygonia  interrogationis  Fab.,  86. 

Polygraphus  rufipennis  Kby.,  50. 

Polyporaceaz,  117. 

Polyporus  annosus,  120. 

Polyporus  applanatus,  122. 

Polyporus  betulinus,  122. 

Polyporus  carneus,  121. 

Polyporus  catalpce,  121. 

Polyporus  fomentarius,  122. 

Polyporus  fraxinophilus ,  121. 

Polyporus  fulvus,  122. 

Polyporus  igniarius,  122. 

Polyporus  juniperinus,  121. 

Polyporus  libocedris,  122. 

Polyporus  nigricaus,  122. 

Polyporus  obtusus,  122. 
Polyporus  pergamenus,  122. 
Polyporus  pinicola,  122,  123. 
Polyporus  ponderosus,  123. 
Polyporus  sehweinitzii,  121. 
Polyporus  squamosus,  122. 
Polyporus  sulfureus,  122. 
Polyporus  rimosus,  114,  121. 
Polyporus  versicolor,  121. 
porcupine,  18. 
Porthetria  dispar,  Linn.,  85. 
Prionoxystus  robinio3  Peck.,  85,  87. 
Prionus  laticollis  Dru.,  48,  64,  67, 

68. 
Proctotrypoidea,  20. 
Pseudococcus  aceris  Gceff.,  106. 
Psychidce,  81. 
Psijllidw,  29,  34. 
Pterocyclon  fasciatum  Say,  57. 
Pterocydon  mali  Fitch.,  50,  57,  66, 

68,  72. 
Pteronus  ventralis  Say,  95. 
Ptilinus  ruficornis  Say,  74. 
Ptinidce,  21,  29,  32,  34. 
Ptininidce,  47,  59,  63,  74,  76. 
Pulvinaria     innumerabilis     Rathy, 

106. 
Pyralidce,  89. 


Pyrenomycetes,  116,  118. 
Recurraria  obliquestrigella  Cham., 78. 
Reduviidw,  20. 

Rhagium  lineatum  Oliv.,  43,  48,  50. 
Rhizococcus,  101,  102. 
Rhododendron,  112. 
sand,  shifting,  139. 
Saperda,  72. 

Saperda  calcarata  Say,  64. 
Saperda  concolor  Lee,  64. 
Saperda  discoidea  Fab.,  63. 
Saperda  tridentata  Oliv.,  69. 
Saperda  veslita  Say,  75. 
Saturniidce,  82,  83,  85,  88,  89,  90. 
Scara&o-uto,  21,  29,  36,  62,  68,  76. 
Schizoneura  imbricator  Fitch.,  103. 
Sci'ara  occllata  O.  S.,  100. 
Scolytidce,  21,  29,  31,  33,  35,  43-61, 

63,  65-70,  72,  74-76. 
Scolytus,  50,  55. 
Scolytus  praceps  Lee,  55. 
Scolytus  quadrispinosus  Say,  63. 
Scolytus  rugulosus  Ratz.,  72. 
Scolytus  subscaber  Lee,  55. 
Scolytus  unispinosus  Lee,  49,  54. 
Schizoneura  americana  Riley,  105. 
Schizophyllum  commune,  123. 
ssedge,  broom,  16. 
sedge-grass,  109. 
Selandria  diluta  Cress.,  96. 
Serica  trociformis  Burm.,  68. 
Serropalpus  barbatus  Schall.,  50,  56. 
Sesiida?,  29,  77,  80,  88. 
Sinoxylon  basilare  Say,  63. 
Siricidce,  29,  92,  94,  96,  98. 
sleet,  134. 
smilax,  109. 
snow,  134. 

Sphingidce,  77,  82,  86,  90,  91. 
Sphinx  Kalmice  S.  &  A.,  90. 
squatters,  7. 
squirrels,  16. 
Sthenopis   argenteomaculatus   Harr., 

84. 
storm,  114,  136. 
sulphur  fumes,  141. 
sunscald,  133. 

Symmerista  albifrons  S.  &  A.,  85. 
Syrphidce,  20,  21. 
Systena  marginalis  111.,  63. 
Telea  polyphemus  Cram.,  82,  83,  85, 

88  89 
Tent'hredinidce,  29,   34,  92,  93,  94, 

95,  96,  97. 
Termitidce,  107. 
Tetr opium  cinnamopterum  Kby.,  50. 


158 


FOREST  PROTECTION 


Thyridopteryx  ephemerccformis  Haw. 

81. 
Tibicen  septendecim  Linn.,  104,  106. 
Tillandsia  usneoides,  126. 
Tineidce,  29,  35,  85,  88. 
Tomicus,  45,  50,  55. 
Tomicus  avulsus  Eiehh.,  43,  48. 
Tomicus  balsameus  Lee,  50,  56. 
Tomicus  cacographus  Lee,   43,   48, 

50. 
Tomicus  ccelatus  Eichh.,  43,  48. 
Tomicus  calligraphm  Germ.,  43,  47, 

48. 
Tomicus  concinnus  Mann.,  51. 
Tomicus  confusus  Lee,  47. 
Tomicus  integer  Eichh.,  46,  47. 
Tomicus  latidens  Lee,  44. 
Tomicus  monticola  Hopk.,  44. 
Tomicus  oregoni  Eichh.,  47. 
Tomicus  pint  Say,  43,  46,  48,  50. 
Tortricidce,  29,  30,  35,  37,  77,  78, 

82,  85,  87. 
Tortrix  fumiferana  Clem.,  78. 
Tortrix  quercifoliana  Fitch.,  85. 
Trachinidce,  20. 
Trametes  pini,  120. 
Tramctes  radiciperda,  114,  120. 
Tremex  columba  Linn.,  96,  98. 
Trichosphaeria,  114. 
Trogositidas,  20. 
Trypodendron,  65. 
Trypodendron    bivittatum    Mannh., 

48,50,51,52. 
Trypodendron  fasciatum  Say,  74. 
Trypodendron  mali  Fitch.,  74. 
turkey,  wild,  18. 


Uredinece,  117. 

Urocerus  abdominalis  Harr..  94. 
Urocerus  albicornis  Fab.,  94. 
Urocerus  flavipennis  Kb  v.,  94. 
Urogr aphis  fasciatus  Horn.,  62,  63, 

67,  68,  71,  74. 
Usnea  barbata,  126. 
Ustilaginece,  117. 
Vaccinium,  112. 

Vespamima  sequoia  Hv.  Edw.,  77, 

80. 
Vespoidea,  20. 
Vitus,  112. 
weeds,  109. 
windstorm,  136. 
woodchuck,  18. 
woodpeckers,  18. 
Xyleborus,  57. 

Xyleborus,  ccelatus  Zimm.,  50,  74. 
Xyleborus  celsus  Eichh.,  63,  68. 
Xyleborus  dispar  Fab.,  70. 
Xyleborus  fuscatus  Eichh.,  68. 
Xyleborus  obesus  Lee,  52,  68,  74. 
Xyleborus  politus  Say,  50,  66,  74. 
Xyleborus  pubesceus  Zimm.,  48,  67, 

74. 
Xyleborus   saxeseni   Ratz.,    52,   54, 

63,  64,  66,  68,  72,  74. 
Xyleborus  tachygraphus  Zimm.,  70, 

74. 
Xylochinus,  50,  56. 
Xylotreckus   colonus   Fab.,    63,    67, 

68,  74. 

Xylotrechus  undulatus  Say,  52,  54, 

55. 
Zeuzera'pyrina  Linn.,  86,  87,  88. 
Zyganida,  21.  J 


II.     Index  of  Species  Affected. 


Abies  balsamea,  56. 

Abies  concolor,  55. 

Abies  fraseri,  56. 

Abies  grandis,  55. 

Acer,  74,  88,  98,  100,  106. 

Alnus,  103,  111. 

Alnus  glutinosa,  95. 

Arbor-vitae,  121. 

ash,  white.  121,  122,  133. 

hasswood,  18. 

beech,  18,  121,  122,  129,  133. 

Betula,  65,  83. 

birch,  18,  122,  150. 

black  gum,  129,  150. 

buffalo-nut,  16. 

Castanea,  67,  84. 

Catalpa.  91,  121,  129. 

cedar,  incense,  122. 

Chamcecyparis,  61. 

Chamcecyparis  lawsoniana,  60. 

cherry,  16.  122.  128. 

chestnut,  19,  109,  120.  129,  133,  150. 

conifers,  107,  119,  120,  122. 

Comusflorida,  100. 

cottonwood,  18,  122,  129,  139. 

Crataegus,  16. 

currant,  119. 

cypress,  bald,  114.  122. 

Douglas  fir.  121.  12!). 

Fagus,  66,  103. 

fir,  16,  17,  120. 

fir,  Dousrlas,  121. 

fir,  red,  123. 

Fraxinu-s,  76,  90. 

hazel,  18. 

hemlock,  (see  Tsuga),  18,  121,  123, 

131,  150. 
hemlock,  western.  121,  123. 
hickories,  17,  129,  135,  150. 
Hicoria,  63,  82,   100,  103. 
Incense  cedar,  122. 
Juglans,  62,  103. 
Jvnipcru-s,  81. 
Juniperus  virginiana,  61. 
Kalmia,  18. 
Larix,  93. 

Larix  occidentals,  49. 
linden,  16. 
Liquidambar ,  71. 
Liriodendron,  70.  100,  105,  129. 
locust,  16,  17,  114,  121,  135. 


maple,  16,  18,  122,  128,  129,  150. 

oak,  16.  17,  19,  121.  122,  129,  150. 

oak,  chestnut.  128.  150. 

oak.  scarlet.  18,  150. 

oak.  white.  18,  150. 

Picea,  50.  51,  78,  94,   102. 

Picea  engdmanni,  51. 

Picea  pungens.  16. 

Picea  sitchensis,  16.  51. 

pine.  16.  120,  135,  139. 

pine,  seedlings,  119,  131. 

pine,  white.  119,  131,  133,  150. 

pine,  yellow,  109. 

Pinus,  76.  92,  99,  101. 

Pinus  ctmbra,  119. 

Pinus  echinata.  16,  48,  129,  130. 

Pinus  flexilis,  45. 

Pinus  jeffreyi,  47. 

Pinus  lambertiana,  44.  129. 

Pinus  monticola.  45.  121. 

Pinus  murraijnna,  46. 

Pinus  palustris,  48. 

Pinus  pondcrosa,  47,  123,  129. 

Pinus  resinosa.  4S. 

Pinus  rigida,  48,  129,  150. 

Pinus  strobus.  43,  120,  129,  130,  131. 

Pinus  keda,  48. 

poplar,  122. 

poplar,  vellow,  109,  115,  135,  150. 

Pop-ulus\  64,  95. 

Pseudotsuga,  54. 

P>/rularia,  16. 

Pyrus.  72. 

Qucrcus,  68,  85,  96,  100,  103. 

red-cedar,  18,  119,  121. 

Rhododendron,  18. 

Riots,  119. 

Robin  ia,  73,  87. 

Sequoia,  58,  80. 

Sequoia  sempervirens,  123. 

spruce,    (see  Picea),   18,    123,   129, 

130,  131.  133. 
Tarodimn  distichum,  57. 
Tilia,  75,  89. 
Tsuga.  79. 

Tsuga  canadensis,  52. 
Tsuga  heterophylla,  53. 
Thuja  gigantea,  59. 
limits,  69,  86,  97,  105. 
walnut,  122,  128,  129,  130. 
willow,  139. 


REST    UTILIZATION 


chemical  fibre. 


§  29.  Shoe  pegs, 

§  30.  Excelsior   mill 

§31.  Manufacture  of  wood  pufjTa 

§  32.  Tannery. 

§  33.  Charcoal. 

§  34.  Lampblack  and  brewer's  pitch 

§  35.  Pyroligneous   acid   and   wood  alcohol 

§  36.  True  aethyl   alcohol. 

§  37.  Artificial   silk. 

§  38.  Oxalic  acid. 

§  39.  Maple   sugar. 

§  40.  Naval    stores. 

§  41.  Vanillin. 

§  42.  Beechnut  oil. 

§  43.  Pine  leaf  hair 

§  44.  Impregnation. 


FOREST  UTILIZATION. 


S  I.      DEFIXITION. 

The  term  "forest  utilization"  comprises  all  acts  by  which  forests — 
the  immobile  produce'  of  nature — are  converted  into  movable  goods 
or  commodities.  Considered  as  a  science  or  as  an  art,  forest  utilization 
constitutes  the  -major  part  of  forestry  now  practiced  in  our  new  country, 
abounding  in  forests. 

As  a  discipline,  forest  utilization  may  be  divided  into  two  main 
parts,  namely:  "logging  operations"  and  "manufacture,"  arranged  in 
the   following  five  chapters : 

Chapter       I.     Labor  employed  in  the  forest. 

Chapter    II.     Cutting   operations. 

Chapter  III.     Transportation. 

Chapter  IV.     Foundations    of    manufacture. 

Chapter    V.     Manufacturing    industries. 

§  II.       LITERATURE. 


There  exists,  unfortunately,  no  handbook  on  American  forest 
utilization,  although  forest  utilization  shows  a  higher  development  in 
the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country. 

Among  the  foreign  literature  on  forest  utilization,  publications  of 
the   following  authors  are   particularly  worthy   of  note : 

Carl  Gayer,  Richard  Hess,  William  Schlich,  Hermann  Stoetzer, 
Carl  Grebe,  Wilhelm  Franz  Exner,  Carl  Schuberg,  Heinrich  Semler, 
H.  von  Noerdlinger,  Carl  Dotzel,  E.  E.  Fernandez,  L.  Boppe,  M.  Powis 
Bale. 


Ipart  A.    logging  Operations. 

CHAPTER  I.     LABOR  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  FOREST. 

§  III.      MANUAL    LABOR. 

A.     Duration  of  employment. 

I.  Determining   factors  are  : 

(a)  Climatic  conditions : 

(b)  Economic  conditions; 
(  c  )      Local  custom. 

In    the    South,    work    lasts    all    the    year    round. 

In    the    Lake    States   and    in    New   England,    late    fall,    winter   and 

early    spring    (from    four   to   eight   months)    comprise    the    usual 

period   of   activity. 
In   the   European  mountains,   logging  is   restricted  to   the    summer 

months;   in  the  European  lowlands,  to  the  winter  months. 

II.  Advisability  of  continuous  employment  in  conservative  forestry, 
especially  in  the  case  of  foremen  and  sub-foremen,  leads  to  the 
adoption  of  means  tending  to  attach  the  laborer  to  his  job  and 
i<  i  his  employer. 

Such  means  are  : 

(  a  )      Advances  fur  t<  ids. 

(b)      Kent  of  cabins  and  farms  at  reduced  rates. 
Help  in  case  of  sickness  and  accidents. 

(d)  Wholesale  purchase  of  victuals  so  as  to  give  the  work- 

men the  benefit  of  a  reduced  price. 

(e)  Firewood,  forest  pasture  and  forest  litter  free  of  charge. 
(i)      Permission   of  agricultural    use,   for  a   number   of   year.-. 

of  clear  cut  areas.     (This  last  system  is  called  in  India 
"tongya."  I 
(g)     Employment  during  the  season  when  cutting  is  stopped, 
in  road  building,  fire  patrol,  planting,  weeding,  nursery- 
work  etc. 
(h)      Possibility  for  hands  to  rise  to  a  foreman's  position. 
(i)      Encouragement    of    home    industries    SO    as    to    keep    the 
workmen    busy    on    rainy    or    cold    days.    i.    e.,    baskel 
weaving,  shingle  making,  wood  carving,  sieve  making. 
It    seems  mosl   important  to   supply  the   family  of  the 
dworker  with  a  comfortable  home  and  school  and 
church,  advantages. 
1!.     Remuneration. 

I.     Means  of  remuneration. 

(a)  Money.  Wages  in  the  South  are  from  50  to  75  cent-  ' 
day.  At  Biltmore,  now  $1  per  day.  even  in  the  moun- 
tains. On  the  Pacific  coast,  $2  to  $3  per  day.  In 
Lake  States,  $18  to  $32  per  month,  plus  board;  dry 
day-   only   included. 

(4) 


^^Jtd^r-^i  ^*i  *"<&'   /^ULtA- ' 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


TlOh 

(b)  Commissary  bills.     This  method  of  payment  is  used  in 

the  South  only,  in  connection  with  colored  labor. 

(c)  Privileges   (house,  farm,  pasture). 

(d)  Board.     Expense  at  Biltmore,  per  capita,  25c  to  30c;    in 

Lake    States,   40c   to   50c   per   day.      Wages   of   camp  i 
cooks    in    Lake    States,    $50    and     over    per     month ;  £ 
at  Biltmore.  $15  to  $30  per  month. 
Victuals    required    per    capita,    see    "Lumber    and    Log  - 
Book."  page  144. 
II.     Scale   of   remuneration. 

Wages    depend   on   the   effect    of   labor   or    on    the   values    created 
by   labor. 

Influencing    factors   are: 

I  a  )  Density  of  population. 

(b)  Human  strength  and  technical  skill  required. 

(c)  Silvicultural   understanding  required. 

(d)  Hardships  endured  and  risks  taken. 

(e)  Prices  of  the  necessary  victual-. 

(f)  Length    of   day   during   cutting   season.      Compare   page 

162,  •Lumber  and  Log  Book." 
Where  contract  work  prevails,  the  following  additional 
factors  come  into  play  : 

(g)  Tools   supplied  by  employer  or  employee, 
(h)      Softwoods    or  hardwoods. 

(i)     Amount  to  be  cut  per  acre. 

(j)     Configuration  of  ground  and  remoteness  from  roads. 

(k)     Distance  from  In -me  village. 

(1)      Possibility  of   continuing  work   during  rain. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  workmen  paid  under  con- 
tract per  one  thousand  feet  b.  m.  earn  more  money  in 
big  timber  than  in  small  timber,  and  that  a  system  of 
payment  according  to  the  diameter  of  the  log  is  far 
more  just. 
C.     Method  of  employment. 

In  France  the  woodworkers  are  employed  by  the  purchaser  of 
stumpage;  in  Germany,  invariably  by  the  owner  of  the  forest. 
In  America,  both  systems  are  found,  the  former  prevailing. 
Whether  the  German  or  French  system  is  preferable  is  an  open 
question. 

I.     Hands  are  usually  recruited  from  farm  laborers,  hence  advisa- 
bility of  locally  combining  agriculture  and  forestry.     In  addition, 
the  employees  of  the  building  trades,  unoccupied  during   winter, 
supply  help   for  the  lumber  camp. 
II.     Day  work  is  advisable  in  preference  to  contract  work 

(a)  Where  quality  (effect)  of  labor  cannot  be  controlled,  nota- 

bly in  nursery  work ; 

(b)  Where   experienced  hands  must  be  trained; 

(c)  Where  contract  labor  cannot   be  obtained    (Pacific  coast); 


"    6      ^//        V  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

<<1)     Where  contract  legislation  is  bad.      (Lien   laws   in   Minne- 
sota;   $1,500  exemption  clause  in  North  Carolina.) 
Contract   work  is   generally  preferable  to-  day  work  because 
it  -4v  cheaner.      Contract    work    is    doubly   advisable    where    em-  } 
ployer's   liability   laws    work   against     the     employer.      Contracts 
should  always  be  in  writing.     The  specification  sheet  should  be 
kept  apart  from  the  paragraphs  of  agreement,   so  as  not  to  en- 
cumber the  contract. 
The  main  clauses  of  a  contract  cover : 

(a)  Time  allowed  to  complete  work; 

(b)  Installments   and   payments; 

(c)  Building  of  snaking  roads,  sleigh  roads  and  skidways ; 

(d)  Scaling  of  defective  logs  and  of  sound  logs; 

(e)  Employer's  liabilityj 

(f  )     Fines  for  fire,  stock  at  large,  fishing,  hunting  and  drunken- 
ness, and  demand  for  discharge  of  culprits; 

(g)      Shanties   and   log   houses   and   commissary   bills; 

(h)     Supply  of  tools;   deduction  for  loss  and  spoliation  of  tools; 

(i  )     Fines    for    cutting    trees    not    marked    or    of   too    small    a 

diameter; 
(j  )     Fines  for  leaving  marked  trees  uncut : 
(k)     Fines  for  poor  work  and  unnecessary  damage; 
(1  )      Possibility  of  speedy  termination  of  contract  in  emergency 

cases ; 
(m) 


e  to  avoid  suits  in  case.of  discrepam-  #  , 

Frill  r-iu-inn-     nAintc  •         ***T^ 


Nomination  of  umpire  to  avojd  suits  m  case^of  di^crepaii 
cies.  *>U  , 
The  specifications  cover  the  following  points: 
Height  of  stumps;    peeling  of  bark;    separating  product  accord- 
ing  to   quality:    length,   diameter,   weight   of   product;     nosing 
logs;    cutting  defects   out    (unsound   knots   etc.);    placing   the 
product  on  sticks   (so  as  to  allow  it  to  dry)   or  on  skidways; 
method  of  carrying  or  moving  products;     swamping   (removal 
of  branches);    use  of  road  poles   (breast  works);    skidways; 
road  building. 
,     Subdivision   of   labor. 

The  leading  principle  is  that  one  division  gang  must  push  the  other. 
I.     Lumbering. 

(a)  Cutting  or  felling  crews,  consisting  usually   of  two  hands; 

sometimes   a    third   man   to   drive    wedges   and   to   make 
the  axe  cut. 

(b)  Log    makers,    dissecting    the    bole    into    logs.      A    foreman 

should  be  an  ex-sawyer  or  an   ex-lumber  inspector. 

(c)  Swamping   crew,   to    clear   trees    of    branches   and   to   open 

suspicious  knots. 

(d)  Snaking    crew — at    Biltmore    five    hands    for    a    three-yoke 

team :    three  men  to  get  the  logs  ready  and  to  remove 
brush    (debris)    and   two  men   to  accompany  the  load. 

(e)  Skidway  crew — two  hands  rolling  logs  onto  skidways. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  '  7 

(f)     Road  crew— meant  to  prepare  snaking  or  sleigh  roads;    to 
sprinkle  and  sand  ice  roads. 
II.     Firewood  or  cordwood  making   (for  pulp,  distillation,  cooper-    i 
age  etc.). 
a.  b.  and  c  are  the  same  as  in  "I.— a,  b  and  c." 

(d)  Carriers  cr  carrying  crew— often  with  hand  sleighs  or  roll- 

ers or  grapple  hooks. 

(e)  Splitters— with    heavy    axes    which    have    broader,    thicker 

cheeks    than   cutting   axes.  , 

(f)  Piling   crew — a    very    careful,    honest    man    is    required    for   to 

piling  the  wood.  I 

§  IV.      ANIMAL    LABOR. 

A.  Countries. 

In   Europe,  even   in  virgin   forests,   practically  none  is   required.     In  * 
India  and  possibly  in  the  Philippines,  elephants  are  used. 

In  the  United  States,  in  the  Southern  and  Pacific  States,  as  also  in  the 
Appalac^jans.  oxen  are  used.  In  the  Lake  States,  Pacific  States  and 
New  England  States,  horses  are  preferred.  In  the  South,  mules 
are  used   for  small  logs  and  especially  on  tram  roads.  ' 

B.  Horses.  < 

I.  The  numerical  ratio  between  hands  and  horses  in  Northern  camps 

varies  from  2  to  i  to  6  to  i.  ^ 

The  standard  amount  of  work  for  one  horse  is:  m 

(a)  A   haul  of   1.600  lbs.   inclusive   of   wagon,   on   a   level   road 

over  23  miles  per  day. 

(b)  An  output  of  2/3  horsepower  per  minute,  equal  to  320  horse-     ,. 

power  per  day  of  eight  hours. 

II.  Horses  are  employed  for  »   1 

(a)  Skidding  or  snaking.  /, 

(b)  Rolling  logs  on  skidways.  l^ 

(c)  Sleighing,    trucking     (two    wheels)     and    wagoning     (four 

wheels).  k, 

(d)  Go-deviling. 

(e)  Loading   on    railroad   cars.  Jj 

(f)  Supplying  power  for  portable  mills. 

III.  Food   for  horses.  n 

(a)  Interdependence    between    feed    and    effect    in    foot    pounds 

per  1,000  lbs.  horse  flesh  during  a  day's  work  is: 

Straw     . '. 2  lbs.             2  lbs.  2  lbs. 

Hay    19  lbs.           15  lbs.  1 1  lbs. 

Oats     2  lbs.             6  lbs.  10  lbs. 

Effect     3.000,000      9.000.000     15.coo.ooo 

(b)  Food   required. 

After  Thaer,  per   1,000  lbs.  of  horse  flesh,  25  lbs.  of  good 

hay  and  oats. 
After  the  "Lumber  and  Log  Book,"  50  lbs.  of  oats  and  40 

lbs.   of  hay  per  team  per  day. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 

(c)     Feed  values  equivalent  to   too  lbs.  of  good  hay,  after  Has- 

wt.ll,  are 
=    54  lbs.  of  barley.  • 

=    57  lbs.  of  oats. 
=    59  lbs.  of  corn. 
=  275  lbs.   of  green   corn. 
=  374  lbs.  of  wheal  straw. 
=  4C0  lbs.  of  cornstalks. 
('.     Mules. 

I.  They  are  employed  fur : 

(a)     Light  logs  on  good  ground  and  for  long  distances. 
(lii      For   wagoning  lumber   and    provi   io 

(c)  For. hauling  on  rail  trad  -  (wooden  and  iron  rails). 

(d)  For   hoi  on    inclines. 

For  plowing   and   scraping   in    road   and    railroad   building. 

II.  Food  for  i.ooo  lbs.  mule  flesh,  as  for  horsi 

Mules   require  less  care  than    horses,   taking  care  of  themselves 
and    resisting    overwork.      They    are    frequently     not     fed     at 
nnnn.     |  Price  per  team  at  Biltmore,  $200.) 
"I).     Oxen. 

[.     Price  per  yoke  is  from  $8o  to  $120.  weighl    from  2,000  to  2,500  lbs. 
Ox  yoke>   form  the  rule,   although   efficiency   of  oxen  in  harness   is 
superior.     Shoeing  for  each  claw   separately — difficult  and  risky, 
but  necessary  on  bard  ground. 
Special  training  takes  place  from  second  year  on.     Fitness  for  hard 
work  begins  in  the  fifth  year,  when  ossification  of  hones  is  com- 
pleted. 
Special    training    for    leaders. 
II.     Employment. 

In  the  South  for  snaking  >g  1  rains  in  Oregon;    for 

hauling  logs  suspended  underneath  high   two-wheel  trucks  in  the 
pineries;     rarely  for  loading  cars  or  wagons. 
I  i  I       Standard   work. 

An  OX   walks   14  miles  per  day  with   load.      An  ox  yields   in  eight 
hours  of  work  270  horsepower,  hence  he   produces  only    four- 
fifths  of  the  effect  of  a  horse. 
After  Thaer,  an  ox  produces  only  one-half  as  much  power  as  a 
horse   of  the    same    weight. 

IV.     Feed. 

(a)  It    is  much  cheaper  to   feed  oxen  per   i.oco  lbs.  living  weight 

than  to  iwil  horses  of  same  weight. 
Ruminants   have    four   stomachs   and   thus  digest   their   food 
r.      No  feed  I-  given  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  no 
expense   is   incurred   during    idle   periods,   where   pasture   is 
available. 

(b)  Careful    treatment    and   good   stables   required.     Oxen    must 

not    be   hurried.     Soft    yokes,    proper    salting   and   regular 
watering. 


1  -Ccfe-V    ^^>^ 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  9 

In  .the  South,  at  the  present  time,  cottonseed  meal  and  hulls 

form  the  cheapest  food.     Food  requirement-  per  yoke  per 

"day  are  25  lbs.  of  meal  and  40  lbs.  of  hulls.     Present  prices 

of   meal   $25    per   ton   and   hulls   $8   per   ton,    delivered    at 

_  Brevard.  X.  C. 

CHAPTER  II.    CUTTING  OPERATIONS. 

§  v.  woodsmen's  tools  and  implements. 
A.  Axe.  It  consists  of  a  handle,  32  inches  to  42  inches  long,  made 
of  hickory,  ash,  locust  or  mulberry,  either  straight  or  "S"  curved, 
and  of  a  blade  or  head  forming  a  steel  wedge  of  particular  temper. 
The  etieeks  of  the  wedge  are  slightly  curved  in  the  midst,  falling 
down  gradually  towards  the  upper  and  lower  line.  The  weight  lies 
either  close  to  the  bit  or  close  to  the  handle,  according  to  local 
predilection. 
The  best  make  is  the   Kellv  axe_ 

Double   bit   axes,    requiring   straight   handles,    are   largely   used    in    the 

Northeast.      Special    splitting    axes,    of    greater    weight    and   broader 

cheeks,  are  rarely  used   (for  sugar  barrel  bolts  and  retort  wood). 

For  hardwood,  a  thin  and  light  axe  (a  cutting  axe)  is  preferred,  while 

for  softwood  a  broad  and  heavy  axe  is  used   (a  tearing  axe). 

A  box  of  axes  contains  an  assortment  of  various  weights.     In  Europe 

the  bit  is  relaid  With  steel,  after  wearing  off. 
The  axe  is  used 

I.     For  cutting  trees  entirely  or  partly.  ' 
II.     For  swamping  (axe  to  be  l/t  lb.  heavier). 
III.     For  splitting. 
[V.     For  nosing  logs. 
V.     For  driving  wedges. 
Price  of  axes  from  $6  to  $8  a  dozen.     Handle.,  are  Si  a  dozen. 

B.  Adz  and  broadaxe. 

The  adz  and  broadaxe  are  used  for  trimming  and  barking  export 
logs,  squares,  ties  and  construction  timber.  The  blade  of  the  adz 
stands  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  sweep  and  has  such 
curvature  as  corresponds  to  the  curve  of  the  sweep  through  the 
air.     The  cutting  edge  is  ground  concave  on  the  inner  side. 

The  broadaxe  is  either  right  or  left  sided,  the  plane  of  the  blade 
forming  an  angle  of  5°  to  io°  with  the  plane  of  the  handle.  The 
handle  is  usually  short,  the  blade  very  heavy  and  wide. 

C.  Peavies. 

The  peavy  is  a  typical  American  tool,  not  used  elsewhere.  The  best 
make  is  Morley  Bros.'  line  of  blue  tools. 

The  hooks  are  distinguished  as  round  bill,  duck  bill  and  chisel  bill 
hooks,  made  of  hammered  steel.  The  socket  is  either  solidor  con- 
sists of  rings.  The  square  pick  (point)  is  driven  cold  into  the 
round  bored  point  of  the  handle.  The  handle  is  4  to  6  ft.  long, 
straight,  2l/2  inches  to  3  inches  through  and  is  made  of  hickory, 
ash,  or  usually  hard  maple.     Price  per  dozen  is  $10  to  $22. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 

A  peavy  must  answer  the  following  requirements: 
1.     Hook  adapted  to  any  size  log. 
II.     Bill   to  be   so  constructed  as  to  catch   securely  through   any 

layer   of  bark. 
III.     Proper  length,  greatest  strength  and  low  weight. 
K     Cant  hooks. 
Tlie  cant  lunik  is  a  peavy,  lacking  the  pick  (point). 
The  socket  consists  of  two  rings  only  joined  by  a  narrow  bar. 
Cant  hooks  are  used  more  in  the  mill  and  yard,  peavies  more  in  the 

woods. 
,     Cross-cut   saws. 

I.     Radius  experiments  '-how  a  radius  of  5  feet  2  inches  to  be  best. 
The   straight   drag   saws    require   excessive   strength   and   are 
deficient   in   dust   chambers. 
II.     Width   of   blade. 

1 1  is  at  the  widest  point  about  8!  2  inches.  The  hollow  back 
saws,  a  very  recent  invention,  have  only  about  4  inches 
width  all   through. 

III.  Thickness  of  blade. 

The  back  of  the  saw  is  always  somewhat  thinner  than  the 
gauge  of  the  teeth.  Henry  Disston  gives  the  saw  backs 
4  or  5  gauges  less  thickness  than  the  saw  teeth.  Atkins 
gives  the  teeth  ''14  gauge,"  the  back  at  the  handles  "16 
gauge"  and  at  the  center  of  the  back  "19  gauge." 

IV.  Uniformity  of  temper  and  proper  temper  are  obtained  by   spe- 

cial  processes.      No   hammering  of  blades.      Cheeks   are   per- 
fectly  smooth. 
V.     Construction  of  teeth  is  very  variable.     Dust  room  between  the 
teeth  should  be  twice  as  large  as  the  teeth. 

For   hardwoods   more  teeth   are   necessary   than   for   softwoods. 

There   are   two   kinds   of   teeth,   namely: 

(a)  The  cutting  teeth,  a  couple  or  trio  of  which   might  be 

arranged  on  a  common  stock,  to  form  "Tuttle  or 
Wolf  Teeth."  Only  the  points  of  the  cutters  actually 
cut    into  the   fibre. 

(b)  The  raker  or  cleaner  teeth,  meant  to  plane  oft"  the  fibre 

severed   by   the   cutlers  and   to   shift   the   sawdust    out 
i>f  the  kerf.     European  experiments  prove  the  useless- 
ness   of  cleaners.       They   simply  occupy  valuable   dust 
room.       The    point    of   the    rakers    should    recede    by 
1/32  of  an   inch   from  the  cutting  line  of  the  cutting 
points. 
VI.     Length  of  saw  is  from  4   ft.  to  8  ft.     At  Riltmore  6'/>   ft.  and 
at    Pisgah    7   ft.   is  preferred. 
Local    crews    use    the    "diamond    cross-cut,"    the    "champion 
teeth"   and  the   "hollow   back"    saw. 
VII.     Saw    handles    should    be   easily   detachable.      The    material    of 
the  handle  is  maple,  birch  and  hickory.     Handles  are  fixed 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  n 

(.usually)    vertically  to  back  of  saw.     Sometimes,  however, 
they  are  in  the  direction  of  the  radius  of  the  saw. 
Large  "bow"  saws  allow  of  a  very  thin  blade  and  have  a  bow 
instead  of  handles.     They  are  not  used  in  America. 
VIII.     The  effect  of  a  saw  is  equal  to  the  number  of  square  inches 
cut  by  one  man  per  minute.     The   effect   is   small   in  pole- 
woods,  increasing  gradually  up  to  a  diameter  of  l}%  ft.  and 
decreasing  thereafter  owing  to  increasing  friction. 
In   cutting   longleaf   pine,   the    saw    is   continuously   sprinkled 

with   turpentine. 
The  effect  of  curved  saws  is   from  40  f 'r   to  50 '""c  higher  than 

the   effect    of    straight    saws. 
The  saw  overcomes 

(  a  )      The  resistance  of  the  fibre  by  the  sharp  points  acting 

as  knives  and  planes; 
(b)      The   friction   at   both   cheeks  of  the  blade   by   smooth 
cheeks  and  by  a  gauge  narrowing  toward  the  back; 
(  c  )     The  friction  of  sawdust  by  deep  teeth,  curved  line  of 
teeth,   perforation,   large   dust   chambers   and  possi- 
bly by  "cleaning  teeth." 
IX.     Dres-ing   of   cross-cut    saws. 

(a)  "Jointing"    means    filing    all    cutting    teeth     down     to 

exactly    the    same    circumference. 
The   tool   used   is   called   a   jointer.      A   file   is   placed 
in  the  joints  and  by  a  screw  pressed  into  the  proper 
curvature. 

(b)  "Fixing  the  rakers"  means  filing  them  down  with  the 

help  of  a  raker  gauge.  The  rakers  act  as  brakes 
if  they  project  into  the  cutting  line.  Outside  and 
forks  of  rakers  are  slightly  filed  to  remove  case 
hardening,  and  the  point  is  sharpened  to  a  planer 
edge. 
A  raker  swage  is  being  introduced  to  spread  the 
points  of  the  rakers  and  to  give  them  a  hook-like 
point,  which  is  said  to  tear  out  long  slivers  instead 
of  tearing   out   dust. 

(c)  "Setting   the   cutter  teeth*'   is   done   under  the  control 

of  a  "set  gauge"  with  the  help  of  a  "set  block  and 
hammer."  giving  3  to  4  taps  (the  best  method  when 
done  by  experienced  men)  or  with  the  help  of  a 
"saw  set."  "Saw  sets"  are  constructed  either 
wrench-like  or  after  the  hammer  and  block  prin- 
ciple. 
Rules  of  setting  are  : 

1.  Setting    should    never    go    lower    than    half   the 

length  of  the  tooth. 

2.  It   should  never  exceed  twice  the  gauge  of  the 

teeth. 


i  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

3.  More  set  is  required  for  long  saws  and  for  soft 

woods  than    for  short   saws  and  hard   woods. 

4.  When    hammering,    strike    tooth    fully    %    inch 

from  point  <if  tooth. 

5.  If   teeth   arc   badly   set,   take,   to   begin   with,   all 

set  out  of  the   teeth. 

6.  Apply    side   file   inside   file  holder,  to  take   away 

slight    irregularities    of    set    (after    filing    the 
teeth  ). 
1  d  1     "Filing."    Filing  usualb  pi   in  the 

case   of   saws   spanned   in   a    vise,   when  the   set  is 
afterward  given   by  holding  the   set   Mock   on  one 
.side  of  the    -panned   saw   and   hammering   from   the 
other. 
Rules    of    filing    arc : 

1.  File  inside  of  tooth  only. 

2.  File  to  a  bevel  or  fleam   of  450. 

3.  Push  the  file  away  and  do  not  draw  it  toward 

you. 

4.  Do  not  file  point  to  a  feather  edge. 

5.  It  is  useless  to  sharpen  tooth  below  the  cutting 

point. 
(e)     "Gumming."      Gumming    is    usually    done     with     the 
file;    the   lever    (punch)    gummer  may  be  used  for 
the   purpose,   however, 
ft)      Remarks:     A  good,  well-tempered  saw   holds   sharpen- 
ing and   filing  for  six   work  days. 
In    California    one    man    "cross-cut    saws"'    up    to    six 
feet   long   arc  used  in   dissecting  the  bole  into  logs. 
I  he  cross-cut    saw  tile   shows,  on  the  cross  section,  a 

narrow    triangle    with    curved    back. 
In     Europe    flat    and    triangular    files    are    used     for 

cut   saws. 
The  "spread   set"   of  the  cutting  teeth  lias  been   tried 
and  was  found  impracticable. 

F.      Wedge-. 

Wedge-    are    ll-ed  : 
1-      'I')   split    wood.      The  "axe   wedge"   is   usually  made  of   iron   and 
should  have  straight  and  not  convex  cheeks,  which  are  often 
grooved   to  prevent    wedge   from  jumping   the  cleft. 
Wedges   are    -old  by  the   pound. 

Iron  wedges  are  prevented  from  jumping  by  heating  them. 
by  putting  dirt  in  the  cleft,  or  else  a  rag  (wet)  over  the 
wedge. 

Wooden    wedges    are    made    of   the   butts   of   bard    maple,    horn- 
beam,   black   gum.    dogwood   and   beech. 
Iron  wedges  with   wooden  backs  arc  frequently   used  abroad. 


1    (T* 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  13 

II.     To  prevent   saw  from  pinching  in  the  kerf. 

Special  saw  wedges  of  oil-tempered   steel  are  made  by  Morley 

Bros. 
Frequently  saw  wedges  and  axe  wedges  are  used  alike. 
W<  oden  wedges  must  be  driven  with  the  axe  or  hammer. 
Iron  and  steel  wedges  must  be  driven  with  a  wooden  maul. 
G.     Mauls   and  maul  bands. 

Mauls   are   made   of   the    butts   of   dogwood,   beech,   hornbeam,   hard 
maple,  gum  and  locust,  and  are  held  together  by   two  iron  hoops 
made  of  )  2-inch  by  ^-inch  fiat  iron. 
H.      Pickaxe   and   matli 

They  are  used  where  the  stumps  are  used  together  with  the  bole  and 
in  the  preparation  of  forest  roads.     The  points  of  both  are  relaid 
with   steel   after  wearing  out. 
I.     Brush  hooks. 
They   are  used   in  cleaning  boles  and   in  making   fagots  or  fascines: 
further   in   clearing   snaking   roads    in   dense   underbrush. 
J.     The  krempe. 
The  krempe  is  used   largely  abroad  and  in   India  and   resembles  the 
picaroon   or    hookaroon    used    in    America    for   handling   ties,   tele- 
graph poles  and  pulp  wood.     It  is  used  in  rolling  and  moving  logs 
down  hill,  the  pick  ;:  ver,  the   fulcrum  of  which  lies  at 

the  heel. 
K.     Pike  pol  hu 

Pike  poles  are  used   with  pike   and   hook  or  with  pike  only:    are   12  ^Y 
ft.  to  20  ft.  long,  made  of  selected!  while  ash.lthe  points  consisting^     f 
of   cast   steel.      The   points   are   either    s;    -wed    into   the    wood   or 
driven  without  beating.     Pike  poles  cost  $10  to  $25  a  dozen.    They 
are   indispensable    in    driving   and    rafting   operations    and    at   mill 
ponds. 
L.     Screws  for  blasting  stumps.     Such  screws  are  used  abroad,  not  to 
shoot  stumps  out  of  the  ground  but    solely  to  split   stumps  where 
prices  of  firewood  are  high.     The  hollow  screw  loaded  with  blast- 
ing powder  is  inserted  into  an  auger-made  hole. 
M.     Grindstones. 

Grindstones  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  sun,  should  be  kept 
equally  round  *and  even  and  should  always  be  kept  wet  while  in 
use.  A  water  trough  underneath  the  stone  should  be  rejected,  as 
the  submerged  side  softens  unduly  and  unevenly.  Stones  are  sold 
by  the  pound. 
A  70-lb.  grindstone  costs  about  $4.  The  extra  fixtures,  consisting 
of  hubs,  shafts  with  nuts,  crank  etc.  cost  about  a  dollar. 
N.     Machine   saws. 

For  cutting  trees  such  saws  have  proven  a  failure.  Similar  was 
the  fate  of  the  "electric  cutting  machine"  recently  patented  by 
Bayer.  The  expense  of  carrying  machines  from  tree  to  tree  is 
greater  than  the  expense  of  cutting  by  hand. 


i4  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

O.  Tree-felling  machines. 
They  are  largely  used  abroad  to  obtain  the  stump  of  a  tree  together 
with  the  bole. 
I.  One  of  them  is  the  "Nassau  machine,"  consisting  of  a  4-inch 
board  10  inches  wide  into  which  regular  steps  are  hewn, 
and  of  a  pole  about  25  ft.  long,  with  a  crooked  pike  at  the 
small  end  and  squarely  bound  in  iron  at  the  big  end.  Half 
a  foot  above  the  big  end  the  pole  is  perforated  so  as  to 
receive  a  1^2-inch  round  steel  spike.  The  square  base  of 
the  pole  is  placed  on  a  step  of  the  board,  fixed  flat  on  the 
ground,  some  12  feet  from  the  tree.  The  pole  then  forms 
an  angle  of  about  500  against  the  board,  while  the  spike 
is  securely  placed  into  the  bole  of  the  tree.  By  means 
of  two  crowbars  the  base  of  the  pole  is  moved  step  by 
step  toward  the  tree.  This  machine  must  be  used  in 
Hesse  Darmstadt,  under  the  employer's  liability  law. 
II.  The  "wood  devil"  has  been  used  for  centuries  in  Switzer- 
land. A  rope  or  cable  is  fixed  in  the  top  of  the  tree  to 
be  felled  and  a  chain  is  fastened  around  a  stump  in  the 
falling  direction,  which  chain  ends  in  two  hooks.  The 
lower  end  of  the  rope  is  secured  to  a  chain,  the  links 
of  which  receive  the  hooks.  By  moving  a  long  lever  to 
and  fro,  the  hooks  are  inserted  alternatingly  in  the  chain 
end  of  the  rope,  advancing  two  or  three  links  at  a  time. 
The  instrument  is  very  cheap,  simple  and  powerful ;  at  an 
angle  of  450  the  rope  has  the  maximum  of  power. 

III.  To  remove  stumps  alone  the  stump  lifter  might  be  used. 

IV.  "\Veston*s    differential    hoist"   lifts    the   maximum   of   weight 

with  a  minimum  of  its  own  weight. 
A    Weston    hoist   capable    of    lifting    \V2    tons   8r4    ft.  high 
weighs  only  81   lbs.   and  costs  $25. 

§  VI.       FEIXIXG    THE    TREES. 

.Under  "A"  and  "B"  are  described  the  chief  methods  of  felling. 
A.     Obtaining  bole  without  stump  and  roots  : 

I.     By   exclusive   use   of   the   axe,   handled   from  one   side  only  in 
cutting  small  trees,   in  thinnings   and  in   coppice   woods. 
II.     By    exclusive    use    of   the    axe,    cutting   two   kerfs   on   opposite 
sides.      The    first    notch,    on    side    toward    which    tree    is    irf- 
tended  to'  fall,  made  from  4  inches  to  6  inches  lower,  must 
penetrate   the   center  of  the  tree.      Avoid   felling   toward   the 
direction   in   which   the   tree   leans. 
Advantages  of  this  method  are  the  facts  that  one  tool  and  one 
man  only  are  required ;    that  the  bole  is  easily  directed ;    that 
the    logs   obtain   proper   noses. 
Disadvantages  are  loss  of  bole,  amounting  to  from  4  %  to  8  % 
and  loss  of  time  and  labor  in  large  timber.     This  method  of 
felling   is    universally   used    in    Maine. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  i; 

111  -  t  of  the  pan."  a  method  used   for  valuable  heavy 

boles.    Uncertainty  of  fall  is  counterbalanced  by  a  gain  in  the 
length  of  the  bole.     The  b  tie  thus 

■ 

IV.  .    the  two-handed  cross-cut  saw  alone,  without  t!  ■ 

-   n  that  the 
fall   of  the   boli 

V  The  axe  cuts  a   ' 

tl"  lepth  of  whi  •  the  diam- 

r,  and  the  innerm  f  which  lies  on  a  level  with 

tn'  to  pinch,  dr 

•v      Withdraw  the   saw   when   the 
fall  by  wedging. 
ire:    the  trees  are  easily  dira 

are  required. 

In 

.    '  g  in  ay 
\    and   the     '■ 

r  the  main  roots  with  axe.  mattock 
l"'ljj0k     '  machii 

^0  ♦ 
«f  <i|>m|n^r  marack   and   white 

B^  cracks  and  wind  shaki 

gradual 
Further,  ro,  t  find  any  incubators  and  agi 

cultural    i: 

uined  in  cut- 
g   from 
j  in  finishing  the  loggin] 
• 

I.  workmen. 
1 1.     Total  net  val 

III.    Wastefulm 

I\'.      Possibility  of  throwing   the  tree   in  the  desired   direction. 

I  >     Pollarding  before  felling  : 
'I  he   branches  or  the   tree   top>  in    European   logging  are   frequently 
1  off  before  felling,  for  the  following  r< 
I.     The  younger   generation  of  trees   surrounding  the  tree   to  he 
cut  re»  injury. 

II.  Lopped  trees  tooch  the  ground  all  along  the  bole  at  one  and 
the  same  time.     Hence  no  danger  of  the  boles  breaking  or 

'        ,    splitting.     In  addition,  a   reduced  crown  causes  the  tree  to  A 

fall   with  decreased   force.  /) 

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i  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

E.     Felling  rules: 

1.     The  trees  must  be  thrown  in  such  a  way  as  to  do  least  damage 
to  themselves,  to  surrounding  trees  and  to  undergrowth. 

II.  The  felled  tree  should  lie  in  a  position  allowing  of  easy  dissec- 

E  bole  and  of  easy  removal  i  I 

III.  Operations  must   be  stopped' during  -tonus  and  blizzards. 

IV.  Trees  over  6  inches  in   diameter   should  be   sawn  down,   coppice 

woods  excepted. 

V.  No   more  trees   should  be    felled   than   can  be  worked   up    within 

reasonable   time  after    felling. 
VI.     The   stumps   should  not   be  higher  than  the  tree's  diameter. 
VII.     All    trees   marked    for  cutting,   and  none   else,  must   be   cut. 
VIII.     The  tops  should  he  swamped   so  that  they  may  come  in  contact 
with  the  ground. 

§  VII.      DISSECTING    THE    BOLE    OF    THE   TREE. 

A.  Purpose  of  dissection. 

I.  Reduction   of   freightage. 

II.  Better    adaptation    to    different    methods    of    transportation    re- 

quired for  different  assortment-. 

III.  Better  accommodation  of  buyers  requiring  different  assortments. 

IV.  Obtaining  manageable  size  of  logs  and  wood. 

As  much  net  value  should  be  obtained  from  the  bole  as  possible. 
Waste  is  advisable  wherever  it  pays  to  waste. 

In  no  forest  on  earth  is  all  the  woodjk^jstance  produced  mar- 
ketable. The  amount  of  offal  (waste^erjris)  depends  merely 
on  the  expense  of  transportation  to  markets  within  nearest 
reach.  It  is  better  to  waste  wood  than  to  waste  money.  The 
modern  lumberman  gathering  logs  of  4  inches  diameter  and  the 
modern  forester  objecting  to  any  waste  frequently  neglect  this 
rule. 

B.  Factors  influencing  the  dissection: 

I.     Requirements  of  the  market  governed  by  custom. 

II.  Distance    from    market:     the    longer   the    distance,    the    better 

must  be  the  quality  of  the  product. 

III.  Locality   (f.   i.  steepness  of  slope;    swampiness). 

IV.     Local  laws  (  f.  i.  in  North  Carolina  relative  to  8- foot  firewood). 
V     Available   means   of  transportation   and   their  construction. 

VI.  Freight  rates  varying  with  the  degree  of  conversion. 
VII.     Size  of  cars  and  wagons. 

VIII.     Length   of  mill   carriage  and  of  feedwork-. 

C.  The    main    divisions    of    woody   produce    obtained    from    dissected 
1»  iles  are  : 

I.     Piece  stuff,  i.  e.  logs,  blocks,  construction  timber,  sold  by  the 
foot,  the  standard,  the  pound. 
II.     Numbered  stuff,  i.  e.  poles,  posts,  mine  props,  scaffolding  poles 
and  shingles,  boards  and  staves,  sold  by  the  dozen,  by  the 
hundred,  by  the  thousand  etc. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  '  I? 

III.     Space :    stuff,    i     e.    industrial    cordwood     (for    insulator    pins, 
bobbins,   pulp,   tannin   etc.).   tanbark  and    fuel,    sold   by  the 
cord.     In  the  case  of  bark.  2.240  lbs.  are  usually  considered 
tne  equivalent  of  one  cord. 
The   specifications  governing  the  dissection  describe- 
I.     The   dimensions,   i.   e..   the   range  of  length  and  diameter  de- 
sired for  each  section  obtainable. 
II.     The  quality  of  each  section  and  the  defects  allowed  and  pro- 
hibited therein. 
(a)     Saw  logs  for  lumber. 

1.     Dimensions.     Douglas  fir  on  the   Pacific  coast   used  to 
be  cut  in  logs  24  ft.  long.     The  minimum  diameter  per- 
missible  was   30   inches. 
Spruce  in  New  England  is  often  cut   13   ft.  4  inches  long 

with  a  diameter  of  6  inches  and  up. 
For  yellow  pine  logs,  any  length   and   any  diameter  over 

8  inches  are  permissible. 
Hardwood  logs  have  a  length  ranging  from  6  ft.  4  inches 
to   18  ft.  4  inches,  arranged  in  intervals  of  2  ft      Odd 
lengths  are  scaled  down.     A  deficiency  of  %  ft.  in  length 
of  board  or  less  is.  however,  often  disregarded. 
Export  logs  of  yellow  poplar  are  8  ft.  and  16  ft.   long. 
Jack  pine  logs  for  cheap   box  lumber  are  often  cut  6  feet 
6  inches  long,  the  diameters  ranging  from  4  inches  up- 
ward. 
2.     Treatment.      Saw    kerfs    at    either    end    of   log    should    be 
made  perpendicular.     Branches  should   be  swamped  off 
knots  cut  level  and  laid  open.     Bark  in  the  case  of  corn- 
ers  is    frequently  peeled   off   in   Maine  and   in   Europe. 
Bark    rings    are    sometimes    left   at    the    ends.      Defects 
Of  bole   must   be  concentrated   in   one   log,  or  must  be 
sawn  out.     Nosing  is  required  for  loose  driving  and  for 
snaking.     Painting  of  end  faces   with   red  lead   is  pre- 
scribed for  export  logs.    Very  heavy  logs  are  sometimes 
split  in  two.     Putting  logs  on  sticks  to  prevent  spoliation 
of  sap  and  to  reduce  specific  gravity  is  often  advised. 


(b) 

(c) 
(d) 

(e) 


Blocks  for  woodenware. 

Poplar,  for  large  bowls,  must  be  entirely  freo 
from  defects.  White  pine  blocks  are  often  cut 
between  the  whirls  of  branches. 

Hub  blocks  must  be  butt  logs,  the  length  „ 
ing  to  cut  either  two  or  four  out  of  the  block. 

Construction  timber  is  hewn  according  to  local 
requirements.  Minimum  diameter  at  small 
end  most  important.  Construction  timber 
abroad  is  sometimes  whip  sawn. 

Poplar^  and  walnut  squares  run  from  4"  x  4" 
to  10"  x  10".  They  are  whip  sawn  in  the  back- 
woods of  western  North  Carolina. 


:en  cut 

aIIow^V|i*A* 


18  FOREST    UTILIZATION 


(f)  Telegraph    poles.     The    smallest     diameter,    the 

diameter  at  or  close  to  the'big  end,  the  length, 
crooks  and  treatment  of  bark  must  be  consid- 
ered. Sometimes  pointing  of  the  small  end 
is   specified. 

(g)  Fence  posts.     Species,  length,  smallest  dian 

straightness,  method  of  manufacture  etc.  must 
be  considered.     Usual  length  is  6}/2  feet. 

ih)  Railroad  ties.  Specifications  are  very  variable. 
Face  is  usually  from  6"  x  6"  to  7"  x  9".  Sawed 
railroad  ties  are  used,  especially  in  the  yellow 
pine  section.  Great  waste  in  hewing  ties  from 
trees  just  too  small  to  yield  two  ties.  Speci- 
fications cover  allowance  of  sap,  wind  shakes, 
wany  edge  and  dote. 

(i)  Shingle  boll  i.  Lengths  are  multiples  of  16"  and 
18",  usually. 

(j)     Mine  props.     Middle  diameter  from  3"  to  8". 

(k)  Stave  and  heading  bolts.  Basswood  heading 
bolts  used  in  Michigan.  Length  18"  or  $7" 
and  diameter  not  less  than  8".  If  from  12" 
to  18",  split  into  halves.  If  over  18",  split  into 
quarters.  White  oak  bolts  used  at  Wilming- 
ton measure  36"  for  stave  bolts  and  24"  for 
heading  bolts ;  core  must  be  hewn  out ;  mini- 
mum face  at  inner  edge  4". 
Heading  bolts  for  sugar  barrels  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks  consist  of  spruce  cut  in  lengths  forming 
multiples  of  22"  with  a  diameter  minimum 
of  6". 
Stave  logs  for  sugar  barrels  consist  of  birch, 
beech  and  maple,  the  lengths  forming  multi- 
ples of  32",  with  a  diameter  minimum  of  8". 

(1)  Bolts  for  carriage  spokes.  Material  is  black  or 
shellbark  hickory,  white  oak,  white  ash  and 
post  oak  strictly  free  from  imperfections. 
Minimum  diameter  12";  length  (>'__■  feet,  ;_• 
feet,  8'/_>  feet  and  so  on. 

(m)  Paper  pulp.  Logs  scale  6"  and  upwards;  no  dead 
timber.  In  the  State  of  Maine  pulp  logs  are 
peeled  in  the  wood-. 

in)  Veneering  blocks.  Hardwoods  preferred,  of  the 
biggest  possible  diameter,  but  certainly  over 
18"  diameter.  Blocks  from  2  to  6  feet  long, 
(o)  Tannin  extract  wood.  Length  of  wood  5  feet, 
Split  fn>m  logs  to  inches  and  over  in  diameter. 
Wormholes  allowed.  Fibre  must  be  abso- 
lutely sound.   A  cord  consists  of  100  cubic  feet. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


10 


Higher  price  for  peeled  wood.  Butt  logs  pre- 
ferred. Cutting  of  saw  logs  out  of  same  tree 
forbidden, 
(p)  Fuel  cordwood.  Advisability  for  piles  to  contain 
one  cord.  Weight  of  pieces  should  be  such 
that  one  man  can  lift  them  easily.  Splitting 
facilitates  the  process  of  drying;  in  pine  wood 
it  also  prevents  rotting. 

V 
♦  P 

CHAPTER  III.     TRANSPORTATION. 

§  VIII.       TRANSPORTATION      WITHOUT     VEHICLES     ON     LAND. 

following  methods  of  such  transportation  are  en  vogue: 
Carrying   stove   wood,   pulp   wood,   extract   wood   etc.    on  men's 
shoulders,     a    method    of    transportation    very    largely    used 
abroad  and  in  India.     Carrying  distances  abroad  range  up  to 
one-eighth   of  a   mile.      In   India   railroad   ties  are   carried   by 
the  Hindoos  over  much  longer  distances. 
'"Stretchers"   are   sometimes   used    where   slope   is   not   steep,   or 
"timber    carrier*."      Morley     Bros.'     lughooks     are     used     in 
America. 
At    Biltmore  firewood   is  carried  to  the  roads  over  an  average 
distance  of   150   feet    on    men's    shoulder^! 
Dragging  logs  by   human  force  where  vehicles  or  water  js  near 
and    where    produce    does    not    weigh   over   a   ton.      The    front 
end  of  a  log  is  placed  on  a  tray   (lizard)   to  prevent  it  from 
boring   into  the  ground. 
Barked    or    peeled   and    well    trimmed    logs    are    easily    dragged. 
Silviculturally,    dragging    is,    of   course,    inferior   to    carrying 
of  wood  products. 
Rolling   logs    by   human    labor    is    necessary   almost   everywhere. 
Peavy,    cant    hook    and    "krempe"    are    used    for    the    purpose. 
On  a  slope  of  about    15  %,  after  removing  obstacles,  logs  will 

roll   easily. 
Shingle  blocks,   stovewood   blocks  and  other  short  round  wood 
may  be  spanned  in  a   frame.     This  method  of  transportation 
badly   damages   young  growth   and  trees  left   standing. 
Shooting  logs   down  chutes. 

A  dell  in  the  slope  of  30  %  or  more  is  often  filled  with   (peeled) 
logs  ;    then  the  top  logs  are  shot  down  the  dell  over  the  other 
logs  below. 
Three  kinds  of  chutes  proper  may  be  distinguished  : 
I.     Pole  chutes; 
II.     Board   chutes; 
III.     Earth  chutes. 

I.     Pole   chutes   have   been  largely  used   in   the   United 
States,  costing  about  $300  a  mile.     They  are  said 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 

to  last  from   seven  to  ten  vears  and  should  have 


^^^Aa^jim^-J^  ,ons  i(,ps-       abort  logs* railroad  tles._ 


\J  the   following  grade 

For  For                For 

iuug  logs,  short  logs-railroad 

Dry  chute 15-20%  25  35%rY"        26% 

Iced  chute    4-8%  8-12%               6%     « 

#■       Watered   chute    3-6%  5-8% 

/      '*/!  ~*  */•  Y^      Heavy  curves   must   lie   avoided   and  the  outside   of 

^p       ^  ; _  ^        X  light    curves    fixed    with    a    number    of    "saddle 

cILuAx      f^~-29/w  ~?o\z  chutes  consist  of  a  trough  made  of  four  to  six 

poles.  The  pole  chute  is  about  three  feet  wide  and 
requires  cribs  or  yokes  for  a  foundation  where 
it  is  not  laid  on  the  ground. 
Water,  ice  and  soap  are  used  for  lubrication.  Chutes 
made  of  hardwoods  are  said  to  run  smoother 
than  those  made  of  conifers,  owing  to  the 
greater  elasticity  of  conifers.  Where  the  grade 
is  light,  poles  should  be  peeled  and  hewn  on  the 
inside.  The  grade  of  inlet  must  be  very  steep ; 
the  outlet  should  open  into  a  pond.  Frequently, 
when  the  job  of  chuting  is  finished,  the  poles 
or  ties  composing  the  chute  are  shot  down  them- 

lj       , ._     **"X  selves,   thus  dissolving  the  chute. 

c^^I^ha^-  \lT._,  Board    chutes,    which    are   frequently   movable,   con- 

»  '  I        la^-m    «"r^    s'st   °^   I_mcn   or  2-inch   boards.     They   are   used 

•^\.    ^>\A\,  t         jn  carrying  firewood  and  other  short  stuff  down 

^*\y9^%   f\  0  «.  J  »  /         slopes  of  25%  to  35%.     The  rougher  the  produce. 

'  the  steeper  must  be  the  grade  and  the  wider  and 

smoother  must  be  the  trough.     Sprinkling  is   re- 

?^w  quired    during   dry   weather,    sanding   during   wet 

O      N*k  »  spell?. 

M^  III.     Earth  chutes.      These   resemble  snaking  roads   of  a 

r         v^  steady  grade,   which  grade  must  be: 

(a)   Where  snow  or  ice  crust  is  available,  8  to 
>  10%. 

^^  (b)   Where  split  cross  ties  are  used,  laid  .about 

S    feet    apart;    for    logs    16    feet   long    or 
longer,  from  io^4  to  18%. 
(c)   Where  dry  earth  is  used,  25%  and  over. 
Road    poles   must    be    used   on   the   valley   side,   es- 
^5  pecially  so  in  curves,  and  bridges  must  cross  all 

V  the  gullies. 

^^  ^Jfc..  "Roping"  is  a  method  employed  for  moving  long  and  heavy  logs 
in  the  "Black  Forest."  A  rope  is  fastened  at  the  small  end 
of  the  log  to  a  ring  dog  and  swung  once  or  twice  around 
the  stump  of  a  tree  nearby.  The  log  is  started  by  the 
"krempe."  and  its  speed  is  controlled  by  loosening  or  tight- 
i        J  «^  ^  cning  the  loop  around   the   tree.     When  the   rope  is   run  out 


> 


;sK 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


it   is   fastened  anew,   after   stopping  the   log,   to  a   tree  lower 
down  on  the  slope.     The  best  slope  is  about  35%. 
Snaking  logs  or  skidding  logs. 


[II. 


Attachment  by  chains  12  to  16  feet  long  and  1/3  inch 
to  y2  inch  thick  ending  in  dogs.  When  a  chain 
link  breaks,  a  "cold  shut"  is  put  in  its  place  (cost 
$3  per  100  for  5^-inch  chain).  For  smaller  logs 
skidding  tongs  are  used  in  place  of  dogs,  at- 
tached to  main  chain  by  three  rings,  swivel'  and 
hook,  and  costing,  per  dozen,  about  $50. 
In  the  case  of  horses,  stretchers  are  used  to  prevent 

the  traces   from  hurting  their  legs. 
On    muddy   soil,   the   nose  of  the   log  is   frequently 

placed  on  a  tray,  or  a  lizard,  or  a  triangle. 
Snaking  dogs  are  usually  hand  made  and  should  be 
driven  by  a  maul.     Plain  points  on  dogs  seem  to 
be  preferred.    Logging  dogs  10  inches  to  12  inches 
long  are  quoted  at  $15  per  dozen. 
Animals.     For  long  distance  hauling,  mules  or  horses 
are  preferred  to  oxen.     Ox  harness  is  rarely  used. 
In  the  South  three  yokes  form  a  "team"  usually, 
the  chains   running   from  yoke  to  yoke.     Leaders 
(oxen)    require    special    training.      The    teamster 
manages  the  yokes  of  oxen  by  Shouting,  applying 
the  whip  as  little  as  possible. 
Roads  for  skidding  or  snaking. 

(a)  Uphill  grades   must  be  strictly  avoided;   even 

level  stretches  are  disastrous.  The  grade  de- 
pends on  the  season  of  usage.  Where  ice 
and  snow  are  available  1%  or  2%  are  ample. 
On  dry  rocky  ground  50%  is  the  maximum. 
On  the  average,  for  "Biltmore"  conditions, 
20%  seems  best. 

(b)  Curves    must    be    strictly    avoided,    especially 
~^LJdr3ur7e^^  HereinTles 

,he  greatest  difficulty  of  "snaking  road  build- 
ing in  sections  where  the  mountain  slopes 
are  deeply  gullied. 

(c)  In   the  Appalachians   the   surface  of  the  road 

is  2]/2  to  zY2  feet  wide  and  road  poles  laid 
on  the  valley  side  prevent  the  logs  from 
jumping  the  road. 
Swampy  and  moist  places  are  corduroyed 
•  lengthwise  with  the  road.'  Creeks  must  be 
bridged.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  one 
bad  spot  in  a  snaking  road  requires  the  use 
of  additional  teams  over  the  entire  length  of 
road. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


Regular  troughs  made  of  fwo  strong  poles 
resting  on  cross  ties  are  used  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  grade  is  deficient  and  distance 
long.  Out  West  cross  ties  7  feet  apart  are 
placed  on  the  road.  In  both  cases  long  log 
trains  are  formed.  It  is  claimed  for  such 
ns  that  the  pull  or  strain  on  the  animals 
is  evened  or  equalized,  some  logs  sliding 
down  hill  while  other  logs  of  the  same  train 
overcome   impediments. 

Means    of   lubrication    are:     Sprinkling   with 


Mi- 


en '--  ties 


or  length 


mg  of  logs/  greasing  the  ties 
Means  of  hraking  the  logs  are :  Sprinkling 
earth,  sand,  hay  and  hranches  on  the  road; 
throwing  chains  on  the  road,  or  tying  chains 
around  the  logs. 
Snaking  distance.  Snaking  distances  range 
up  to  one  mile  (usually),  averaging  about 
one-third  of  a  mile.  Where  many  logs,  say 
30.000  board  feet  of  logs  or  more,  must  be 
transported  on  the  same  road  over  an  aver- 
age distance  greater  than  one-third  of  a 
mile,  other  means  of  transportation  are 
usually  preferable  to  snaking. 
In  the  Appalachian  hardwoods  the  expense  for 
i,oco  board  feet  snaked  over  J/^-mile  amounts 
to  about  $4.  In  the  Adirondack's  skidding 
costs  40c  to  50c  per  1,000  board  feet,  the  dis- 
tances being  short,  since  the  logs  are  merely 
skidded  to  the  skidways  arranged  alongside 
the  sleigh  roads. 
G.     Drums. 

I.  Hand  drums  or  winches  are  used  for  yarding  logs  and 
especially  for  hoisting  logs  up  hill  on  steep  inclines,  the 
distances  not  exceeding  300  feet.  G.  B.  Carpenter  quotes 
single  "drum  grabs,"  weighing  275  pounds  and  having 
2  tons  power,  placed  in  strong  oak  frames,  at  $27.  Power 
capstans  might  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 
II.  Drums  with  horses  as  motive  power  are  used  in  eastern 
Tennessee  for  hoisting  logs  up  to  the  rim  of  the  sand- 
stone plateaus. 
III.  Steam  power  is  now  universally  used  out  W'est  in  connec- 
tion with  drums  known  as  "Bull  Donkey"  and  "Donkey"' 
engines.  Skidding  or  snaking  roads  are  usually  dis- 
pensed with.  Steel  cable  (^-inch  plow  steel)  is  used 
on  the  drums.  The  distance  of  haulage  should  not  ex- 
\^  /  ceed    1,200    feet.      The   main    cable   is   pulled   out   by 


jX 


HsvM 


FOREST 


SU44JKJLK 


<^**<S*-T^      ^*fS-~*^*     >* 


UTILIZATION 


2-mch  endless  cable   ("tripline")   running  into  the  dis- 
trict to  be  logged  over  a  number  of  tackle  blocks.    Zig-^ 
zags  can  be  made  by  using  tackle  blocks  on  the  hauling  ^ 
line  as  well.     One  engineer  and  one  fireman  are  all  the^ 
crew   required   in  addition  to   two  loaders.     Frequently  ™ 
the  engine  loads  logs  on  railroad  cars  at  the  same  time. 
The   engine's   cylinders   are   about  8  inches   by   10  inches. 
Engines  are   moved   from  place  to  place  by  their  own 
power.     Price  for  an  engine  f.  o.  b.  Biltmore  is  $1,400. 
Boilers    are    of   the    upright    type.      The    wire    cable    is 
usually   made    of   6   strands,   each   containing   19   wires, 
wound  around  a  hemp  center.     Running  cables  should 
never  be  galvanized.     The  proper' load  of  a  cable  is  only 
one-fifth  of  the  breaking  strain   in    tons.     Steel    ropes 
(cables)  have  twice  the  strength  of  charcoal  iron  ropes. 
One-inch  steel  wire  cable  costs/ioc  a  foolfr^veTghs  about      * 
1 :  2   pounds   per   foot  and   has   a  breaking  strain   of  33 
tons.     Its  proper  load  is  6  tons  only.  Silviculturally  this 
method   of   steam   logging  is   objectionable. 


§ix. 


WATER  TRANSPORTATION. 


mber  are  driven  loosely  or  floated  in  rafts. 
Loose   driving  is   a   method   used   in  eastern   America    for   short 

logs,  pulp  wood  and  firewood. 
Specific  gravity  of  material  driven  must  be  reduced  below  1.00. 
Heavy  species  might  be  deadened  a  year  before  driving,  like 
teak  in  India,  to  attain  this  end,  provided  that  attacks  from 
fungi  or  insects,  on  the  deadened  trees,  are  not  to  be  feared. 
Under  favorable  conditions,  where  the  creeks  are  narrow  and 
well  watered,  no  special  arrangements  for  driving  are  re- 
quired. 

L     Splash   dams.     The   proper   site   for  a  splash  dam  is   the 

^»      rocky  narrows  of  a  water  course  below  a  broad  bottom 

t        of  little  fall,  or  else  at  the  outlet  of  a  natural  lake. 

^    Large  splash   dams   must   be  placed  on  rock  foundations. 

The  expense  of  building  increases  at  a  cubic  ratio  with 

the  height  of  the  dam. 

sh   dams   built   in   tributaries   are  preferable   to   dams 
the    main    creek,    provided    that    they   can   be    filled 
uickly  enough. 
A   system  of  dams  of  first,  second  and   third  importance 

is  frequently  formed. 
The  distance  of  effectiveness  of  a  dam  depends  on  the 
size  of  the  water  reservoir,  the  width  of  the  water 
course  below  the  dam.  and  the  rapidity  of  its  fall.  On 
"Big  Creek"  in  Pisgah  Forest  the  distance  of  effective- 
ness was  four  miles. 
Splash  dams  meant  to  be  perrhanent  must  be  built  of 
stone   and   are   exceedingly   expensive. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 

The  usual  splash  dam  consists  of  timber  cribs  filled  with 
rock  and  joined  by  logs  laid"  crosswise.  "'I  he  tront  of 
the  dam  must  be  slanting  and  is  covered"  with  a  double 
layer  of  board's":  The  gateway^rrfTTie^dam  must  allow 
of  rapid  drawing  (or  opening)  of  the  basin.  The  gates 
are  either  constructed  barn  door  fashion,  held  in  place 
by  a  strong  key  and  lever,  or  consist  of  (vertical) 
piling,  the  individual  piles  to  be  lifted  by  a  crowbar  or 
drum.  I  Half-moon-shaped  gates  ^ire  used  in  the  Lake 
S  States  and   in  the   Adirondacks. 

»r       The  smaller  the  water  supply  and  the  greater  the  pressure 
«*^        the  tighter  must  be  the  gate. 

w.       The   expense  of  a   splash   dam  of  the  first  order  is  from 
x  $i,coo  to  $2,000.     A  timber  splash  dam  lasts  from  six  to 

\  ten   years. 

Frequently  additional  small  gates  are  made  to  give  » 
"fore-water,"  meant  to  loosen  the  logs  in  the  creek 
below  the  dam.  The  actual  splash  rather  presses  the 
logs  down  the  creek,  instead  of  floating  the  logs. 
.  II.  Dams  in  the  creek  bed  itself  are  sometimes  required  to 
raise  the  water  in  a   shallow  section. 

III.  Before  driving  begins,  the  creek  bed  must  be  cleaned  out 

by  removing  old  log  jams,  leaning  trees  and  huge 
boulders.  Sharp  bends  of  the  creek  must  be  cut 
through,   so  as  to  straighten  the  creek  bed.  g 

IV.  Fixtures  along  the  bank  of  the  creek  are  required  to  pre- 

vent logs  from  getting  smashed  when  striking  a  bluff; 
from  being  thrown  on  the  bank  in  a  curve  of  the  creek; 
from  destroying  the  banks,  and  further  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  water  and  loss  of  force,  where  a  splash  is 
expected  to  overrun  adjoining  flats. 

Such  bank  fixtures  consist  of: 

Pole  cribs  filled  with  rock,  the  poles  lying  solid,  pole  to 
pole,  toward  the  creek,  or  of  inclines  of  poles  laid 
horizontally,  supported  by  strong  uprights  from  be- 
hind, or  of  alternating  layers  of  fascines  and  stone, 
joined  together  by  strong  piling  driven  into  the  ground; 
or,  finally,  of  brush  laid  on  the  sloping  bank  and  irreg- 
ularly covered  with  rock. 
V.  The  bottom  of  the  creek  is  sometimes  paved  with  stone 
or  poles  laid  lengthwise,  where  the  bottom  consists  of 
clay.  This  is  especially  necessary  in  artificial  channels 
or  canals  dug  through  sharp  curves  of  the  creek,  or  dug 
close  to  the  connecting  booms. 
VI.     Booms. 

(a)    European  booms  are  rake  booms,  the  teeth  of  the 
rake  formed  by  strong  palings. 
The    tops    of   the   teeth   are   connected   by   strong 


^4 

two  sections,  an  j 
liagonally  across  i 
?e  boom   stretch- ^8 

"'t 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  25 

timber   bars,   which   are   held   in   place  by   stone 
cribs. 
These   booms   arc   stretched   diagonally  across   the 
river.      The   logs   or   wood   are   merely   diverted 
by   the   boom   and    forced   into   an   artificial   side 
canal    ending    in    a    reservoir    near    the    mill   or„ 
depot. 
A  gridiron  or  sieve,  filtering  the  river  at  a  water- 
fall and  retaining  the  wood  on  the  gridiron,  ha^ 
been  used  in  the  Tyrol  by  the  Bavarian  Govern- 
ment for  many  decades, 
(b)    The   American  boom  consists  of 
upper    shear    boom    spanning    di 
the   stream   and  a   lower   storage 
ing   for   miles   along   the   river  bank,    where   the 
water    is    quiet    and    the    current    slow.      Both* 
booms   are  floating  booms   consisting  of  one  or 
two    strings   of   prime   logs,   the   logs   joined   by 
anchor    chain.      The    booms    are    kept    in    place 
either    by    wire    cables    .}^-inch    to    an    inch    in 
diameter    or    by   stone   filled    cribs.      It     is     ad- 
visable   to    have    the    storage    boom    consist    of  yx 
independent    sections    so    that    the    breakage    of""*^ 
the  boom  empties  one  section  only. 
Frequently  several  mill  concerns  form  Room  com- 

jianies,  A 

The    logs    are   lifted   out   of   the   booms   by   "jack  ~ 
works"    or   "log    hoist-." 
VII.     Driving   and    splashing   must    be    considered   a   backwoods 
method,   applicable   to  very  cheap   stumpage.     It  is   not 
practiced  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  we  have  very  cheap 
stumpage,  owing  to  the  size  of  the  logs  and  poor  water 
facilities.     Where  there  are  plenty  of  natural  lakes,  in  a 
coniferous    country    as    in    the    Adirondacks,    Michigan 
and   Minnesota,   the   method   continues   to  be   practiced. 
Splashing  is  the   more  advisable : 

(a)  The   smaller   the   specific   gravity  of  timber. 

(b)  The   shorter   the  logs.  ■ 

(c)  The  lower  the  stumpage  price. 

(d)  The  more  reliable  the  rainy  season  and  the  gauge 

of  the  river. 

(e)  The  better  the  natural  conditions  are  at  the  dam 

sites,  in  creek  bed  and  at  boom  site.  * 

(f)  The  poorer  the  natural  conditions  are  for  railroad         1 

building  and  wagon  road  building. 

(g)  The  less  land  owned  by  other  parties  is  traversed 

by   splashed  logs.  ^ 


31 


^ 


26  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

<h>      The  more  saw  timber  improves  while  being  bathed 

in    running   water. 
( i  )    The  longer  the  distance. 

(j  )      The  more  inclined  the  log  owner  is  toward  taking 
risks  and  the  less  affected  he  is  by  reduced  fertil- 
ity along  the  river  bank. 
Remarks:   In  the  pine  woods  of  the  South  in  olden  times 
ditches    were    dug    about    three    feet     wide,     connecting 
stumpage   with   swamps   and   rivers. 
The  outlay  per  i.coo  board  feet   in  splashing  and  driving 

is  from  50c  to  $1    (for  manual  labor  only). 
River  driving  of  cord  wood   at  Biltmorc   from   the  upper 
end  of  the  estate  to  Asheville,  inclusive  of  piling  at  the 
boom,  costs   50c  per  cord. 
B.     Rafting. 

Loose  logs  are  tied  into  rafts  at  a  place  where  the  flow*  of  the 

creeks  and   rivers   begins   to   be   more  gentle. 
Only  rarely  are  rafts  used  in  connection  with  splash   dams  on 

very  rapid  streams.  (Black  Forest.  I 
According  to  the  size  and  species  of  logs,  rafts  are  formed 
either  with  the  logs  lying  with  the  stream  (longleaf  pine 
rafts  etc.),  or  with  the  logs  lying  square  to  the  stream. 
In  this  latter  case  the  length  of  the  logs  should  not  exceed 
eighteen  feet.  Square  rafts  consist  usually  of  hardwood 
logs. 
I.     Logs   with  the   stream. 

(a)  The  logs   are  joined   into    raft    sections,    each    sec- 

tion one  log  long;  the  narrow  end  of  the  log 
points  down  stream:  joining  usually  by  rope, 
cable  or  chain;  ring  dogs  or  eye  dogs  are  used, 
or  wooden  pins  in  connection  with  auger  holes. 

(b)  At  the  tail    section   the  rear  ends  of  the  logs   are 

allowed  to   spread   fan   shaped. 

(c)  The    raft    is    directed   by   long   rudders    (sweeps), 

by  brakes  (poles  which  are  pressed  against  the 
1  iot torn   of  the  river)    and  pike   poles. 

(d)  The  width  of  the  raft  and  the  tightness  of  bind- 

ing  depend   on   rapidity  of  the    stream,   span   of 
bridges    to    be    passed,    sharpness    of    bends    of 
river   and   width   of   river  bed. 
Remarks:    Ring  dogs  for  rafting  weigh  about  \V2  pounds, 
are  tour  inches  long  and  have  a  2T/2-inch  ring,  through 
which  rope  is  run.      Price   10c  apiece. 
Eye  dogs  are  made  of  ^-inch  round  iron,  are  six  inches 
long    and    cost    6c    per    pound. 
II.     Logs  square   to  stream. 

(a)    The  ends  are  joined  by  cross  poles,  sometimes  im- 
bedded   in  the   logs  and  held   in   place  by  pins 


{■ 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  2-y 

driven  into  auger  holes,  or  by  chain  raiting 
dogs,  consisting  of  two  small  wedges  joined  by 
two  rings  and  five  links  of  chain.  Weight  21] 
pounds.     Price  12c. 

(b)  The  logs  must  have  about  equal  length.     Species' 

not  floatable  otherwise  are. tied  up  with  floaters 
of  pine,  yellow  poplar,  cottonwood  and  linden. 
In    the    .Mississippi    two   oak   logs    are    floated   by 
three  cottonwood  logs. 

(c)  Such  rafts  are  naturally  stiff  and  cannot  be  used 

on   rapid   streams.     The  narrow  and   wide  ends 
of   the  logs    should  alternate   so   as   to   keep  the 
sections   straight. 
C     Flumes. 

Flumes  resemble  chutes  made  of  boards.     They  must  be  water 
tight.     They  are  largely  used  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
I.     A  V-shaped   cross   section  has  proven  best.      Side  boards 
are  equally  long,  about  16  feet,  in  double  layers.    Angle 
of  the  Y=    110°.     Top  width   is  3  feet  to  4  feet. 
II.     An  even  constant  grade  of  from    1%  to  3%   is  necessary,   ^ 
also  slight  curves  and  large  water  supply,  which  is  oftenv 
obtained  from  artificial  reservoirs.     High  trestle  bridges^^ 
are   sometimes    required. 

III.  The  main  flume  has  a  number  of  tributaries.     A  crew  is      f 

stationed  along  the  flume;   special  attention  is  given  to      * 
the  inlets  of  tributaries.     Patrol  trails  along  the  flume.      /*L 

IV.  The   flaming   of   logs   is    said   to   be   unsuccessful.     In   the   /  ' 

West,   anyhow,   the   size  and,    weight  of  the   logs   would 
prevent  fluming..     Xowadayseither  plains"  or  heavy  di- 
mension  stuff,  to  be  resawn  at  the  outlet  of  the  flume,      - 
are   sent  down.     Only   coniferous   lumber  is   flumed.  £ 

The    lumber    in    the    flume    forms    one    continuous    chain :  ^ 
this    arrangement    prevents    the    lumber    from    sticking 
and  catching  at  the  side  walls  of  the  flume. 
V.     Famous     flumes     are     those     at     Chico— Sierra     Nevada 

range    (40   miles    of   flume'),    the    flume    of   the    Bridal         ' 
Veil  Lumber  Company  and  the  Great  Madeira  flume,  all 
in    California.      The    last    is    54   miles    long   and   has    a  •V* 
daily   carrying   capacity   of  400,000   feet   of   lumber.      It      / 
cost  only  $5,000  per  mile.  7 

The    scarcity    of    water    in    California    is   the   greatest   ob- 
stacle to  the  continuous  use  of  flumes. 
D.     Water  transportation  over  lakes   and  sea  is  effected  in   the  fol- 
lowing way : 

I.  In  the  "fiords"  of  the  Pacific  coast,  logs  standing  upright 
are  chained  together  so  as  to  form  a  stockade  in  which 
the  other  logs  are  similarly  placed,  filling  it  tightly. 
Such  stockades  hold  about  half  a  million  board  feet  of 


yt%u /^u-*  ,  6^-^  ^o-e<_^  ^^4^  ls^t    d*^- 

£&  FOREStf UTILIZATION  f 

lumber  at  a  time  and  form  a  seaproof  raft,  pulled  to  the 
mill  by  tugboats. 
II.  Logs  chained  together  in  the  form  of  a  cigar-shaped  raft 
after  various  patterns  have  proven  a  failure.  These 
rafts  were  taken  from  the  Oregon  and  Washington 
coast  to  San  Francisco,  being  launched  like  a  steamboat 
and  towed  by  tugboats.  To  judge  from  newspaper  re- 
ports cigar-shaped  rafts  of  boards  have  proven  a  suc- 
cess. - 
The  steamship  companies  consider  cigar-shaped  rafts  a 
great  danger  to  navigation. 
III.  In  carrying  logs  across  the  lakes  in  the  Adirondacks  and 
Lake  States,  light  ring  booms  are  used.  The  logs  are 
placed  in  such  booms  at  "the  landing''  and  are  rafted 
(driven)  to  the  outlet  of  the  lake  either  by  wind,  cur- 
rent or  tugboat. 

§  X.   .  TRANSPORTATION    UN    LAND    WITH    VEHICLES. 

A.     Sleighs  and   sleds. 

I.  Hand  sleighs,  home  made,  very  light,  are  frequently  used 
abroad  at  grades  of  10%  and  more.  Man  sits  in  front 
of  load  and  directs  with  legs  and  side  brake.  On  steep 
slopes  such  sleighs  are  used  in  summer  as  well.  Fifty 
cubic  feet  is  an  average  load  for  one  man.  The  work- 
man carries  his  sleigh  back  uphill  on  his  shoulders 
for  the  next  load. 

Sleighing  roads  for  summer  sleighing  frequently  have 
cross  ties  at  short  intervals  to  be  kept  greasud^tslight 
grades.  BL 

II.  The  American  sled  has  nothing  in  commorWB^the 
European  sled.  A  team  of  horses  is  always  used  for 
motive  power. 

The  sleigh,  or  sled,  consists  of  two  sets: 

The  front  set  has  a  tongue  of  rock  elm  or  pak  and  a 
front  roller  in  which  the  tongue  is  set.  Runners  are  7 
feet  to  9  feet  long,  3  inches  to  4  inches  wide,  shod  with 
^2-inch  steel  shoes  or  cast  iron  shoes  either  below 
only  or  both  above  and  below;  they  are  either  slightly 
convex  or  flat.  The  front  of  the  runner  should  be  of  a 
natural  curve  or  crook,  not  hewn.  Material  is  white 
oak.  The  cross  beams,  either  ironed  or  plain,  rest  in 
saddles   or  nose   plates   with   knees. 

The  "back  roll"  of  the  hind  set  is  coupled  to  the  front  set 
by  chains  attached  to  the  center  of  the  front  cross 
beam.  There  is  no  tongue  to  the  hind  set. 
III.  Log  binders  are  used  on  loading  chains  to  take  about  half 
a  foot  of  slack  out  of  the  chain,  unless  the  same  end  is 
secured  by  poles  and  the  twisting  of  the  binding  chain. 


> 


t^ 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  29. 

IV.     The  usual  load  of  a  sleigh  is  five  tons,  while  a  wagon  car- 
ries only  two  tons  on  an  average. 

The  actual  load  depends  on  distance,  grade  and  condition 
of  road.  In  the  Adirondacks  about  2,000  board  feel 
form  a  load;  in  Ontario  1,500  feet  of  white  pine  or 
spruce. 
V.  Sledding  roads  are  constructed  in  the  Adirondacks  at  an 
expense  of  $25  to  $150  per  mile.  The  sledding  dis- 
tance is  said  not  to  exceed  three  miles,  usually.  The 
teaming  expense  is  about  10c  per  1,000  board  feet  per 
mile. 

The  relative  distance  of  snaking  and  sledding  depends 
on  configuration  and  density  of  stand.  Sledding  roads- 
are  preferably  built  on  swampy  soil.  Heavy  grades  re- 
quire a  heavy  outlay  for  sanding;  insufficient  grades  a 
heavy  outlay  for  icing.  Carelessness  in  surveying  sleigh 
roads  is  extremely  expensive  in  short,  mild,  snowless 
winters.  The  modern  lumberman  surveys  his  roads 
with  instrument  in  hand,  completing  them  before  snow- 
fall. 
To  begin  with,  an  empty  or  lightly  loaded  sleigh  is  run 
«      over  the  road  to  mark  and  set  the  track. 

B.     Transportation  on  two-wheeL-rs. 

I.  High  wheelers,  wheels  7  feet  to  10  feet  high,  are  used  in 
the  pineries  of  the  South,  in  California,  and  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  in  the  Lake  States  for  hauling  coniferous 
logs  of  i'i  feet  average  diameter  and  of  extra  long" 
length. 

Logs  are  loaded  underneath  the  axle,  either  by  using  the 
tongue  as  a  lever  or  with  the  help  of  a  second  axle 
having  the  form  of  a  winch  (Southern  method). 
Logging  distance  in  the  South  not  to  exceed  half  a  mile, 
average  one-quarter  of  a  mile.  Expense  $1  per  i.ooo 
board  feet. 

The   best   makes   are: 

Bodley  Wagon  Co..  Staunton,  Va. ;  Snyder  Wagon  Co., 
Shreveport,  La. 
Prices  from  $100  to  $150. 
II.  Low  wheelers,  usually  called  "Bummers."  the  wheels  con- 
sisting of  a  solid  tree  section  held  by  iron  rims  il/2  feet 
in  diameter.  The  top  of  the  axle  is  even  with  the  top 
of  the  wheels.  The  tongue  is  only  six  feet  long  and 
merely  used  as  a  lever  in  loading.  The  bummer  is 
pulled  by  chain  attached  to  point  of  tongue  and  is 
loaded  by  placing  axle  parallel  to  log  close  to  center 
of  log.  with  the  tongue  standing  perpendicular,  the 
log  being  fastened  to  the  axle  by  short  chains  and 
dogs. 


30  / 


FOREST    i 


High  and  low  wheelers  are  used  on  undulating  ground 
for  downhill  pull  on  soil  free  from  rock,  swampy 
places,   debris   and   brush. 

C.  Log  wagons.     Log  wagons  are  entirely   used   for  transportation 

in  the  old  country,  where  the  forests  arc  traversed  by  a  net- 
work of  well  graded  stone  roads.  Wagons  are  always  hand- 
made,  of  light   weight  and  carry   up   to    1/   tons   of   logs" v 

[n  carrying  long  boles,  the  front  and  hind  trucks  are  separated. 
Steep  curves  can  be  made  if  the  rear  ends  of  the  logs  are  fast- 
ened  underneath  .the  axle  of  the  hind  truck. 

The  American  wagon  has  a  track  width,  from  center  to  center 
of  tire,  of  4  feet  6  inches  or  5  feet. 

Wheels  are  usually  made  entirely  of  white  oak.  The  wood  is 
well  seasoned.  The  tire  is  3  inches,  5  inches  and  over.  Front 
and  hind  wheels  usually  equally  high — 2  feet  to  3^  feet.  Eight 
wheelers  are  now  widely  advertised. 

Skeins  are  preferably  made  of  welded  steel  instead  of  cast,  3 
inches  to  5  inches  in  diameter. 

Steel  axles  have  not  proven  a  success,  owing  to  difficulty  of 
repairs  in  the  backwoods.  Bolsters  should  reach  to  or  over 
the  top  of  the  wheels. 

The  reach  should  allow  of  changing  distance  between  front  and 
rear  set. 

Main  requirements  are: 
I.     Strength. 

IT.     Possibility  of  repair-  in  the  woods. 
HI.     Low  point   of  gravitation. 
IV.     Ease  of  loading. 
V.     Ease  in  turning. 
VI.     Light     weight    of    wagon    it -elf. 

Prices  for  log  wagons  range  from  $80  to  $200  according  to  carry- 
ing capacity.  Weight  from  800  to  i.S<o  pounds.  Carrying  ca- 
pacity   ij<    to    5   toils. 

D.  Traction  engines.     Traction  engines  are  largely  used  abroad  and 

have  proven  very  successful  recently  in  the  South  African 
war.  In  freighting  lumber  from  mill  to  city  or  depot  they  are 
used  in  the  United  States  on  a  -mall  scale,  since  stone  roads 
seem  to  be  a  prerequisite;  loose  -and,  dee])  mud  or  swamp  are 
impracticable  for  traction  engines.  Tn  Pennsylvania  four- 
wheelers  costing  $1,500  for  a  16  horsepower  compound  engine 
and  able  to  climb  \ 2' '.  grades  and  to  turn  30  feel  curves  have 
proven  a  failure,  since  the  use"  of  traction  engines  plows  the 
roads  during  rain. 
In  the  California  mountains,  where  drouth  prevails  during  six 
months  of  the  year,  the  three-wheelers  manufactured  by  the 
Best  Company,  of  San  Leandro,  Cal..  have  been  largely  and 
successfully  introduced.  Very  high  wheels  and  broad  tread 
cause  little  injury  to  the  route  traveled.     The  boiler  is  a  com- 


VJJU 


* 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


bination  of  upright  and  horizontal,  concentrating  weight  on  the 
driving  wheels  and  preventing  water  and  fuel  from  dropping 
back  from  the  pipes  on  steep  grades.  Engines  are  said  to  be 
able  to  climb  3of~c  grades  and  to  climb  over  logs,  brush,  stone 
etc.  Front  wheel  is  for  steering  only,  with  front  drum  for 
skidding  legs  by  wire  cable. 
Pole  roads.  A  statistic  of  1886  finds  in  the  United  States  over 
2.0C0  miles  of  pole  roads,  using  over  400  locomotives  and  over 
S.coo  trucks. 

I.  The  rails  are  made  of  straight,  preferably  coniferous  poles, 
sufficiently  trimmed  to  fit  the  double  flange  of  the  truck 
wheels.  Or.  suitable  soil  no  ties  are  required,  the  rail 
being  gradually  pressed  into  the  ground. 
Sawn  rails,  preferably  consisting  of  several  layers  of 
boards,  must  be  used  in  curves  of  the  pole  road  and  are 
still  largely  used  near  mills  on  steep  and  short  grades. 
II.  Trucks.  The  wheels  should  not  turn  with  the  axle.  An 
oval  concave  rim  said  to  be  inferior  to  a  flat  rim  with 
heavy  flang 

Each  wheel  has  about  2  inches  room  for  side  play.  The 
reach  should  turn  like  a  swivel  in  hind  and  front 
set,  allowing  all  wheels  to  stay  on  the  track. 
III.  All  lumbermen  now  agree  that  pole  roads  are  impracticable 
for  locomotives.  #n  sawn  rails  l*c«m»tives  are  still 
used,  hfwever,  when  prices  of  steel  are  high,  grade 
steep,  distance  sh#rt  and  use  intended  f#r  a  sb»rt  while 
only.  Sawn  wooden  rails  do  not  allow  of  heavy  loads 
and.  consequently,  seem  unadvisable  just  for  logging 
by  steam  engines. 
Forest   railroads. 

I.     Portable   forest   railroads. 

In  American  lumbering  portable  railroads  are  little  used. 
The  sections  of  which  portable  railroads  consist  are 
necessarily  light  and.  consequently,  unfit  for  the  heavy 
traffic  of  American  lumbering.  In  Europe  the  sections 
are  usually  61 2  feet  long,  have  z]/2  feet  gauge  and 
weigh  80  pounds.  Steel  ties  are  preferable  at  the  ends 
so  as  to  have  the  joints  supported  by  ties.  The  sec- 
tions are  joined  by  a  hook  arrangement  without  being 
bolted  together. 

Usually  the  sections  are  merely  laid  on  wood  roads.  Mo- 
tive power  is  supplied  by  gravity,  men  or  horses.  \\ 'heel 
flanges  usually  on  both  sides  of  the  rail.  Rail  sections 
of  trapeze  form  are  sometimes  used  in  building  curves. 
Bridge  switches  are  preferable  to  split  switches. 

In  the  wood  yard  at  Biltmore  sections  of  wooden  rails 
were   used,   the  ties  being  replaced  by  iron  rods.     The 


r\  ; 


■j 


.>-: 


OKI- ST    UTILIZATION 


top  of  the  rail  was  shod  with  a  strip  of  ^-inch  iron, 
the  ends  joined  by  hook  and  pin,  and  by  hole  and  pin. 
Steel  sectional  tracks  of  2V2-inch  gauge  are  manufactured 
by  the  C.  W.  Hunt  Co.,  New  York.  The  trucks  used 
have  the  wheel  flange  outside.  Curves  and  switches  are 
ready  made.  Straight  sections  are  6  feet  to  20  feet 
long. 
II.     Stationary  track. 

(a)  Grade.      A   proper   survey    is    very   essential.      For 

steep  grades  (over  7%)  a  soft  rail  is  required. 
Grades  of  11%  are  feasible  on  straight  track  for 
locomotives  having  eight  drivers. 

High  percentage  for  very  short  distance  is,  how- 
ever, permissible. 

Logging  roads  in  the  South  have  grades  running 
up  to  15%  for  uphill  traffic,  obtaining  the  neces- 
sary impetus  by  a  corresponding  downhill  grade. 
The  expense  of  maintaining  the  track  and  the 
x  frequency  of  accidents  render  steep  grades  highly 

C-xpensive. 

The  standard  railroads  have  never  ov-er  4% 
grade. 

(b)  Curves.     The   minimum  radius  of  curves   depends 

on  gauge  of  track;  distance  between  axles  of 
front  and  hind  trucks ;  length  of  timber  to  be 
carried  and  grade  in  the  curve.  Curvature  is 
measured  by  the  subtended  angle,  the  (secant) 
chord  of  which  is  100  feet.  Standard  railroads 
do  not  allow  of  an  angle  exceeding  10%. 
In  curves,  to  relieve  the  increased  friction,  and, 
further,  to  prevent  the  trucks  from  jumping  the 
track,  owing  to  centrifugal  force,  three  remedies 
are   required : 

1.  Lessened  speed  and  reduced  grade. 

In  practice  for  standard  gauge  of  56^2 
inches,  for  each  degree  of  curvature  the 
grade  is  released  by  0.02%  ;  for  narijow 
gauge  by  0.03%. 

2.  The    outer    rail    is    elevated    for    standard 

track  by  ^4-inch  for  every  degree  of 
curvature;  for  36-inch  gauge  (usual  nar- 
row gauge)  by  1-3  inch  for  each  degree 
of  curvature. 

3.  The    track    is    widened    in    curves    by    1-16 

inch  for  every  2l/2  degrees  of  curvature. 

(c)  Rails.     The   form   is  usually  the   T   rail.     Grooved 

rails,    flat    rails,   rails   inclined   toward   center   of 
track    etc.    are    freaks   merely.      In    logging   rail- 


^ 


1 


O  *r- 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  33 

roads  the  rails  are  often  fastened  lengthwise  on 
sawn  or  hewn  stringers,  which  arrangement 
allows  of  light  rail.  The  gauge  is  measured 
inside  the  tops  of  the  rails  if  the  flange  is  inside, 
and  outside  the  rails  if  the  flange  is  outside.  If 
the  wheel  has  a  double  flange,  measure  from 
center  to  center  of  rails. 

In  lumbering  operations,  the  standard  gauge  (56^2 
inches)  is  generally  preferred,  since  heavier 
loads  can  be  taken  and  since  the  rolling  stock 
can  be  disposed  of  more  readily  at  the  end  of 
operations.  Of  the  narrow  gauges  36  inches  is 
best,  since  the  odd  gauges  prevent  ready  exchange 
of  addition  to  and  sale  of  rolling  material. 

In  mountainous  sections  narrow  gauge  is  preferred. 
Here  the  expense  of  wide  gauge  track  is  too 
high,  since  it  requires  flatter  curves,  smaller 
grades  and  largely  increased  outlay  for  roadbed. 

In  standard  lumbering  operations  a  heavy  (56 
pounds)  rail  is  now  preferred,  the  up-keep  of 
track  being  cheaper. 'he  bed  for  the  track  being 
less  expensive  and  fewer  ties  being  required  for 
the  heavy  rail.  Light  rails  are  so  twisted,  after 
short  use,  that  they  cannot  be  sold  at  second 
hand.  For  36-inch  gauge  a  rail  weighing  16 
pounds  to  20  pounds  is  best. 

Rule  for  number  of  tons  of  rail  required  per 
mile  : 

1.  Tons  of  2.000  pounds. 

Multiply  the  weight  of  the  rail  by  7/4  and 
you  obtain  the  number  of  tons  required 
per  mile.  For  example,  20-pound  rail  x 
7/4  =  35  tons. 

2.  Tons    of   2,240  pounds    (after   which    rails 

are   usually  sold). 

Multiply  weight  of  rail  by  11/7  instead 
of  by  7/4. 

The  price  per  ton  of  rail  (steel)  varies 
from  $25  to  $35. 

The  interdependence  between  locomotive's 
weight  and  minimum  weight  of  rail  per- 
missible is  given  by  the  following  equa- 
tion : 


wherein  w  stands   for  weight   of  locomo- 
tive  in   tons ;     11    stands    for   number   of 


*j  nve   in   tons ;     n    stands    1 


34  FOREST    UTILIZATION 


drivers;    r  stands   for  minimum  weight 
of  rail  in  pounds. 
Estimates   of   cost    of   track,    exclusive    of 


rolling    stock    and    bridge   arrangements, 


vary  from  $1,300  to  $4,300  per  mile  for 
?  easy   grading.      One-half  of  the   expense 

in  this  case  is  for  rails,  spikes  and  splice 
joints   (fish  plates). 
The  grading  and   laying  of  track   costs   from  $300 
to  $i,coo  per   mile   for  easy  grading;   and   cross 
tics  cost  about   as  much. 
Estimate  of  cos1   per"mile  for 

1.     Sixteen-pound  steel   rail,  requiring    ^| 

25  tons  of  rail  @  %?>2  per  ton.$    80^00 
1.7S0  pounds  of  3T/jx->s   in.  spikes       ^^ 

at   2C  per  pound 35-6o 

357   splice  joints  at   20c T  .        71. 40 

2,640  cross  ties  at  15c 39fj.oo 

Grading   and   track   laying 500.00 

Total  $[,803.00 

J     2.     40-pound    steel    rail,    requiring    63 

^   *  tons  oi  rail  at  $30  per  ton $1,890.00 

4,696  pounds  of  4x^/2  in.  spikes  at 

2c  a  pound 93-8o 

357  splice  joints  at  40c  each 142.80 

2,640  cross  ties  at  25c  each 660.00 

Grading   and   laying  track 1,000.00 


J 


*V 


>^  Total  $3.786.'o7r 

(d)     Cars. 

Cars  consisting  of  two  trucks,  of  two  axles  each, 
form    the    rule 

The  trucks  should  be  very  low  and  should  have 
short  distance  between  axles  where  curves 
are  heavy.  For  narrow  gauge  tracks,  special 
trucks  are  constructed  costing  from  $50  to  $80. 
While  steel  trucks  are  more  satisfactory  in  the 
old  country,  in  America  trucks  with  wooden 
framing  and  wooden  bolsters  arc  usually  pre- 
ferred, owing  to  greater  case  of  repair  far  from 
factory. 

The  bearings  are  frequently  outside  as  well  as 
inside  the  wheels,  so  as  to  have  the  frame  sup- 
ported at  eight  instead  of  at  four  points  of 
the  two  axles.  The  bolsters,  swiveled  on  the 
Frame,  are  very  frequently  much  longer 
1    v  (wider)    than   the   axles. 


[y^LO*  ^      FOREST    UTILISATION  fl    /I 

The   weight  and   capacity   of  logging   cars   should 
be   as   follows : 

/Capacity 
J  fright  in  lbs.     in  board  feet. 

4  wheel  cars     3.000  lbs.  T,ooo  b.  ft. 

4  wheel  cars     4.000  lbs.  1,500  b.  ft. 

4  wheel  cars     5,000  lbs.  2,000  b.  ft. 

.    •  3     N^  4  wheel  cars     6,000  lbs.  2,500  b  ft 

J       1J  8  wheel  cars     6.000  lbs.  2,000  b.  ft 

J        ^  8  wheeI  cars    8.400  lbs.  3,000  b.  ft. 

w      W     .  8  wheel  cars     9,600  lbs.  4,000  b.  ft. 

(  j    ^jk  8  wheel  cars 11,000  lbs.  5,000  b.  ft. 

«     *   ?        .  (e)     Locomotives. 

Vx        ^$      ^v^  Logging    locomotives    are    manufactured    by    the 

Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  Philadelphia; 
^ft  \  H.  K.  Porter,  Pittsburg,  Pa. ; 

^tK       *  3  Climax  Mfg.  Co.,  Corry,  Pa.; 

Stearns  Locomotive  Co.,  Erie,  Pa.   (for  Heissler 
.         V  geared  locomotives). 

The  price  is  practically  independent  of  the  gauge, 

being   influenced   more  by  horsepower. 
Four    driving    wheels    are    usually    sufficient.      On 
steep    grades,    six    wheels    and,    on    very    steep 
grades,    eight    wheels  are   used. 
The    resistance    to    be    overcome    by    the    tractive 
force   is: 

jT        ^         W         £  l-     Gravity,   which   increases   in   exact  propor- 

3        «r  i  r  ti0n  t0  steepness  of  grade  expressed  in 

S      .T  C  4  Per  cent-     Thus  it  is  always  20  pounds 

A     M     ^^^y  per  ton   for  each  per  cent. 

O      ^  2-     Friction  of  the  journals  and  of  the  wheel 

^0^*f        **\        *\^^  flanges  against  the  rails,  which  depends, 

\}  I  J        J^^^  aside    from    curvatures,    on    quality    of 

the    track    and    of    rolling    stock.      It    is 
at  least  5  pounds  per  ton  ;  it  amounts  to 
I  \       ^*^S*^  6^"'    P°unds    for    first    class    equipment; 

p         ^T^^  *°    2°    P°unds    to    40    pounds    for    bad 

J        ^sy  equipment,  and  in  extreme  cases  it  rises 

to  100  pounds. 
Tractive  force  is  understood  to  be  one-fifth  of 
the    weight,    in    pounds,    on   the~driving* 
wheels,  expressed  in  ton s. 
For  instance: 

Weight  on  driving  wheels  25,000  pounds, 
divided  by  5=5,000  pounds;  and  5,000 
tons  is  therefore  the  tractive  force  of 
the    engine. 


36  FOREST    UTILIZATION 


The  hauling  capacity  of  an  engine  is :  tractive 
force  divided  by  the  sum  of  the  fric- 
tional  and  gravity  resistance,  both  ex- 
pressed in  pounds,  deducting  the  weight 
of  the  locomotive  from  the  quotient. 
For  example  : 

Weight  of  locomotive  on  4  driving  wheels 
=  20,000  pounds.  Tractive  force  is  4,000 
tons. 

First  case — Frictional  resistance  8  pounds  per 
ton,  grade  level.  Then  the  hauling  ca- 
pacity equals  4,000  tons  over  8  (friction) 
plus   o    (gravity)    minus    10  =  490   tons. 

4000 


-minus  10  =  490  tons. 


8+0 

Second    case — Frictional    resistance    same    as 
above,  grade  i%. 

4CO0 

minus  10  =  133  tons. 

8+20 

Third  case — Frictional    resistance    8    pounds, 
grade  2%. 

4000 

minus  10  =  73  tons'. 

8+40 

The  cost  of  hauling  logs   on   a   standard   rail- 
road,    per     carload     of    40.006     pounds, 
amounts   to   $5    for   distances   of   one   to 
fifty   miles,    and   to   $6    for    distances    of 
fifty  to  one  hundred  miles. 
Porter's   catalogue   gives    the   cost   of  hauling 
as    ranging    from    30c    to    60c    per    1,000 
h.    ft.    for   a    logging   distance    of    from 
five    to    ten     miles.      At     Chicora,     Ala., 
two    standard    trains    provide    daily,    to- 
gether,   ico.oco    b.    ft.,    coming    from    a 
distance    of    about    eight    miles. 
Small    (narrow  gauge)   locomotives  haul   from 
60,000    to    120,000   b.    ft.    per   week   over 
distances   of   from  five  to  ten  miles. 
Where  grades  are  nol  excessive,  a  locomotive 
should    cover   daily   60   to  80   miles,    the 
hauling   distance   varying    from   2    to    10 
miles. 
G.     Mono  rail. 

The     mono     rail     portable     railway     is     a     French     invention 

(Caillet)   and  has  been  tried  to  a  limited  extent  in  India. 
It   consists   of  one   rail   only,    resting   on    steel    sole   plates  at 
intervals    of    a    few    feet,    and    is    laid    down    direct    on    the 
surface  of  the  ground.     Rails   are   joined   together   by   scab- 
bard fish  plates.     The  trucks  have  two  low  wheels,  grooved 


#£*—»  ^^w'^  '*^^7^,~c^ 


>^iV^ 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  37 

at  the  rim,  the  carriage  hanging  between  the  wheels  a  few 
inches    above    the    rail.      Cars    are   balanced    by   a    telescopic 
rod  and  kept  in  balance,  like  a  bicycle,  by  the  motive  power 
itself,  which  consists  of  an  animal  hitched  in  a  frame  along- 
side of  the  carriage. 
The  mono  rail   system  might  be  applicable  in  the  transporta- 
tation  of  bark,  cordwood  and  minerals. 
Cable   way  logging. 
The   logs   are    suspended    from   a   cable  and  are   not   dragged 
on  the  ground. 

I.  On  steep  slopes,  the  grade  being  35%  to  50%,  the  logs 
slide  down  by  gravity,  being  suspended  from  two 
trolley  blocks  held  apart  by  a  strong  rod  or  pole,  about 
15  feet  long.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  cable,  curved  iron 
rails  lead,  like  a  bridge  switch,  onto  the  cable.  The 
cable  is  kept  tight  by  heavy  drums,  over  which  the 
cable  runs  at  the  ends.  It  is  said  to  wear  out  in  about 
eight  years. 

The   :peed   of  the   block  carriage   is   regulated   by    manila 
rope,    wire   or    light    wire    cable,   and   the   empty   block 
carriage  is  carried  backward  by  the   same  rope  without 
any   motive   power   other   than   that    of  a    loaded   block- 
carriage   going   down   hill.      Proper   switches   allow   the 
empty    block    carriage    to    pass    the    loaded    one    at    a 
half-way    point.      The    price    of    i-inch     wire     cable     is 
about   15c  per   foot. 
In    Switzerland   lines    two   miles   long   are   found,   without 
any    supports.      In   the    Hartz    Mountains    supports   are 
given  every  700  feet  and  the  expense  is  $800  per  mile 
for  entire  equipment. 
In  Oregon  and   western   North   Carolina    short   cable   con- 
duits  of   this    character    are    in    successful   use,    and   in 
India   (in  the  Himalayas)   the  most  extensive  plants  of 
this  character  are  said  to  exist. 
II.     In    swamps    of    the    Atlantic    coast,    where    railroading   is 
difficult,  the  system  of  the  Trenton  Iron  Co.  and  of  the 
Lidgerwood   Manufacturing  Co.  have  been   tried  which 
move  the   block  carriage   holding  the   logs   in   suspense 
over  a  cable  either  by  steam  power  or  by  electricity. 

(a)  In  case  of  steam  power,  the  engine  is 
placed  either  on  a  scow  swimming  in 
the  swamp,  in  the  river,  in  the  logging 
canal  cut  by  powerful  dredges,  or  on  a 
railroad  car,  the  logging  outfit  costing 
about  $7,500  per  mile  (including  lateral 
rig),  consisting  of: 
One-inch  carrying  cable  and  double  traction 
rope: 


38  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

Double   block   carriage   with   differential   hoist 

and  log  grip ; 
Brackets,    supporting  the  cable; 
Steam    engine   with    hoisting    drum  ; 
Lateral    hauling-in     rig,    by    which     logs    are 

dragged  to  the  main  carrying  line  over 

distances   running  up  to   1,000  feet, 
(b)     In    case    of    electric    power,    the    outfit, 

costing  $6,200  per  mile,  consists  of: 
One-inch    carrying    cable    and    J^-inch    single 

current     rope,     which     is     swung    thrice 

over  a  grooved   sheave ; 
Generating  machines  and  20-horsepowcr  st«am 

engine  ; 
Carriage,    including   the    log   support    and    th« 

motor   with    sheave,   which  has   a    speed 

of   six   miles  an   hour. 
I.     Loading  arrangements  are  required,  wherever   vehicles  are  used, 
except  for  bummers. 
I.     Loading  on   wagons. 

(a)  Sliding   logs   from    a   higher    bank    onto    vehicles. 

Only  one  layer  can  thus  be  loaded  conveniently. 

(b)  Rolling  logs   up   an   incline,    either    with    peavies 

or   rope,    the   top  of  the   incline   resting   on   the 
tops  of  the  wheels. 

(c)  A  (drum)  winch  in  front  of  wagon,  incline  be- 
hind  wagon,   pulling   logs   up  by  rope. 

(d)  Tackle  block  attached  to  a  tree,  the  wagon  stand- 
ing between  the  tree  and  log;  the  end  of  rope 
attached  to  outside  wheel  and  the  free  end 
pulled  by  animals. 

(e)  The  skidway  scheme.  Trained  horses  running 
on  prepared  track  opposite  the  skidway.  Two 
poles  leading  from  skidway  to  wagon ;  rope 
running  from  outer  wheel  of  wagon  under  and 
around  the  log  and  back  over  the  wagon  to  the 
horses. 

(f)  A  jack,  consisting  of  a  gear  wheel  and  a  toothed 
iron  rod. 

(g)  German  lever  arrangement. 
II.     Loading  on  railroad  cars. 

Additional  methods. 

(a)  A  huge  tripod  and  Weston's  differential  hoist. 

(b)  A  drum  and  wire  cable  rig.  the  loading  cable 
running  over  a  tackle  block  suspended  over 
track. 

(c)  Cranes  or  derricks  as  used  on  the  harbor  docks, 
a     special     make     of    which     is    known     as    the 


w ^wh^  ^  ^^-^  ^f* 


sj*~*7 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  39 

"Decker  log  loader."  There  is  some  mechanical 
difficulty  in  constructing  loaders  of  a  sufficient' 
angle  of  leverage. 

§  XI.      CHOICE   BETWEEN    THE    VARIOUS    SYSTEMS    OF   TRANSPORTATION. 

Conditions  governing  the  selection  of  means  of  transportation  are: 

A.  Topography.     Steep  grades  make  it  advisable  to  send  products 

down  by  their  own  weight,  so  that  animals  and  vehicles  need 
not  reascend  the  grade. 

B.  Periodicity  of    rain   and   snow   fall    (West    Virginia    for^spring 

rains,  Lake  States  for  snow  fall,  California  for  spring  drouth) 
invite  the  use  of  means  relying  on  water  supply,  on  layers 
of  snow,  on  dry  soil. 

C.  Roc^y   soil   entails   blasting   expenses   and   thus   b%s   railroading 

and  road  building,  Wet  or  swampy  soil  requires  an  artificial 
surface  ori  which  means  of  transportation  ^e  placed. 

D.  Existence   of  drivable   creeks  and   rivers,   theirWrade,   rockiness, 

curves,  steadiness  of  flow,  the  spans  and  number  of  bridges 
crossing  them,  the  danger  or  help  expected  from  freshets  are 
factors  bearing  on  the  advisability  of  water  courses  used  as 
means  of  transportation.  Electric  power  derivable  from  water 
falls  might  be  used  as  motive  power  in  days  to  come.   « 

E.  Availability  of  building  material  in  the  forest,  especially  the  price 

of  rails  and  ties  and  quality  of  stone    etc. 

F.  Ttotal  amount  of  stumpage,  aftd  stumpage  per  acre  to  be  carried 

away  from  a  given  locality  annually,  periodically  or .  once 
only. 

G.  Maximum    weight    and    size,    also    average    weight    and    size    of 

pieces   to   be  handled. 
H.     Price  and  effect  of  day  labor  and  prospects  of  changing  prices 

under  the  influence  of  labor  laws  and  socialistic  legislation.  : 
I.     Relative    price   of   team   labor   and   of   manual    labor.      The   ratio 

between  price  of  hand  labor  and  team  labor  abroad  is  I   to  8. 

In  this  country  it  is   i  to  2^;    in  Lake   States  even  less,  viz., 

I   to  2. 
J.     Condition    of    existing    public    means    of    transportation;    roads, 

railroads    and   navigable    rivers. 
K.     Laws  relative  to  rights  of  way  and  relative  to  damage  inflicted 

on  outsiders  in  the  course  of  transportation,  i.  e.,  by  splashing 

logs ;  raising  water  level  of  lakes  and  thus  destroying  trees  etc. 
L     Mileage  of  the  various  links  forming  the  chain  of  transportation 

and   speculation  as  to  the  building  of  additional  public  links 

of  transportation. 
M.     Silvicultural  considerations,  or  choice  between  conservative  and 
destructive  lumbering. 
Donkey  engines  are  the  destroyers  of  any  second  growth  left  on 

the  ground  and  should  be  used  only  in  clear  cutting. 
High  two  wheel  logging  carts  are  used  abroad  to  save  young 

growth. 


•  • 


^^ 


40  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

N.  Possibility  and  amount  of  damage  to  logs  and  loss  of  logs  in 
course  of  transportation.  Loss  of  bark.  Loss  of  sap-wood. 
Deterioration  by  fungi  and  insects.  Theft.  Loss  of  interest 
on  value  of  logs. 

O.     Regularity  and   reliability   of   means   of   transportation. 

P.  Possibility  of  using  the  means  of  transportation  for  purposes 
other  than  carrying  forest  products  (access  to  mines  and 
farms;  passenger  traffic;  »pplies  for  lumber  camps;  use  of 
snaking  roads  as  fire  lanes,  patrol  trails,  sport   trails). 

^  The  general  political  and  economic  condition  of  the  country 
(settled  or  unsettled):  the  possibility  of  financial  surprises. 

T^x.  J 

■^i A*  tr',.> •  a* ■<-* (^ 


fltoirt  If  If .    flDanutacture  tf  uci###  prOucts. 

•HAPTER  IV.     F#UNBATI#NS  •¥  MANUFACTURE. 

§  XII.       THE    AMERICAN    F^ESTER    AS    A    LUMBERMAN. 

In  the  old  country,  a  large  portion  of  the  products  grown  in  the 
forest  go  to  the  holders  of  prescriptive  rights  (easements).  The  balance 
is  sold  either  under  private  contract  or  at  public  auction  or  under  sealed 
bids. 

tn  France,  standing  stumpage  is  sold,  while  in  Germany  the  trees  are 
dissected,  at  the  owner's  expense,  into  assortments  required  by  the  local 
manufacturing  trades. 

Usually,  in  the  old  country,  the  raw  products  of  the  forest  are  not 
refined  by  the  forest  owner.  The  forest  industries  are  in  the  hands  of 
parties  who  do  not  own  or  control  an  acre  of  woodland. 

In  Canada,  timber  leases  or  timber  limits  are  sold  at  public  auction. 
The  purchaser  pays,  aside  from  the  auction  price,  an  annual  rental  (so 
called  ground  rent)  and,  further,  for  every  i^BPfeet  b.  m.  cut,  a  specified 
royalty.     Neither  ground  rent  nor  royalty  is  object  of  the  auction  sale. 

On  the  forest  reserves  of  the  United  States  auction  sales  are  meant  to 
form  the  main  method  of  disposal  of  forest  products,  exceptions  being  made 
only  in  the  interest  of  local  residents. 

The  private  owner  of  woodlands  in  the  United  States,  and  his  forester, 
is  and  will  be  compelled  to  be  a  wood  manufacturer  for  many  a  year  to 
come. 

The  lumberman  need  not  be  a  forester;  but  the  forester  must  be  a 
full  fledged  and  experienced  lumberman.  Woe  to  conservative  forestry 
in  the  United  States  it  the  forester;  satisfied  to  give  theoretical  advice,  fails 
to  devote  to  lumbering  and  manufacture  the  larger  part  of  his  energy! 


§  XIII.       MOTIVE     I'OW 


a> 


Motive   power  is   supplied   by : 

A.  Actual  animal  power  said  to  be  used  in  Texas  for  running  port- 

able saw  mills. 

B.  Wind-mills,   which   furnish   an   insufficient   and   unreliable  power. 
0     Water-mills.     The  horse  power  of  falling  water  is  : 

v  X  h  X  62.5 
33000 
wherein   stands :    v  for  volume  of  discharge  in  cubic   feet  per 
minute  ; 

and  h  for  height  of  fall  in  feet ;    and 

wherein   62.5   represents   the   weight   of  a  cubic   foot   of   water 
and  33,000  equals  one  horsepower  per  minute. 

\  (41) 


42  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

For  example,  if  cross  section  of  a  race  is  =  2  sq.  ft.,  water  velocity 
=  660  ft.  per  minute,  height  of  water  fall  30  ft.,  then  the 

2X30X600  ■  62.5 

=75  H.  P. 

■-.  *  *  SSOJ0  §  •  % 

Water  wheels  are  either  vertical,  i.  e.,  overshot,  breast  or  under- 
shot wheels,  or  horizontal  wheels,  i.  e.,  turbines. 
I.     Overshot   wheel.      Effective    power   is   60%   to   70%   of  pos- 
"siDle'  power.      The    proper    velocity    at    the    circumference 
is  S   feet  per  second  and  at  best  if  it  is  equal  to  0.55  of 
velocity  of  water. 
In  falls  of  20  feet  to  40  feet  and   over,  overshot  wheels  are 

more  effective  than  turbines. 
The  buckets,  framed  by  the  shrouding,  should  be  curved  or 
elbowed  and  not  radial.  They  should  have  a  capacity 
three  times  as  large  as  the  volume  of  water  actually 
carried,  a  depth  of  10  inches  to  12  inches  and  a  distance 
apart,  from  center  to  center,  of  12  inches. 
Ventilated    buckets,    having  holes   in   the  bottom  and   allowing 

air  to  escape,  are  said  to  have  a  better  effect. 
It   is    difficult *?#  transform   the    slow    speed    of    an    overshot 
into  the  rapid  speed  required  for  a  circular  saw.     Trans- 
formation is  either  by  countershaft  or  by  cog  wheel. 
•    II.     The  breast  wheel   has  an  effective  power  of  from  45%   to 
65%,   is   best   applied   to   falls   of    from    5   feet   to   15    feet 
and  to  a  discharge  of  from  5  to  80  cubic  feet  per  second. 
While   in    the   overshot   the   water   works   by   weight   only, 
it  works  in  the  breast  wheel  largely  by  impact. 
The     velocity     of     wheel     should     be     such     as     to     fill     the 
buckets  to  0.5  or  0.6  of  their  volume.     The  buckets  here 
are  usually  called  blades  and  must  he  ventilated. 
The   wheel   runs   in  a  curb  or  mantle,   formed   by  the  inclined 
and  tffsed  end  of  the  sluicewaV 
The  distanc^jrf  the  blades,  from  center  to  center,  should  equal 
the  depth  of  the  shrouding,  both  being  from  10  inches 
to  15  inches.      The  clearance  between  the  curb  and  the 
shrouding  must  be  at  least  half  an  inch. 
"High  breast"   wheels  are  semiovershot  and  "low  breast" 
wheels  are  semiundershat  wheels.  0 

The   "flutter"   wheel    is  a   low   breast   wheel  of   small   diameter 
~~  and   high   speed.     It   is   largely   used   in  western   North 

Carolina   for   saw-mill   purposes   where  water   is  plenti- 
ful and   fall  about  12  feet. 
III.     Undershot   or   current   wheeh>_have   an   efficiency   of   from 
27%  to  45%  only  and  are  usually  kept  anchored  in  rapid 
streams,    so   as    to    he    independent    of    water   gauge.      No- 
buckets,    but   lung  blades   instead. 


V     FOREST    UTILIZATION  43 

The    diameter    of    the    wheel    is    from    13    feet   to    16^2    feet; 
usually  12  blades,  the  depth  of  which  is  3  feet  to  4  feet. 
The  blades  should  be  completely  submerged  when  pars- 
ing  underneath   the  axle. 
IV.     Turbines   have  an  efficiency  of  60%   to  80^2.     The   water 
does  not   work  by  weight,  but  by  impact,  pressure,  reac- 
tion  and   suction. 
The  speed  is  much  higher  than  in  vertical  wheels  and  hence 

is  well  adapted  for  circular  saw  mills. 
A  turbine,  however,  is  badly  affected  by  variations  of  water 
supply  and  suffers  from  debris  and  sand  and  ice.  The 
effect  of  the  water  is  greatest  when  the  turbine  is 
entirely  under  water,  the  flow  of  water  filling  the  curved 
channel  completely. 
T u r b ines   arej_ 

(a)  Outward   flow   turbines,   water   fed   from  near 

the  center. 

(b)  Downward  flow  turbines,  water  fed  and  press- 

ing from  above. 

(c)  Inward  flow  turbines,  water  fed  from  the  perim- 

eter. 

(d)  Reaction  turbines,  working  after  the  principle 

of  a  lawn  sprinkler. 

(e)  Impulse    turbines,    principle    of    flutter    wheels. 

Modern    turbines    are    worked    both    by    im- 
pact   and   reaction   and,    if  possible,   by   suc- 
tion. 
A    9-inch   turbine,    furnishing    14  horsepower, 
costs    $j;o.    plus    $100     for     setting     it     in 
masonry. 
The  advantages  of   water   mills   are:   no    fuel,   no   fireman,   no 
engineer,    no    explosion,    less    insurance,    possibility    of 
using  dust  and  slabs  for  stable  bedding,  laths  etc. 
Disadvantages    are :    usually    small    power,    small    speed    and 
small    capacity.      Power    less    controllable,   less    reliable 
than   steam   power   and   not   portable. 
Small  capacity  does  not  justify  a  large  outlay   for  good  saw- 
mill machinery. 
D.     Steam  mills. 

For  circular  saws,  the  number  of  horsepower  required  is 
about  =  1/3  the  diameter  of  the  saw.  For  example,  a  48- 
inch  circular  saw  requires  16  horsepower.  Ten  horsepower 
are  said  to  manufacture  5.000  b.  feet  daily  in  circular  saw- 
mills, and  30  horsepower  will  cut  30,000  b.  feet  daily.  Every 
additional  horsepower  should  increase  the  capacity  by  1,000- 
b.  feet. 
In  large  mills  each  horsepower  ought  to  manufacture  1,000  b. 
feet ;    in  small  mills  only  500  b.  feet. 


44  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

Boilers  in  common   use  are  designated  ;is : 

I.     Internally   fired   boilers,    when   firebox    and    waterbox   are 
/*        comprised  by  one  and  the  same   steel   shell  ;   so  all  port- 
able  boilers    and   all    locomotive    boilers. 

(a)  Cornish  boiler:  large  flues  below  and  return  Hue 
above  water  through  entire  length   of  boiler. 

(b)  Lancashire  boiler:  divided  Hue  below  and  divided 
flue  above  water  through  entire  length  of  boiler, 
so  as  to  even  the  draft  when  firing,  and  so 
as   tn   strengthen  the  broad  heating  surface. 

(c)  Galloway  boiler:  like  Cornish  but  V-shaped  tubes 
besel  the  boiler  proper,  thus  increasing -the-bcut- 
ing    surface    and    strengthening   the    flue^^- 

(d)  Locomotive  boiler:  firebox  -smTrounded  by  a 
waterleg  on  all  sides,  excepting  at  the  grate 
below.  A  bank  of  small  tubes  carries  gases  to 
an  "extension"  or  "snioke__box"  in  front  of 
smoke  stacfc- ~"~~ 

II.  Externally  fired  boilers:  masonry  firebox  underneath 
boiler  which  is  traversed  by  a  large  number  of  tubes, 
(iases  pass  first  to  combustion  chamber  at  rear  end  and 
then   through  tubes  back  to   front. 

To  II  belongs  the  water  tube  boiler,  with  inclined  tubes, 
a    horizontal   top   vessel   and   vertical  tail  tubes,   cre- 
ating a  continuous  circuit   of  water. 
(a)      Pointers   about    boilers. 

welve  square  feet  of  heating  surface  of 
boiler   furnish  one  horsepower. 
Each    nominal    horsepower   requires   one 
cubic    foot    or    yy'i    gallons    of    water 
per  hour. 

3.  Mud  drum  at  base  of  boiler  to  receive 
impurities  deposited  by  water.  Where 
no  mud  drum  exists,  boiler  should 
be  blown  off  weekly  through  a  bot- 
tom valve  (  mud  cock). 

4.  Steam  and  water  capacity  must  be  suf- 
ficient to  prevent  any  fluctuation  in 
pressure  or  water  level. 

5.  A  large  water  surface  (horizontal  ver- 
sus uprighl  boilers)  prevents  steam 
from  bearing  water  particles  along. 
Usefulness  of  dome  is  doubtful  as  a 
means  to  secure  the  return  of  watery 
particles  to  the  boiler. 
(1.  Water  should  occupy  three-quarters  of 
boiler    space. 


t'omt 

t 


pcMest   UTILIZATION 


45 


Water  space  should  be  divided  into  sec- 
tions, an  arrangement  improving  the 
circulation  of  water  and  reducing  the 
severity    of   any   explosion. 

7.  Modern      boilers     are      tubular     boilers, 

which  have  the  largest  heating  sur- 
face. Diameter  of  tubes  is  measured 
outside,    including    metal. 

8.  Combustion    chamber    should     allow    of 

full  combustion  of  fuel  and  gases. 
Draft  area  should  be  one-eighth  of 
grate  area.  Return  flues  pass  the  gases 
to  the  entrance  of  the  combustion 
chamber. 
Heating  surface  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  at  right  angles  to  the  current 
of  escaping  gases. 

9.  Very    best    water    gauges,    safety    valves, 

injectors  and  steam  gauges  are  pre- 
requisite-. All  boiler  fixtures  should 
be   readily  accessible. 

10.  Safety   valves   must   be   tried   once   daily. 

The  water  level  should  be  controlled 
by  gauge  cocks,  glass  gauges  alone 
being  unreliable. 

11.  Cold    water    should    not    be    fed    directly 

into  boiler  and  should  never  come  in 
direct  contact  with  the  boiler  metal. 
Steam  injectors  will  not  lift  hot  water 
as  well  as  cold  water. 

12.  Steam  pressure  gauge  must  stand  at  zero 

when  pressure   is  off. 

13.  In  case  of  low   water  and  danger  of  ex- 

-  plosion,  cover  fire  with  wet  earth. 

14.  If   fire    is    fed    from    mill    refuse,    steady 

heat  can  be  retained  only  with  boilers 
of  large    water   capacity.      The    larger 
the   boiler     the  greater   the    fuel    econ- 
omy, 
(b)      Pointers    about    engines. 

1.     Horsepower  of  engines  is: 

Sectional  area  of  piston  in  square  inches 
times  pressure  times  velocity  in  feet 
over    550. 

Deduct    io7o    to   20%    for   friction. 

Pressure  on  the  piston  is  not  much 
over  one-half  of  pressure  in  the  boiler 
(60%). 


A6  F0REST    UTILIZATION 

2.  Interdependence    between    size    of    cylin- 

der and  horsepower  actually  devel- 
oped is  approximately: 

Diameter,    Inches    I  81  9!10|12|12|12jl4|16 

ir,  ir>  if,  ir,  -o  l>4  -jt  :;.i 

I  [orsepon  er I21o!20|25i30|35|50|85 

These  figures  hold  good  for  single  cylin- 
der engines  and  are  much  lower  than 
the  usual  catalogue  figures.  A  new 
engine  develops  more  power  than  an 
old  one. 

3.  The   flywheel    should   weigh  600  pounds 

for  every  inch  of  cylinder  diameter. 

4.  Double  cylinders  are  more  effective  than 

single  cylinders,  especially  if  not 
hitched  tandem  fashion,  which  ar- 
rangement, however,  allows  of  using 
one    piston    rod. 

5.  Center  crank  engines  are  preferable  for 

small  portable  saw-mills,  since  they 
allow  of  exchange  of  flywheel  and 
main    driving   pulley. 

6.  Machines    cannot   get   along   any   better, 

without  care,  than  horses.  Repair 
and  watch  the  smallest  defects.  Have 
the  firmest  possible  foundations. 
Saw-mill  engines  are  put  to  the  sever- 
est possible  tests  owing  to  frequent 
and   rapid  change  of   strain. 

§  XIV.      TRANSMISSION    OF    POWER. 

A.     Belts. 

Belts    in   woodworking  establishments   are   always   dry  and   dusty 
and  are  kept  at  a  high  and  often  irregular  rate  of  speed.     Dust 
materially  decreases  the  transmitting  power  of  belts. 
The  heavier  the  belt  the  more  powerful ;  use  light  belt  on  small 
pulleys,   however,   for  high  speeds. 
I.     Pointers  about  belts  . 

(a)  Belt  tighteners  are  required  where  a  belt  itself  is 

not  heavy  and  not  long  enough  to  cause  suffi- 
cient sag. 

(b)  The    say    sl-innbl    nKvnvs    hf    on,    top    anH    not    on 

the  bottom. 

(c)  The  angle  of  belt  against  the  horizon  should  not 

exceed  45 °. 
•(d)     Placing  one   pulley  above   another   requires  tight 
belt,    which   causes   heating  in   the  bearings   and 
destruction  to  the  belt. 


F0REST    UTILIZATION  47 

(e)  Belts  should  run  off  a  shaft  in  opposite  directions 

to  relieve  one  sided  friction  of  shaft  in  hearings. 

(f)  The  pulley  must  be  wider  than  the  belt. 

(g)  The    larger    the    pulley    the    greater    the    tractive 

power  of  the  belt, 
(h)     Be   sure  that  the   belt  does  not   rub   against   any 

beam  or  other  solid  object, 
(i)     Long  belts,  have  greater  adhesion  than  short  belts 

because  they  have  more  weight. 
(j)     Belt  dressing,   to  prevent   slipping  off   of  belt,   is 

objectionable,  because   it   gathers  dust  and   dirt, 

except  perhaps  linseed  oil  used  on  rubber  belts' 
(k)     Belts  will  slip  if: 

1.  The  pulleys  do  not  run  in  one  and  the  same 

plane. 

2.  The    shaftings    are   not   parallel. 

3-  The  pulley  is  not  as  wide  as  the  belt. 

4-  The  belt  ends  are  improperly  joined. 

5-  The  speed  is  too  high  for  the  weight  of  the 

belt. 
II.     Kinds   of  belts : 

(a)     Leather  belts.  — -v 

Leather   belts  are   either  single  or   double.     They  ( 
come  in  rolls  of  from  200  feet  to  300  feet,  are  ^~ 
run   with    the  grain   side   in   and  are  preferably 
joined  with  studs— not  by  leather  laces  requiring 
holes;    belt    cement    is    now    largely    used,    laps 
being  joined  to  a  fine  edge. 
Leather  belts   must   be   very   well   protected   from 

moisture,  grease,  lubricating  oil  etc. 
Transmitting  power  of  a  single  belt  is  only  70% 

of  that  of  a  double  belt. 
The    price    of    a    7-inch    single    belt    per    running 
foot  is  $r.     For  double  belt  $2. 
(b)     Rubber  belts. 

Rubber  belts  withstand  moisture  better  than 
leather  belts.  They  are  cut  from  %  inch  to  % 
inch  shorter  per  foot  than  the  circuit  on  which 
they  run  and  are  run  with  seam  side  out. 
They  are  sold  as  2,  4,  6  or  8  ply  rubber  belt,  the 
4  ply  being  equivalent  to  single  leather  belting 
and  the  6-ply  to  double  leather  belting. 
The   price   of   4-ply   7-inch    rubber   belting   is    70c 

per   running   foot;     of  6-ply,   $1. 
The  ends  are  joined  either  by  belt  cement  or  by 
lace   leather.     The    laps   are    strengthened   by  a 
strip  of  leather  on  the  outside. 
Never  use  metal   studs   in   rubber  belts. 


F0%ES1     UTILIZATION 

Pulleys. 

Pulleys  are  made  either  of  iron   or  of   wood. 

The    adhesion    of    leather    to    wood    is    much    greater   than    to   iron, 

hence   greater   transmitting   power   of    wooden    pulleys. 
Split    wood   pulleys  are   preferable.     The   best   make   is   the  Dodge 
Split    wood    pulley,    costing    for    24-inch      diameter     and      10-inch 
face  $11.20. 
The  so  called  clutch  pulleys  consist  of  two  wheels  wedged  one  into 
the  other,   the  inner  one  loose,  the  outer  one   fastened   onto  the 
shaft. 
Iron   pulleys  must    be   absolutely  symmetrical 
Pulleys   for  stationary   belts  are  slightly  crowning,   while  thi 

shitting  belts  are   straight  faced. 
Pulleys    for    heavy    work    should    be    placed    close     to     bearings    of 
shaft.     The  main  driving  pulley  must   stand  between  bearings  not 
over  four  or  five  feet  apart. 
The  ratio  between  the  speed  of  driving  and  driven  pulley  is  inverse 

to  the   ratio  of  the   diameter. 
Remarks  relative  to  starting  and   stopping  machinery: 

I.      Machinery   is   started   by   belt   tighteners,   the   belt    running 
over  flanged  pulleys,  by  clutch  pulley,  by  tight  and  loose 
pulley  with  shifting  belt,  by  eccentric  boxes  and  by  fric- 
tion  pulleys. 
II.     A  rotation  is  reversed  by  crossed  belts  (belt  turning  180°) 
or    by    paper    friction    pulleys    or    by    forcing     the     belt 
against    a    driven  pulley   remaining  outside  the   belt   cir- 
cuit. 
111.     A   rotation   is   turned   at  right   angles  by  giving   the  belt    a 
quarter-twist   (go°),  or  by  gear  and  pinion  or  by  beveled 
friction. 
Shafting. 
('old     rolled    shafting    is    said    to    have    a    torsional     strength    30  % 

greater   than   that   of  hot   rolled   shafting. 
The  usual   diameters  of  shafting  in  saw  mills  are  from   i'j  inch  to 
,V_.  inch.    The  proper  speed  for  shafting  is  300  to  400  revolutions 

1  »    x  R 
and    its   transmitting  power  is  given   a-  -    =   horsepower. 

80 

Herein  stands:    V)  for  diameter  of  shafting; 

R   for  revolutions  of  shafting  per  minute; 
80  for  a   constant   factor. 
Couplings   by   which    the   sections  of  shafting  are  joined    should   be 
close  to  a  hanger  or  a  support.     They  should  be  easily  detachable 
without  driving  keys. 

E   comes  in    sections  usually   12,   14.    16  or   18  feet   long. 
The  section   closest  to  the  main  driven  pulley   is  often  Stronger  than 

the  oilier  sections. 


UTILIZATION  49 


The  bearings  should  be  long,  say  four  times  as  long  as  the  shafting 

is  thick,  and  should  have  self-lubricating  devices. 
Hangers  for  3-inch  shafting  and  of  3-ft.  drop  cost  about  $20. 
Bearing-boxes   are  lined   with   an  anti-friction   alloy  melting  easily 
and  offering  little  friction  even  under  severe  pressure.     A  space 
of  %  inch  to   V2  inch  is  left  between  the  cast-iron  box  and  the 
shafting  (journal)   to  be  supported.     The  box  is  held  in  a  "bab- 
bitting jig"  while  the  melted  alloy  is  poured  from  a  ladle.    Bab- 
bitt metal   (invented  by  Isaac  Babbitt)   consists  of  about  96  parts 
tin,  4  parts  copper  and  8  parts  antimony. 
Rules  for  shafting  are: 

I.     Be  sure  that  line  of  shafting  is  parallel  to  axis  of  driver. 
II.     Place  all   heavy  work  on  the  main  shaft  and  close  to  the 
main   driver. 
III.     Oil  freely  and  watch  bearings  constantly.  •  Oil  after  stop- 
ping work,  while  hearings  are  still  warm. 
IV.     Drive  only  minor  machinery  from  gear  wheels. 
Price  of  shafting  is  about  5c  or  6c  per  lb. 

§  XV.      TECHNICAL     USE    MADE    OF    THE    TREES.     BY     SPECIES. 

A.     Hardwoods. 

Cucumber  tree:  Ox  yokes;  pump  logs:  water  troughs:  cabinet 
making;  ceiling;  flooring;  invariably  mixed  with  and  substituted 
for  yellow   poplar.  \ 

Tulip    tree   or   yellow   poplar:     Panels;     flooring;     molding;     clap- 
boarding;    sheathing;    shingles;    siding  on  railroad  oars;    interior 
finish  of   Pullman   cars;   coffins;   cheap   furniture;   bodies  of  car- 
riages and  sleighs;  sides  and  bottoms  of  farm  wagon  beds;  wood-     ^ 
enware;  bungs;  slack  barrels  and  tobacco  hogsheads  (staves  and  ^^ 
heading);    hacking  for  pianos  and  for  veneers;    boxes,  especially^ 
biscuit  boxes  and  cigar  boxes;    scroll  saw  work;    wood  carving; A 
wood  burning;    matches;    excelsior;    paper  pulp. 

Linden  or  basswood:  Mirror  and  picture  backs;  drawers  and 
backs  of  furniture;  molding;  woodenware;  panels  and  bodies 
of  carriages ;  ceiling ;  wooden  shoes  abroad :  inner  soles  of 
shoes;  cooperage  heading;  slack  barrel  staves;  butter  churns; 
laths;  boxes;  grape  baskets;  excelsior;  parts  of  pianos  and 
organs ;  fine  carving ;  papier  mache ;  paper  pulp.  The  flowers  V 
are  used  for  tea;    the  inner  bark  for  coarse  cordage  and  matting. 

Holly  or  ilex:    Mallets;    edging  and  engraving  blocks;    fine  cabinet 
work;     painting    on    wood;     tool    handles;     mathematical    instru-^, 
ments. 

Buckeye:  Artificial  limbs;  woodenware;  paper  pulp;  wooden 
hats ;    fine  wood  carving. 

Maple   (western):    Furniture;   axe  handles:   frames   of  snowshoes. 

Maple      (eastern):      Furniture     (curly    and     birdseye)  ;     flooring; 

sugar    barrels;    mantels;     runners    of    sleighs;    peavy    handles; 

ox  yokes;   axe   handles;    sides   and   bridges   of   violins;   wooden- 


1 


/< 


i 


So  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

ware;  wooden  shovels;  shoe  pegs  and  lasts;  gun  stocks;  sad- 
dle trees;  teeth  of  wooden  gear  wheels;  piano  keys  and  ham- 
mers; wood  split  pulleys;  framework  of  machinery;  ship  build- 
ing; maple  sugar*;  surveyor's  implements;  plane  stocks :  wooden 
type-:  Faucets;  clothespins;  charcoal;  acetate  of  lime;  wood 
alo  ifa  I. 

Sumach:  Tanning;  dyeing  and  dressing  skins;  Japanese  lacquer 
work'. 

Black  locust:  Police  clubs;  fence  posts;  insulator  pins;  construc- 
tion work  (bridge);  turnery;  wheelwright  work;  tree  nails 
(pins);  ship  building  (ribs);  hubs  of  wheels;  house  founda- 
tion. 

Mesquit:  Fence  posts  and  rails;  used  extensively  for  fuel  (de- 
structive to  boilers). 

Black  cherry:  Fine  furniture;  cabinet  work;  interior  finish;  tool 
handle-;     surveyor's   implements. 

Crabapdle:     Pipes,    mallets;    wooden   measure   rules;   tool   handles. 

Witch  hazel  :    Pond's  extract. 

Dogwood:  Tool  handles;  spools;  bobbins;  shuttles;  mauls; 
wheel  hubs;    machinery  bearings;    engraving  blocks. 

Black  gum:  Heavy  (wagon)  hubs;  rollers  in  glass  factories; 
mangles;  ox  yokes;  stock  of  sledge  hammers  in  steam  forges; 
veneers  for  berry  baskets  and  butter  dishes;  slack  barrels;  in 
cheap  furniture,  for  backing  and  drawers;    barn  flooring. 

Tupelo  gum:  Chemical  paper  fibre;  slack  barrel  staves  (rotary 
veneer  cut);  wooden  shoes  and  woodenware;  the  corky  root  is 
used  under  the  name  of  corkwood  for  bicycle  handles  and  float- 
ers of  fishing  nets. 

Sweet  gum:  Known  in  Europe  as  satin  walnut  and  used  for  fine 
furniture  and  cabinet  work,  in  America  For  cheap  furniture; 
cheap  building  lumber;  flooring;  plug  tobacco  and  cigar  boxes; 
wagon  beds;  slack  barrels;  strawberry  boxes;  veneer  cut 
dishes;    coiled   hoops;    street   paving. 

Sourwood:     Tool    handle-;     machinery   bearings;     sled    runners. 
>Rhododendron :      Bruyere    pipes;     tool     bandies;     turnery;     toys; 
rustic   furniture. 

Persimmon:  Bobbins;  spools;  shuttles;  tools;  golf  club  heads; 
plane  stocks;  shoe  lasts;  wood  engraving.  The  black  heart  is 
cut  into  veneers  and  used  for  ebony. 

White  ash:  Wagons  and  carriages  (poles,  shafts,  frames);  in- 
terior woodwork;  inner  parts  of  furniture;  mantelpieces;  sport- 
oods  (bats  etc.),  oars  and  gymnastic  bars;  lances;  agri- 
cultural implements;  tennis  racquets;  snowshoes;  skis:  wooden 
pulleys;  barrel  hoops ;  pork  barrel  slaves;  baskets;  dairy  pack- 
ings  (firkins,  tubs  etc.)  ;  tool   handles.     *  A 

Catalpa:    Fence  posts;    railroad  ties ;    telegraph  polo-  -K 

Sassafras:  Light  skiffs;  fence  posts;  rails;  cooperage;  insect- 
proof  boxes;    ox  yokes.     Roots  v.^-<\  to  make  sarsaparilla. 


r 


ard^ 


gun   stocks;    tool   handles 


-  Ch< 


r9W 

•T    UTILIZATION  S1 

California  laurel:    Ship  building;    cabinet  work  and  interior  finish. 

Elms:    Wheel   stock,    (.specially  hubs;    fence  posts;    ribs   of   small 

boats;    top  spans  in  covered  railroad  cars;    railroad  ties;    tongues 

for  sleighs  and  sleigh  runners ;    saddletrees;    flooring;    exported 

for  inner  lining  of  boats ;    butcher  blocks  and  churns    (butter)  ; 

cheese   boxes;    imitation  oak   furniture;    sugar  and  flour  barrel 

staves;     patent   coiled   hoops    for    slack   cooperage ;     agricultural 

implements;    bicycle  rims;    basket  making;    gun  stocks;    frame 

timber  of  piano  cases ;    wheelbarrows ;   hockey  sticks. 

Hackberry:    Fencing:    occasionally  for  cheap   furniture;    names. 

Mulberry:     Fencing;    cooperage;    in  the   South  for  boat  building; 

axe  handles. 
Osage    orange:     Fencing;     paving     blocks:     railroad    ties;     wheel 

stock ;    toothpicks  ;    fine  mallets. 
Sycamore:    Furniture;    plug  tobacco  boxes ;    butchers'  blocks 
terior  finish;    beehives    (hollow    log   sections);    butter   and   1 
trays :    wooden  bowls. 
Walnuts :    Interior  finish ;     furniture 

cabinet  work:  boat  building. 
Hickories:  Axe  handles;  wagon  stuck,  especially  whiffletrees; 
neck  yokes;  spokes;  tongues;  felloes;  skeins;  backboards; 
rustic  furniture:  barrel  hoops;  screws:  mallets;  parts  of  tex- 
tile machinery;  farm  implements;  wooden  rails  (top)  ;  baskets; 
bows  of  ox  yokes;  boat  building;  hickory  bark  for  flavoring 
(to  imitate  maple  syrup). 

bite  and  burr):  Furniture:  wagon  and  carriage  stock, 
especially  spokes,  fell,  es,  hubs,  tongues,  hounds,  bolsters,  sand- 
boards,  readies,  brake  bars,  axletrees-,  whiffletrees;  railroad  ties; 
affreight  car  building  (framework);  shipbuilding:  house  build- 
ng  and  interior  finish;  shingles:  agricultural  implements;  bridge 
building;  mining  timber;  wine,  beer  and  whisky  barrels:  par- 
quet flooring;  staircases;  split  wood  baskets;  hogshead  and  barrel 
hoops. 
Post  oak:    Fencing:    railroad  ties;    construction;    staves;    carriage 

and  wagon  work;    farm  implements. 
Basket   oak:     Baskets;     cooperage;     wheel    stock;     fencing;     agri- 
cultural implements:    construction. 
Chestnut  oak:    Bark  used  for  tanning;    fencing;    bridges;    railroad 
es;    substitute  for  white  oak.  but  objectionable  in  tight  cooper- 
age, 
e  oak:    Ship  building;    furniture. 
Red    oak:     Shingles;     furniture;     interior   finish:     tight   and    slack 
coperage. 
exas  oak:  Same  as  red  oak.     Said  to  check  less  than  red  oak. 
Black   oak:     Plow    tfeams;     furniture;     lumber:     bark   for   tanning 

and  quercitrin. 
Tanbark  oak:    In  California  bark  used  for  tanning. 
Chestnut:     Tannin    extract;     coffins;     furniture;     interior    finish; 
shingles;   fencing:  railroad  ties;  sheathing:  Jacob  staff  for  com- 


JC  \ TT^    SUgar   ' 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


passes;  bridge  building  (trestles);  telephone  poles;  backing  of 
piano  veneers;    '-lack  barrel  hoops  and  sawn  staves. 

Beech :  Wood  alcohol ;  wood  ashes ;  charcoal ;  shoe  lasts ;  plane 
stocks;  clothespins;  handles;  wooden  bowls;  horse  collars 
(hames)  ;  parquet  strips;  flooring;  street  paving;  railroad  ties ; 
sugar  barrels.  Beech  furniture  made  out  of  veneers  of  three  or 
four  thicknesses,  or  bent  after  steaming. 

Hop  hornbeam :  Posts ;  levers ;  tool  handles  ;  wagon  brake  ;  shoes ; 
wedges. 

Hornbeam :  Used  for  same  purposes  as  above,  and  teeth  of  gear 
wheels. 

White  birch:  Toothpicks;  shoe  pegs  and  lasts;  wood  pulp; 
spools ;  clothespins ;  screws ;  flooring ;  veneers  ;  furniture ;  bob- 
bins and  spindles ;    wooden   skewers ;    hand-made   barrel   hoops. 

Gray  birch  (yellow)  :  Furniture  (usually  mahogany  finish)  ;  match 
boxes;  wheel  hubs;  tool  handles;  buttons;  brush  backs;  shoe 
pegs;  clothespins;  sugar  barrels;  dry  distillation  for  wood 
vinegar:  wood  alcohol;  charco;il  etc. 

River  birch  :     Furniture  ;    woodenware  ;   wooden   shoes  :    ox  yokes. 

Cherry  birch  (sweet  birch):  Imitation  cherry  furniture;  ship 
building;    bark  distilled  for  oil  of  wintergreen. 

Oregon  alder :  Furniture ;  cigar  boxes  ;  mining  props  and  water 
conduits ;    charcoal  in  gunpowder. 

Black  willows:  Osier  culture  (imported  species);  pollarded  for 
fascines;  the  Missouri  species  for  fence  posts  after  thorough 
seasoning;  bats  for  baseball;  a  drug,  salicylic  acid,  made  from 
the  bark:     charcoal   for   smokeless  powder. 

Cotlonwoods :  Boxes;  wood  pulp  and  fibre;  slack  barrels;  wooden- 
ware;  flooring;  excelsior;  backing  for  veneers  in  organs  and 
pianos;  matches ;  cheap  building  lumber;  cheap  furniture; 
wagon  beds;    turnery;  woodenware;    fence  boards. 

Conifer  v  "^#* 

Incense  cedar :    Water  flumes ;    fencing;    furniture;    interior  finish ; 

laths  and  shingles. 
White  cedar    (northern):    Posts;    fencing;    telegraph  poles;    rail- 
road  ties  ;  ^tanks -and  imckgts  ;     shingles;     street    paving;     boat 

Huing      ^tf^C     JU~fJLtU~~^^  - 
White  cellar    (Southern):    Woodenj^tre ;   tanks;  buckets;  barrels; 

telegraph  polos  and   fence  posts;    shingles;    railroad  ties;    boats; 

lampblack. 
Red  cedar   (Pacific):    Canoes  of  Indians;    interior  finish;    fencing; 

shingles;    cooperage;    tanks;    buckets. 
Porl  Orford  cedar  (Lawson's  cypress)  :    Lumber;    inside  finishing; 

flooring;     railroad    ties;     fence    posts;     matches;     ship    building. 

The  rosin  is  a  powerful  insecticide. 
Western   juniper:    Fences. 
Red  cedar  (of  the  East):    Tanks,  posts,  buckets;    telephone  poles; 

cigar  boxes;    chests;    pencils;    interior  finish. 


<^jjt^^<^^^^  (^JU^ 


(™ 


FOREST    UTILIZ 


z'atios  ) 


53 


and     finishing;     shingles;     fencing; 
stakes;     railroad    ties;    car    lining; 


aid  cypress:  Tanks:  shingles;  doors;  house  building;  interior 
finish;  sashes;  blinds;  molasses  barrels;  railroad  ties;  posts; 
car  siding ;    flooring  and  covering  ;    wharf  piles. 

Big  tree  :  Lumber ;  fencing ;  shingles  ;  construction ;  water  con- 
duits. 

Redwood :  House  building 
telegraph  poles;  vineyard 
tanks  ;    coffins. 

Yew.     In  Oregon  for  bows  and  fishing  rods. 

White  pine:  House  building  and  finishing;  boxes  and  crates; 
sash,  doors  and  blinds;  shingles;  backing  of  fine  veneers;  ex- 
celsior;  matches;  laths;  woodenware;  slack  barrels ;  framing 
of  machinery;  furniture;  patterns  for  casting  metals;  ship 
masts ;  baled  shavings  for  filtering  gas,  bedding  for  horses,  pack- 
ing for  crockery. 

Sugar  pine:  Same  uses  as  white  pine;  cooperage;  shakes  (large 
board  shingles). 

Lodge-pole  pinef  Cheap  lumber;  mining  timbers;  railroad  ties^ 
used  where  other  timber  is  not  available* 

Loblolly  pine;  Common  lumber  and  cheap  veneers,  usually  mixed 
with  "echinata";  shingle-:  house  building  purposes  altogether; 
mining  timber;  boxes;   rice  and  potato  barrels;  laths. 

Shortleaf  pine  (echinata)  :  Same  use  as  above;  boxes  for  naval 
stores. 

Table  mountain  pine:    In  Pennsylvania  used  for  charcoal. 

Longleaf    and    Cuban    pine :      House    building :     dimension 
shingles;     tanks;     flooring;     interior    finish;     railroad    ties; 
road  bridges;    car  sills  and  framework  of  cars;    furniture; 
doors    and    blinds;     framework    of    machinery:     mining   timber; 
ship   building;    masts;     wagon  tongues   and  beds;     naval    stores. 

Scrub  pine   (Virginiana)  :    In  Kentucky,  for  lumber4(i*^t^(   ljh>± 

Jeffrey's  pine:     Coarse  lumber ;     mining  timber.  7* 

Bull  pine  (ponderosa)  :  ^timber;  railroad  ties;  mine  props; 
shingles;    boxes;    slack  barrels. 

Jack  pine  (divaricata)  :  Ties  and  piling;  cheap  lumber;  boxes; 
laths. 

Norway  pine:  Lumber  generally;  ship  building;  construction; 
fl^fcring:  masts;  piles  of  wharves;  covering;  lining;  siding;  floor- 
ing and  sills  of  railroad  cars ;    railroad  ties. 

Eastern  spruce:  Chemical  fibre  and  paper  pulp  (down  to  5"- 
diameter)  ;  matches;  excelsior:  construction;  posts;  railroad 
ties;  fresh-water  ship  building;  clapboards;  flooring;  ceiling; 
stepladders;  sounding  boards  (from  butt  logs);  oars;  spars; 
wharf  piles ;  telegraph  poles ;  toys ;  wood  type :  butter  buck- 
ets ;  slack  cooperage;  wooden  thread  (for  mattings);  chewing 
gum  ;  vanillin.    In  Europe  spruce  bark  is  used  for  tanning. 

Engelmann's  spruce:    Used  in  Colorado  for  common  lumber. 

Tideland  spruce:  Lumber;  construction;  outer  finish;  wooden- 
ware  ;   »a»er  \v\\ 


stuff; 
rail- 
sash, 


rrrr 


54    +1^^  FORFQA     rTIU/.ATlOX"  ■ 

[emlock:    Coarse  rat-proof  lumber;    dimensii  n  stuff  and  construc- 
tion;    shingles;     railroad   tics;     fencing;     paper   pulp;     bark   for 

tanning. 
Douglas   fir:     All    building    lumber;     construction;     railroad    ties; 

trestle  bridges;    piles;    car  sills;    ship  building;   masts;    mining 

timber;  bark  sometimes  used  for  tanning. 
Fir^:    Taper  pulp.     In  the  East  for  corduroying.     In  the  West  for 

local    lumber;    packing  cases;    cooperage;    interior  finish;  mine 

props. 
Tamarack  (Eastern):    Fence  fraph  poles;    ship's  knees ; 

railroad  ties. 
Tamarack     (Western):     Posts;     railroad    ties;     car    construction; 

dimension  stuff. 
C.     Tropical   and  subtropical  timber. 

Yucca:    Paper  pulp  and  fibre   for  ropes;    pincushions. 
Eucalyptus:    Street  paving;    railroad  ties;    mine  props;    piles;  ship 

building;    wagon   making;    orchard   paling. 
Mangrove:    Bark  very  rich  in  tannin. 
Palmetto;    Wharf  piles ;    pincushions;    brushes. 
Lignumvitae:     Bowling    balls;     blocks    for    pulleys;     tine    interior 

finish  and  furniture;    railroad  ties  in  Panama. 
Teak:    Ship  building  and  flooring;    railroad  cars;    street  paving. 
West    India   cedar:     Racing  boats;    cigar  boxes. 
Olivewood  :    Turnery;   inlaying;    furniture;  backs  of  hair  brushes; 

wood  carving.     The  fruit  yields  the  best  oil  for  table  use. 
Quebracho:    Tanning:  paving;  railroad  lies. 
Lancewood:    Fishing  rods. 
Mahogany:    Furniture:    ship  building;  pianos;   fine  interior  finish. 

§  XIV.      TECHNICAL    QUALITIES    OF    THE    TREES. 

A.     Botanical  structure  of  the  trees. 

I.     Botanical  structure  of  hardvJcods. 

'I  he  cells   forming  the   woody   tissue  arc: 

(a)  Ducts  (pores,  vessels)  formed  by  the  resorption  of  the 
partition  walls  in  a  vertically  running  string  of  cells. 
Such   ducts  are  characteristic   of  hardwoods. 

(b)  Sclerenchyma,  cells  of  heavy  walls  and  small  lumina, 
usually   forming  long  fibres. 

(c)  Parenchyma,  cells  of  thin  walls  and  large  lumina,  fre- 
quently  containing   grains   of  starch. 

Medulla  or  pith  is  found  in  the  central  column,  in  the 
primary,    secondary,    ternary    rays    and    (rarely")     in 
medullary  spots  (birch).     The  central  pith  is: 
Heavy   in  ash,   maple,  elder,  catalpa; 
Triangular  in  birch,  alder; 
Quinquangular  in  hornbeam. 

Broad   leaved   species  are  called  "ring  porous,''   if  the 
spring  w 1   of   the   annual    ring  contains   strikingly 


' FOREST    UTILIZATION 


large  pores,  or  else  "diffuse  porous,"  if  the  ducts  are 
evenly  distributed  over  the  entire  ring.  Sapwood 
and  heartwood  are  merely  distinguished  by  a  differ- 
ence of  color,  caused  by  incrustations  of  pigments, 
lignin,  tannin  etc..  in  the  walls  of  rings  formed  a 
number  of  years  before.  The  number  of  years  elaps- 
ing before  incrustation  takes  place  is  small  in  catalpa, 
chestnut,  locust :  and  larger  in  yellow  poplar,  white 
oak,  walnut  where  it  is  about  thirty  or  forty  years 
old.  Beech,  maple,  basswood  etc.  do  not  form  any 
heartwood. 


Medullary- 
Rays. 


Scarcely 
risible. 


GENERIC    STRUCTURE    OF    HARDWOODS. 
Diffuse   porous. 


(    Ringporora 

always  with        Diner  pores 

;       heart.  more  numer 

■ -us.  always 

I  with    heart. 


Fores  absolutely  even 
With  heart.  Without  heart. 


I  Castnnea 
Robinia 

i  Praxinus 
Hicoria 


I    Olmus 

|    Mi  rus 

J       Ailinith 


Rhamnus 
Sj  rlnga 


<^.^A 


r^^r 


Pyrus  communis 

egus 
Betula 
Aesculus 

Populus 

Tilia 
Ai  er 
Corylug 

1'arplnus 
Ilex 

l'latanus 
""  ;gus 


II.     Botanical  structure  of  softwoods. 

(a)     The  tissue  of  softwoods  is  more  homogeneous  than  that 
of  hardwoods.     It  is  mainly  formed  by  tracheae. 
The   cell    walls   formed   in   early   spring  are  thinner   and 
the  Iumina  formed  in  early  spring  arc  larger  than  those 
formed   in    summer. 

(b)  Parenchyma   is   found   in   the  medullary  rays   and  around 

the  rosin  ducts. 

(c)  Ducts  of  the    form   found   in  hardwoods  exist  only   close 

to  the  central  pith  column. 

(.d)  The  medullary  rays  are  very  fine  (microscopic),  usually 
only  one  cell  wide  and  about  a  dozen  cells  high.  The 
lowest  string  of  cells  in  the  ray  is  usually  formed  by 
tracheae    (exception — red  cedar). 

(e)  Rosin  ducts  are  not  cells  merely,  but,  unlike  the  ducts  of 
hardwoods,  hollow  tubes,  the  walls  of  which  are 
formed  by  parenchymatic  cells.  These  ducts  are  run- 
ning horizontally  as  well  as  vertically  in  picea,  pinus, 
larix.  pseudotsuga. 
The  tissue  of  the  genera  abies,  taxus,  juniperus.  thuja, 
tsuga,  chamaecyparis  etc.  lacks  the  ducts. 


?6  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

(f)  Heartwood  and  sapwood  of  conifers  are  distinguished 
merely  by  a  difference  in  color,  due  to  incrustations 
of  rosin  in  the  inner  heartwood  rings.  Pinus  echinata 
lias,  usually,  about  thirty  sapwood  rings.  Spruces,  firs 
and  hemlocks  have  no  heartwood.  Heartwood  is  con- 
spicuous iu  the  pines,  red  and  white  cedars,  lawson 
cypress,  yew,   larches  and   douglas  fir. 

B.  Chemical   qualities   of   wood. 

I.  The  walls  of  the  tissue  are  formed  by  cellulose  (Ci:H2,Oi.i) 
and  by  lignin  |CH,,0;). 
Cellulose  transforms,  entirely  or  partially,  in  the  very  year 
in  which  the  cell  is  built,  by  incrustation  and  reduction  into 
lignin.  If  a  branch  or  a  seedling  does  not  enjoy  enough 
light  during  summer  to  allow  of  thorough  lignification, 
then  that  branch  or  seedling  is  necessarily  killed  by  the 
winter  frost. 
II.  Wood  and  bark  contain  on  an  average  45  %  (weight)  of 
water.  Conifers  contain  less  water  than  broad-leafed  spe- 
cies. The  percentage  varies  irregularly  with  the  seasons 
and  with  the  precipitations. 

III.  Other  substances  found  in  the  woody  tissue  are: 

(a)  In  the  sap  and  medulla — albumen,  starch,  sugar,  oils. 

(b)  In  the  cell  walls — tannin,  rosin  and  pigments. 

IV.  The  specific  gravity  of  pure  wood  fibre  is  1.56. 

C.  Outer  qualities,   or   qualities   discernible   by   eye,    touch   or    pcent. 

I.     Texture.     The  texture  is  fine  or  rough  according  to  the  ease 
with  which  parts  composing  the  tissue  can  be  distinguished. 
The  texture  is  : 

(a)  Very  fine — yew.  box,   holly,   persimmon. 

(b)  Fine — pear  tree,  hornbeam,  black  gum. 

(c)  Pretty  rough — spruce,  fir.  magnolia,  cotton  woods. 

(d)  Rough — cherry,    sycamore,    maple. 

(e)  Very  rough— oak,  elm,  locust,  beech. 

II      Color.      Color     is     an     advantage     in     the     furniture     trade 
and      a    disadvantage     in      the      manufacture       of       paper. 
The  heart  of  seasoned  wood  is  always  darker  than  the  sap- 
wood. 
Tropical   species  are   particularly    rich   in   color. 
Wood  exposed  to  air  changes   its  color  more  or  less  visibly. 
The  heart  of  yellow  poplar  changes  to  a  dark  brown.    Alder 
changes  from  white  to  red.     Ash   from  white  to  light  violet. 
Mahogany  from  brown  to  black.    Walnut  similarly. 
III.     Gloss.     Gloss  is  due  to  evenness,  number  and  size  of  medul- 
lary  rays. 
Shining  species  are  maple,  ash,  elm,  beech. 
Medium   shining  are  oak,  alder,  hornbeam. 
Dull  are  peach,  pear,  conifers. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  57 

Quarter  sawing  increases  the  gloss. 
IV.     Odor.     Odor  is  important  for  the  use  of  wood  in  the  package 
industry.     The  strong  odor  of  wood  is  usually  lost   in  the 
course  of  seasoning.     The  following  species  retain,  however, 
a  characteristic  odor:    Cherry,  birch,  sassafras,  red  cedar. 
D.     Inner  qualities,  or  qualities  discernible   by  mechanical   tests. 
I.     Specific  gravity. 

(a)  Pure   wood  fibre   forms  in  fresh   wood,   with  broad 

leafed  species  of  temperate  climates,  about  35  % 
of  the  entire  weight,  while  conifers  show  an  aver- 
age of  about  25  %. 

(b)  Air  dried  wood  still   retains  from  10%  to   15%  of 

water.  If  the  dry  kiln  reduces  the  percentage  of 
water  below  that  figure,  the  hygroscopicity  of  the 
wood  will  speedily  cause  it  to  return. 

(c)  Factors  influencing  specific  gravity  of  air-dried  wood 

within  the  same  species  are: 

1.  The    width    of    the    rings,    in    ring    porous 

hardwoods     and     in     conifers     forming 
heartwood. 

2.  The   incrustations     of     rosin,     tannin     and 

pigments  in  the  heart. 
3-     The  age  of  the  tree. 

4.  The  decay  of  the  fibre. 

5.  The    section   of   the   tree,    since    roots   are 

very  light,  butt  logs  heavy,  bole  fairly 
light  and  branches  fairly  heavy. 
In  the  case  of  the  diffuse  porous  hard- 
woods and  of  conifers  destitute  of  heart, 
no  rule  can  be  given  relative  to  specific 
^  gravity    of    inner    and    outer    layers,    of 

wide  and  narrow  rings.        A| 
(d)     Air  dried  lumber  has.  on  an  average,  the  following  £■ 
weights : 

-        .  Weight  of 

bpecies—  Specific  gravity.     1,000  ft.  b.m. 

Turkey  oak,  hickory,  servi.-e  lnish.  over  o.7.>  over  4  iiini  lbs. 
Ash,     white    and    red    oak.     locust, 

beech,     hornbeam,     hard'    maple, 

pear    tree    .    0.70-0.75     abont  3,750  lbs. 

i.lm,   soft  maple,   apple  tree,  svea- 

more,    birch    0.6M).70     about  3,400  lbs. 

Horse     chestnut,      chestnut,      tulip 

tree,  alder,  larch,  longleaf  pine  0.55-0.60  about  3,000  lbs. 
Yellow    pine,     douglas    fir.    spruce, 

fir.     willow,     eottonwood 0.45-0.55     about  2.600  lbs. 

White   and   sugar    pine under  0.4.',     about  2.20,Hbs. 


(e)     Rule 


Specific  gravity  times  5.200  equals  the 
weight  of  i,o»o  feet  b.  m.  of  sawn  lum- 
ber. Reason— 1,000  superficial  feet  of 
water  one  inch  deep  weigh  5.200  lbs. 


58  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

2.  Specific  gravity  times  8,000  times  cordwood 

reducing    factor   equals   the   weight  of  a 

cord   of   w 1.      Reason — 128  cubic   feet 

of  water  weigh  8,coo  lbs. ;   a  cord  of  wood 
contains  from  20  %  to  85  %  of  wood,  the 
e  being  air. 

3.  Specific  gravity  air  dry  times  5.200  times  23 

equal-  the  weight  of  1.000  feet  b.  m.  in 
the  log.  Reason  a  green  l<  g  has  about 
10%  bark,  about  27%  of  water,  to  be 
removed  by  drying,  and  loses  33%  for 
slabs  and  kerf  in  band  -awing.  Hence  the 
weight  in  1,000  feet  b.  m.  air  dried  and 
band  sawed  lumber  i-  only  0.9  times 
0.73  times  0.67  of  the  weight  of  a  log 
scaling  1,000  feet  b.  m.  Doyle.  The 
weight  of  a  green  log  is  2.3  times  the 
weight  of  air  dried  lumber  obtainable 
from  it  by  the  band  saw.  For  broad- 
leafed  species  and  for  circular  saws  the 
figure  is  higher  than  for  conifers  and 
band  saws. 

(f)  Heavy    planks    do    not    dry    as    thoroughly    as    thin 

boards. 

(g)  Weight    determines    freight    and    customs    charges. 

Also    adaptability     to     packages,     floatability     in 
flumes  and  rafts  and  possibility  of  loose  driving. 
,  Lumber  freight  rates  from  Asheville,  X.  C,  are: 
JjL^ll^O*    per   ico  lbs.  to  New  York. 
/       23V2C  per  100  lbs.  to  Philadelphia, 
per  100  lbs.   to   Atlanta. 


^        ww  Lumber 


8c  per  100  lbs.  to  Washington. 
•  100  lbs.  to  Norfolk.  ^ 
Ereight   rate  from   Portland,  Ore.,  to   Chi- 


■per    too   lbs.    to    Norfolk.     £ffr*0    hs%Jt** 
99  '  Lumb 

•*Vt*-t-*»  cago   i1-  about    50c  per   ICO  lbs 


Steamer  rate  to    Europe   from    Norfolk   is    14c  per 

IOO  lbs.   of  lumber. 
The    freight    rate   on    logs    for    50   miles    is   at   least 
$5  per  carload;   for  too  miles  at  lea 
I  [ardm 
By  hardness  is   understood- the   resistance  of  the   fibre  to  axe 

and  saw  worked  vertically  to  the  fibre. 
Factors  of  hardness  are : 

(a)      Density;    wide  rings  in  oak  and  narrow   rings  in  pine 

increase  the  hardn 
(bi     Incrustation;     heartwood   is   harder   than    sap1 

Moisture    contents:     dry   wood     i-.     on     the     whole, 
harder    than    green    wood.    With    some    broad- 
species    1  if   1      ise    tissue    (  willow-    and    COt- 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


59 


SCHEDULE    OF 

HARDNESS. 

Hard. 

Medium. 

Soft. 

Hickory 

Ash 

Chestnut 

Dogwood 

Oak 

Tulip   tree 

Sugar    maple 

Elm 

Sweet    gum 

Sycamore 

Beech 

D  uglas    fir 

Loeust 

Cherry 

Fir 

Hornbeam 

Mulberry 

yellow    pine 

Persimmon 

Birch 

Larch 

Sour    gum 

Linden 

Longleaf    pine 

Horse   chestnut 
II   mlock 
Cottonwoods 

III. 


tonwoods),  however,  moist  wood  is  tougher  and 
therefore   harder   as   well, 
(d)      Frost  increases  the  hardness. 


Very  soft. 
White    pine 
Sugar    pine 
Sequoia 
Paulownia 
Willow 


Cleavability  or  fissibility. 

Cleavability  is  the  resistance  of  fibre  to  axe,  saw  and  wedge, 
worked  lengthwise  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre.  .Radial 
cleavage  is  usually  by  50%  to  100%  easier  than  tangential 
cleavage   (except  in  black  gum). 

Factors  of  cleavability  are: 

(a)  A   straight,   long,   elastic  fibre. 

(b)  Heavy   and   high    medullary   rays. 
Straightness  of  gr<  uih. 
Branchiness. 
Moisture    (very   green   and   very    dry    wood     splits 

best). 

Frost  (reduces  tin.'  cleavability). 

Hardness  and  softness  (extremely  hard  and  ex- 
tremely soft  wood  splits  badly.  This  rule  holds 
good  only  in  hardwoods  >. 


(c) 
(d) 
(e) 

(f) 

(g) 


SCHEDULE  he  CLEAVABILITY. 


Hard    to 

split. 

Medium 

Black    gum 

On  k 

Elm 

Ash 

Sycamore 

Larch 

Dogwood 

Cottonwood 

Beei  b 

Linden 

Holly 

JCellOW      ]K  pi; 

Maple 

Hickory 

Birch 

Hornbeam 

Easy    to    split. 
Chestnut 
PI  ies 
Spruce 
Fir 
Cedar 


IV.     Pliability. 

Under  pliability  we  combine   flexibility  and  elasticity. 

(a)     Flexibility;     wood    which     is     easily    bent    without 
breaking  is  flexile  (flexible).     Softwoods  are  nat- 
urally less  flexile  than  hardwoods. 
Flexibility   depends  on: 

1.  Toughness  and  cohesive  force  of  fibre. 

2.  Moisture,  which  increases  it  very  much. 

3.  Heat,  which  increases  it. 

4.  Age    of    tree,    inasmuch    as    young    shoots 

are  tougher  than  old  wood. 

5.  Impregnation,  natural  as  well  as  artificial, 


6o 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


(b) 


check?  flexibility.     (Heartwood  less  flexi- 
ble than  sapwood.) 

6.     Root  wood  more  flexible  than  stem  wood. 

Remarks :  Heat  and  moisture  as  a  means  to  in- 
crease flexibility  are  applied  in  these  industries: 

Cooperage;  for  bending  staves  and  hoop  poles. 

Carriage  works;  for  bending  poles,  shafts,  felloes, 
top  frames,  seats  etc. 

Furniture;    bent  wood   furniture. 

Ship   building. 

Veneer  peeling. 

Basket  work. 

Manufacture  of  musical  instruments. 

Elasticity  and  flexibility  are  not  always  found  in 
the  same  piece  of  wood.  On  the  contrary,  quali- 
ties which  increase  flexibility  frequently  reduce 
elasticity,  and  vice  versa.  Elasticity  is  the  force 
with  which  an  object  resumes  its  old  shape  when 
pressed  out  of  shape  and  released. 

The  factors  of  elasticity  are  : 

1.  Long  and  straight  fibre. 

2.  Narrow  rings  in  conifers. 

3.  Dryness    (moisture    reduces   elasticity). 

4.  Frost  (which  destroys  elasticity). 

5.  Excessive    contents    of    rosin    (which    in- 

creases the  elasticity). 


V. 


'erj    elastic  an 

YoW 

Larch 

Fir 

LOCUSt 

Chestnut 

Hickory 

Osage    orange 
Red    cedar 

Lancewood 

Spruce 

White    pine 

Ash 
Oak 


SCHEDULE   OF  ELASTICITY. 

re:  Less  elastic  are: 

Cottonwood 
Birch 
Maple 
Kim 
Alder 
Walnut 
Yellow    pine 
Yellow   poplar 
Beech 


Strength. 
Strength 
(a) 

(b) 
(c) 
(d) 
(e) 


1-  resistance  to : 

Tension;     to   which   timber   is   usually   not   exposed. 

(Yoke  of  oxen  pulling  the  cart  by  the  pole.) 
Compression    (arches,   pillars,   scantling). 
Torsion    (shafts,  screws,  axles). 
Shearing. 

Transverse  straining   (beams,  girders,  joists). 
Factors  of  strength  are: 

1.  Specific   gravity. 

2.  Soundness  of  tissue. 

3.  Freedom  from  branches. 

Timber,   like   any   other   material,   should   never   be 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  61 

loaded  to  over  one-fourth  of  its  indicated 
strength. 
Transverse  strength  is  always  proportioned  to  length 
of  girder:  to  width  of  girder;  and  to  the  square 
of  the  depth  of  girder.  It  is  the  quality  of  tim- 
ber which  is  most  required  in  timber  used  for 
building  purposes. 
VI.     Hygroscopical  qualities. 

(a)  Timber  changes   form,   coherence  and  volume   with 

greater  or  lesser  ease  under  the  influence  of  moist- 
ure, applied  in  gaseous  or  liquid  form.  Hence 
shrinking,  swelling,  warping,  checking,  cracking, 
casehardening  and  working. 

(b)  Water  invariably  saturates  the  cell  walls  ;    in  addi- 

tion, it  may  or  may  only  partially  fill  the  lumina. 

(c)  Sapwood  invariably  contains  more  water  than  heart- 

wood. 

(d)  Rate  of  dryness  depends  on  the  species,  looseness  of 

tissue,  dimensions  of  object  to  be  dried,  presence 
or  absence  of  bark  cover  in  logs,  preceding  treat- 
ment by  floating,  deadening,  steaming,  prevalence 
of  sapwood  or  heartwcod,  season  of  year,  ex- 1 
ire  to  wind,  climate  etc. 

(e)  Boiling  and  steaming  reduce  the  hygroscopicity  and 

produce,  consequently,  a  more  even  shrinkage. 

(f)  The  evaporation  from  the  cross  section  bears  to  that 

of  the  tangential  and  to  that  of  the  radial  section 
the  ratio  of  8  to  i   to  2. 

(g)  In  the  dry  kiln,  temperatures  of  160  degrees  to  180 

degrees  Fahrenheit  are  gradually  produced.     Dry- 
ing is  accomplished  by  hct  air,  steam  and  moving 
air. 
Conifers    stand    the    dry   kiln   process    much    better 
than   hardwoods.     The   better   qualities   of   hard- 
woods undergo  air  drying  before  being  kiln  dried, 
especially  so  in  wagon,  furniture  and  barrel  fac- 
tories. 
The  dry  kiln  saves  insurance  and  interest  on  large 
stocks  of  lumber  and   allows   the   lumberman   to 
rapidly  fill  pressing  orders  for  lumber, 
(h)     Wood  is  least  permeable  for  water  in  the  direction 
of  the  tangent  or  vertically  to  the  medullary  rays 
— a  fact  important  for  tight  cooperage. 
I.     Shrinkage. 

It  is  least  along  the  fibre  :    it  is  up  to  5  % 
along  the  radius  and  is  up  to  10  %  along 
the  tangent. 
Shrinkage    of   over   5  %    of    green    volume 


fe 


F0REST    WTILIZATI+N 


occurs  in  walnut,  linden,  beech,  elm, 
chestnut,  birch. 

Shrinkage  of  3  %  to  5  %  occurs  in  oak, 
maple,  sycamore,  ash,  cottonwood,  yellow 
pine. 

Shrinkage  of  2  %  to  3  %  occurs  in  spruce, 
larch,   fir   and  white  pine. 

A  large  per.  sin,  narrow  annual 

rings  and  light  specific  gravity  reduce 
shrinkage  within  the  same  species. 

Checking. 

pends  on  the  rapidity  of  Uie  drying 
process ;  on  size  and  dimension  of  ob- 
ject;  on  peeling  of  logs;  on  homogeneity 
of  tissue. 

Checks  are  often  of  a  temporary  nature, 
disappearing  when  the  inner  layers  are 
as  dry  as  the  outer  layers. 

Hardwoods  check  much  worse  than  soft- 
woods; and  rift  sawed  or  quarter  sawed 
lumber  checks  less  than  bastard  sawed 
lumber. 

Remedies  against  checking  of  logs  are: 
Winter  cutting;  strips  of  bark  left  near 
the  end  of  peeled  logs;  felling  with  the 
roots  and  leaving  the  crown  on  the  un- 
dissected  bole;  deadening;  "S"  shaped 
iron  clamps  driven  into  logs;  boards 
nailed  onto  the  ends  of  the  logs;  earth 
cover  at  the  ends  of  the  logs ;  red  lead 
painting  fur  export   logs. 

Remedies  against  cheeking  of  lumber  are: 
Quarter  sawing;  slow  air  drying  under 
sheds;  veneer  sawing:  steaming  or  boil- 
ing; sticks  placed  close  to  the  ends  of 
tiers  in  lumber  piles. 

Checks  are  radial  since  the  tangential 
shrinkage  is  greatest.  The  so-called  wind 
(..r  ring)  shakes  are  no)  caused  by  the 
hygroscopicity  of  the  timber;  they  are 
merely  a   form  of  I  timber,  due 

to  frost,  heat,  fire  or  insect  plagues  inter- 
fering with  the  radial  cohesion  of  ad- 
joining rii 

Swelling,  warping  and  working. 

These  phenomena  are  due  to  reabsorption 

of   water  after   drying.      The   swelling   is 

i  illy.     I  [eartwood  warps 


■8 


Q 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


} 


63 


less 


than    sapwood 
than    a"aidWUUdi>. 


and  conifers  warp 
Boards  obtained' 
trom  close  Lo  We1  skib  warp  worst  of  all. 
Remedies  against  working  are  steaming; 
varnishing:  forming  boards  by  gluing 
fine  veneers  one  upon  another ;  allowing 
framework    of    ■'  .     sufficiently 

grooved  for  receiving  the  panels. 
Duration  of  wood. 

(a)  Duration  of  wood  depends  on: 

1.  The  surrounding  conditions;    i.   e.,  tropics 

or  arid  deserts :  presence  of  insects 
(ants  and  fungi)  :  contact  with  clay, 
limestone  or  sandy  soil ;  immersion  in 
water  (toredo)  ;  exposure  to  atmos- 
phere :  moisture  conditions ;  presence 
of  preserving  matter  (salt  water,  cop- 
per mine  water). 

2.  The    natural    qualities   of    wood,    especially 

the  presence  or  absence  of  rosin,  tannin 
and  other  preservatives;  the  specific 
gravity :  the  percentage  of  sapwood ; 
the  susceptibility  to  fungus  and  insect 
diseases.  Locust,  red  cedar,  sequoia, 
bald  cypress,  are  less  subject  to  such  dis- 
•    -   -    when   dead   than   when   alive. 

(b)  Remedies  against  destruction  arc:    Impregnation  or 

painting;  charring  the  part  imbedded  in  the  soil; 
winter  cutting:  change  of  species  when  replac- 
ing ties;  kiln  drying  and  steaming  and  smoking; 
raising  buildings  high  above  ground. 

(c)  Bulletin    No.    10  gives   the   following    data    for   the 

average  "life"  of  ties  : 

White  and  chestnut  oak,  8  years 

Chestnut,  8 

Tamarack, 

Cherry  and  walnut, 

Elm. 

Longleaf  pine, 

Hemlock. 

Spruce. 

Red  and  black  oaks. 

A.sh,   beech,  maple, 

Locust,   cypress, 

Red  cedar. 


7-8 

7 
6-7 

6 
4^> 


Redwi     . 


9  0 


64 


/  OREST    UTILIZATION 


1 'livable. 

Short  lived. 

Ash 

Beech 

Larch 

Sycamore 

Yellow  pine 

Birch 

Spruce 

Linden 

Fir 

Cottonwood 

Yellow  poplar 

White  pine 

Douglas  fir 

(d)     Schedule   for   lumber 

/  'cry  durable. 

Walnut 

Locust 

Sequoia 

Cedar 

White  oak 

Catalpa 

Sassafras 

Chestnut 
Longleaf  pine 
Heating  power.  f 

Heating  power  or  fuel  value  bears  a  direct  ratio  to  specific 
gravity  air  dry.  All  wood  fibre  having  the  specific  gravity 
i. 5').  equal  air  dry  weights  of  our  common  species  furnish 
equal  heat.  On  the  other  hand,  light  weight  means  greater 
inflammability  and  a  quicker  heat,  which  naturally  lasts  for 
a  short  time  only.  The  heating  power  of  hard  coal  is  to  that 
of  lignite  and  to  that  of  wood  as  5.2  :  4.3  :  1.  In  other 
words.  5.2  lbs.  of  dry  wood  yield  as  much,  heat  as  4.3  lbs.  of 
lignite  or  as  1  lb.  of  coal. 
Influencing  factors  are  found  in  the  following  moments: 

(a)  Presence   of  rosin   increases    the   heating   power   by 

about   12  %. 

(b)  A  cord  of  wood  containing  45  %  moisture  has.  after 

German  experiments,  the  heating  power  of  half  a 
cord  of  air  dried  wood.  After  Sargent,  the  dis- 
crepancy is  not  as  great.    One  cord  of  green  wood 

contains  250  gallons  of  water,  and  the  calories  of 
heat    required   to    convert    this   large   amount    of 

water  into  steam  are  lost   for  heating  purposes. 

(c)  Unsound  wood  has  a  reduced  heating  power,  the  cell 

walls  being  decayed. 

(d)  Chestnut,  and  to  a  certain  extent   larch  and  spruce. 

are  despised  in  open  fires  owing  to  crackling  and 
emission  of  sparks.  Black  gum  is  despised  be- 
cause it  is  difficult  to  split  and  therefore  difficult 
to  season.  Hornbeam,  birch  and  alder  are  said  to 
furnish  a  particularly  quiet  flame. 

(e)  Schedule  of  the  heating  power  of  wood  per  cord: 


IX. 


Best.         (rood.            Moderate. 

Bad. 

Hickory        Oak                 Spruce 

White   pine  J 

Beech            Ash                  Fir 

Abler 

Hornbeam     Birch               Chestnut 

Linden 

Locust          Maple            Hemlock 

Cottonwood 

Heart  pine                         Sap   pine 

iscellaneous  technical  qualities  of  wood. 

(a)      Adaptability    to    planing    and    molding 

;     varnishing 

and   polishing;    painting  and   gluing. 

FOREST    UTILIZATION  65 

(b)  Nail   holding   power,    which   is    said  to   be   excellent 

in  chestnut,  white  pine  and  hemlock. 

(c)  Twisted    growth,    which    is    frequent     in     chestnut. 

Italian  poplar  and  horse  chestnut.     Certain  twists 

are  due  to  a  hypertrophical  growth  of  the  tissue 

and    are    highly    prized    by    the   trade    under    the 

names    of    birdseye    maple,    curly    poplar,    curly 

'  -rp  ^J  '/Vl '         /  walnut,  curly  cherry  and  curly  ash  etc.     It  is  im- 

^^  ^y  /  y*  possible  to  say  whether  a  standing  tree  is  "curly" 

/  Jef^  c~f~e  </  or  not"     Sap-sucking  woodpeckers  may  start  the 

'_ —  "freak." 

^f       S'/a/f  4  / 1  f  (d)      Knots  check  the  value  of  lumber.     A  standard  knot 


7*/  *n  £> 


c  r 


is  a  sound  knot,  the  diameter  of  which  varies  ac- 
cording to  local  inspection  from  i%"  to  1 34". 
Dry,  dead  and  unsound  knots  throw  a  board  into 
the  mill  cull  pile.  Usually,  the  knotty  part  of  a 
log  is  sawn  into  dimension  stuff.  The  core  of  a 
log,  even  in  yellow  poplar,  necessarily  shows 
knots,  since  there  is  no  height  growth  without 
simultaneous  formation  of  side  branches, 
(e)  The  discoloration  of  the  inner  layers  of  certain 
species  which  are  not  classed  as  heartwoods 
(beech  and  maple)  is  a  disease  often  found  in  old 
trees  and  causes  rejection  for  certain  applications 
in  the  trades  (impregnation). 


CHAPTER  V.     MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES. 

§  XVII.       THE     SAW     MILL. 

A.     The  saw. 

Three  kinds  of  log  saws  are   used  : 
I.     Straight  saws,  viz  : 

Vertical   straight   saw; 
Gang  saw- : 
Horizontal   frame   saw. 
II.     Circular  saws.  viz. : 

Solid  tooth   single   saw  ; 
Solid  tooth   double   saw  ; 
Inserted  tooth    saw. 
III.     Band  saws.  viz.  : 

Single  cutting  band  saw  ; 
Double  cutting  band   saw. 
I.     Straight  saws. 

(a)  Single  vertical  straight  saw.  At  the  toothed 
edge  this  saw  has  a  thickness  of  from  5  to  10 
gauges.  Its  blade  is  8  inches  wide  and  at  least 
twice   as  long  as  the  log  diameter. 


66  FOREST    UTILIZA 


A  short  blade  yields  the  finest  work,  since  it  can 
be    spanned    more    tightly. 

The  gauge  along  the  hack  should  be  finer  than 
the    gauge    along   the    cutting   line. 

The   saw  can   cut   any  thickness   of  trees. 

The  saw  cuts  only  by  the  down  stroke  while  the 
log  is  moved  against  the  saw  during  the  up 
stroke. 

The  saw  is  spanned  in  a  guide  frame  and  is  given 
as  many  inches  inclination  toward  the  log  as 
the  feed  of  the  carriage  per  stroke  amounts  to. 
If  the  saw  were  not  inclined  all  the  work  would 
b»  done  by  the  lowest  teeth. 

The  usual  set  is  still  the  spring  set  and  not  the 
swage  set,  although  the  latter  is  sure  to  be  su- 
perior. 

Usually  the  ends  of  the  boards  are  not  sawn 
through  but  are  held  together  by  the  "comb," 
which    is    finally    split    with   the   axe. 

In  filing  mill  saws,  obtain  sufficient  pitch  of  teeth 
to  prevent  saw  from  kicking  out  of  the  cut.  Too 
much   pitch,   however,   causes   chattering. 

Gullets  must  be  kept  carefully  rounded. 

(b)  Gang  saws.     They  are  used  in  large  mills   for  in- 

ferior  logs. 
The  best    make   is    Wickes    Bros..'   Saginaw,    Mich. 

Enormous   stone   foundations  are   required. 
The   saw    frame   has   an    oscillating   motion    which 

presents    Ehe   saw   to  the  cut  in  an   easy   raking 

sweep,    forcing   each    tooth   to   do    its    full    share 

of   the    work. 
Gang  saws  are  not   fed  from  a  carriage.     The  logs 

are  run  through  feed  rolls,  feeding  the  logs  into 

the  saws. 
Blades   are   6  to    10   inches    wide   and   of  8   to   16 

gauge. 
Horsepower    required    is    said   to   be   for    friction, 

3  horsepower:   for  first  blade  4  horsepower,  and 

for  every  additional   blade  7  _•   horsepower  more. 
Where  log  heaps   (up  to   12  logs)    are  run  through 

the  gang  saw,  the  logs  are  slabbed  by  a  "] 

or   "log   siding    machine."    so   that    the   logs   can 

be  placed  one  upon  another. 

(c)  Horizontal    frame    saw.      It    is    used    to     cut     fine 

veneers  and  valuable  timber.  Its  advantage  lies 
in  the  fact  that  very  little  weight  rests  on  the 
saw,  tliat   the  saw  can  cut  on  both  trip-   (to  and 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  67 

fro),   that   high   speed   may  be  applied  and   that 
a  thin  gauge  can  be  used. 
The   best   make   is   Kirschner's,   Leipzig,   Germany. 
II.     Circular   saws. 

(a)  Power. 

Ten  horsepower  should  manufacture  5,000  b.  feet 
per  day ;  20  horsepower  should  manufacture 
10.000  b.  feet  per  day ;  30  horsepower  should 
manufacture  30,000  b.  feet  per  day.  and  each  ad- 
ditional horsepower  should  add  1,000  b.  feet  to 
amount  cut.  This  amount  depends  on  size  of 
logs. 

Five  horsepower  is  required  for  a  20-inch  to  30- 
inch  saw :  12  horsepower  for  a  30-inch  to  40- 
inch  saw:  15  horsepower  for  a  48-inch  to  50- 
inch  saw :  2^  horsepower  for  a  50-inch  to  62- 
inch  saw. 

(b)  Right  hand  and  left  hand  mills. 

If  the  carriage  is  to  the  left  of  the  observer  while 
the  saw  runs  towards  him,  the  mill  is  a  left 
hand  mill,  and  vice  versa.  A  right  hand  saw  is 
screwed  to  the  arbor  by  a  left  hand  nut  and  is 
usually  driven  by  a   left  hand  steam  engine. 

Center  crank  engines  can  be  used  for  either  right 
or  left   hand  mills. 

(c)  Speed. 

The  proper  speed  at  the  rim  of  any  circular  saw 
is  9.000  feet  per  minute. 

There  should  be  a  speed  indicator  to  control  the 
saw's  speed.     It  costs  75c. 

If  the  power  is  too  light  to  run.  the  mill  at  stand- 
ard speed,  portable  mill  men  usually  increase 
the  speed  of  the  engine,  putting  a  larger  receiv- 
ing pulley  on  the  saw  mandrel. 

(d)  Proper  qualities  of  a   saw. 

1.  The    usual    thickness    is   7,   8   or   9   gauge. 

Frequently  the  center  is  one  gauge  heav- 
ier than  the   rim. 

2.  There    should    be    a    sufficient    number    of 

teeth   for  the  amount  of  feed. 

Each  tooth  should  cut  as  much  as  is  of- 
fered to  it  at  a   revolution. 

To  cut  one  inch  of  lumber  one  may  use 
either : 

Eight  teeth,  cutting  li  inch  each  at  a 
revolution,  or 

Sixteen  teeth,  cutting  1-16  inch  each  at  a 
revolution,  or 


68  FOREST    UTILIZATION 


Thirty-two  teeth,  cutting  1-32  inch  each 
at  a   revolution. 

The  number  of  teeth  for  one  inch  of  feed 
should  be,  in  hard  timber,  16  teeth ;  in 
medium  timber,  12  teeth,  and  in  soft 
timber.  8  teeth. 

The  usual  feed  is  from  1  to  6  inches  per 
revolution.  The  quicker  the  feed  the 
more  teeth  are  required  to  do  the  work. 

The  saw  must  be  perpendicularly  hung; 
must  slip  on  the  mandrel  against  the  fast 
collar  easily,  so  as  not  to  twist  the  saw 
out  of  true,  thus  causing  it  to  buckle 
when  the  loose  collar  is  tightened  up. 
The  loose  collar  is  hollow  at  the  center 
(small  saws  excepted)  and  has  about  6 
inches  diameter  and  34  inch  rim. 

By  pressing  a  layer  of  writing  paper  be- 
tween the  cellar  and  the  saw  the  saw 
may  be  slightly  bent  toward  or  away 
from  the  carriage. 

The  saw  must  be  evenly  set  (either  spring 
or  swage  set).  The  teeth,  filed  square 
(not  to  a  point  but  to  a  cutting  edge), 
must  form  an  exact  circle  and  must  re- 
tain that  form  in  the  course  of  operation. 

The  teeth  must  have  the  proper  pitch. 
A  shallow  tooth  cuts  the  smoothest  lum- 
ber, but   forbids  of  rapid   feeding. 

The  modern  shape  of  teeth  is  such  as  will 
facilitate  filing  and  as  will  preserve  the 
original    pitch. 

A  tooth  gets  dull  over  as  much  of  an  inch 
as  it  cuts. 

The  gullet  of  the  tooth  must  be  larger  for 
soft  wood  than  for  hard  wood.  Large 
gullets  weaken  the  saw.  small  ones  in- 
crease   the    friction    very   badly. 

A  tooth  should  be  filed  two  to  four  times 
a  day.  The  backs  of  the  teeth  must 
never    protrude    beyond    the    point. 

Gullets  must  be  kept  circular  carefully.  Any 
sharp  edge  in  a  gullet  is  sure  to  cause  a 
crack. 

The  mandrel  must  not  heat  in  the  jour- 
nals. The  boxes  require  frequent  rebab- 
bitting.  The  stem  of  the  mandrel  must 
be  exactly  level  and  perfectly  straight. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  6o 

Mandrels  run  hot  owing  to  excessive  fric- 
tion in  bearings,  to  excessive  tightness 
of  belts,  insufficient  lubrication  or  heat- 
ing of  the  saw  in  the  center. 

A  hot  mandrel  expands  the  saw  in  the 
center,    causing    crooked    sawing. 

(e)  Lining    of    the    saw    with    the    carriage    into    the 

log. 

The  saw  must  "lead  into  the  cut"  just  sufficiently 
to  keep  the  saw  in  the  cut.  The  proper  lead  is 
Y%  inch  in  20  feet.  Too  much  lead  into  the  cut 
causes  the  saw  to  heat  at  the  rim.  A  lead  out 
of  the  cut  causes  the  saw  to  heat  at  the  center. 

The  Y%  inch  lead  in  20  feet  is  obtained  by  sighting 
over  the  saw  and  fixing  the  saw  plane  for  a 
radius  of  10  feet.  This  may  be  done  by  putting 
two  staffs  vertically  into  the  ground  10  feet  from 
the  saw  center  behind  and  in  front  of  the  saw  ; 
that  done,  a  horizontal  stick  is  fastened  to  a  head 
block  so  as  to  just  touch  the  forward  staff.  Then 
the  carriage  is  gigged  backward  to  the  other 
t  vertical    staff    where    the    horizontal    stick    must 

lack   exactly   %    inch   from   touching. 

(f)  Filing  room. 

Automatic  sharpeners  and  glimmers  are  required' 
for  mills  having  over   15,000  feet  daily  capacity. 

Setting  instruments  for  spring  set  are  similar  to 
those  used  with  cross  cut  saws,  constructed 
either  after  the  wrench  principle  or  after  the 
block   and   hammer  principle. 

The  spring  set  is  gradually  discarded  for  the  swage 
set. 

In  swaging  use  oil  on  the  point  of  the  tooth,  after 
filing  to  a  sharp  point.  Swaging  should  draw 
the  tooth  out  and  should  not   shove  it  hack. 

The  set  or  swage  of  teeth  should  increase  the 
gauge  at  the  rim  by  at  least  3-32  of  an  inch. 

The  pitch  of  the  tooth  might  be  controlled  by  a 
so-called   trammel. 

Gumming  is  required  to  preserve  the  original  hook 
or  rake  of  the  tooth  as  well  as  the  original  round- 
ness of  the  gullet. 

Gumming  as  well  as  sharpening  are  usually  done 
with   emery   wheels. 

Emery  wheel   rules  are  as  follows  : 

\.  Do  not  put  too  much  pressure  on  emery 
wheel  so  as  not  to  change  the  temper  of 
the  tooth  (bluing  and  casehardening  and 
consequently  crumbling  of  the  tooth). 


-o  FOREST    UTILIZATION 


2.  Do  not  try  to  fix  a  tooth  fully  at  one  time. 

Treat   it  gradually  at  five  or  six  revolu- 
tions of  the  saw. 

3.  Proper  speed  for  emery  wheels  at  the  riitj 

is  4,500  feet  per  minute. 

4.  After  gumming  remove  the  irregularities  at 

the  edges  with  a  side  file,  since  cracks  in 
saw  are  apt  to  start  from  them. 

5.  Hammering    becomes    necessary   when    the 

use  of  emery  wheels  has  caused  the  saw 

to  expand  ("let  down")  at  the  rim. 
For  small  mills  gumming  with  a  file  or  a 

butt  gummer  is  preferable  to  the  use  of 

emery  wheel. 
Soft  wood  requires  more  set  or  spread  and 

less  pitch  than  hard  wood. 
Swaging  is  also  called  upsetting  or  spread 

setting. 
(g)    Inserted   tooth   circular   saws. 

1.  The  insertion  into  each  socket  of  the  rim 

consists  of  a  holder  and  of  a  chisel  point. 
These  points  are  extremely  hard:  still 
they  can  be  filed  and  swaged  with  the 
help  of  specially  constructed  files.  It 
does  not  pay,  however,  to  spend  much 
time  in  filing  since  new  points  are  cheap, 
and  since  they  are  readily  inserted  with 
the  help  of  a  special  wrench. 

Points  are  oiled  before  being  inserted. 

When  renewing  one  individual  point  be 
sure  to  have  it  dressed  down  to  corre- 
spond to  the  line  of  old  points. 

If  the  saw  guide  is  not  properly  adjusted 
it  may  touch  the  holder  and  smash  the 
saw. 

2.  Advantages   of   inserted   tooth    saw   are : 
Less  experience  is  required  for  dressing  a 

saw. 

Less  filing  and  gumming. 

Less   saw   repairs   in   backwoods. 

Diameter  of  saw  remains  unchanged  dur- 
ing its  use. 

3.  Disadvantages   of   inserted   tooth    saw  are: 
The  saw  kerf  is  very  heavy. 

The  teeth  arc  large  and  hence  few,  so  that 
feed  must  be  comparatively  slow. 

The  price  of  the  inserted  tooth  saw  is 
higher   than  that  of  the  solid  tooth  saw. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  7I 

Th    ,  ,     _£*.<**?*  PS 

lhe  best  makes  are  the^rirrrrs  and  DiootOH. 
saws. 
(h)    The  double  circular  saw. 

For  big  logs  and  high  speed  a  double  circular  saw 

must  be  used. 
The  width  of  the  widest  board  which  a  single  cir- 
cular saw  may  cut  equals  radius  minus  three 
inches.  Hence  much  valuable  material  is  wasted 
in  the  common  circular  saw  mill  sawing  heavy 
logs. 

The  double  circular  saw  shows  an  under  or  lower 
saw  of  56  inches  or  60  inches  and  an  upper  saw 
of  30  inches  or  $6  inches  diameter.  The  top  saw 
should  have  a  reversed  motion  (so  as  not  to 
throw  sawdust  into  the  lower  saw),  an  arrange- 
ment which  it  is  difficult  to  secure. 

A  hanger  top  saw  can  be  added  readily  to  any  sin- 
gle saw.  Both  saws  should  have  the  same  speed 
at  rim. 

The  top  saw  should  remain  inactive  so  as  not  to 
use  up  power  when  small  logs  are  sawn. 

Inserted  teeth  are  not  used  at  the  double  mills. 

The  advantages  of  the  double  saw   mill  are: 

1.  Less  chattering  and  truer  cut  than   would 

be  possible  for  one  big  saw. 

2.  Thinner  kerf. 

3-  Faster  feed. 

4-  Cess  expense  for  saws. 

5-  Less   repairs. 

(1)     Remarks  relative  to  "putting  up"  portable  circular 
saw   mills: 

The  minimum  yard  required  is  50,000  board  feet. 

The  expense  of  tearing  down  and  putting  up  again 
is  about  $50. 

For  foundation  timbers,  place  two  pieces  8  x  10 
inches  x  11  feet  long  on  either  side  of  the  saw 
pit  (3  feet  deep)  and  underneath  the  "husk."  One 
piece  4x6  inches  x  7^  feet  long  is  saddled  into 
the  two  big  pieces,  spanning  the  saw  pit  under- 
neath the  far  rail  of  the  track. 

Construct  the  carriage  track  absolutely  straight 
and  level  on  the  track  ties  (16  to  25  in  number) 
and  on  the  saw  pit  span. 

Place  carriage  with  rack  shaft,  feed  and  gig  works 
in  place  and  fasten  the  track  by  cleats  and  nails 
solidly  to  the  foundation  timbers.  Then  place  the 
husk  on  them  at  a  distance  of  about  6  inches 
from  the  track,  putting  wedge  blocks  between  the 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 

husk  and  track.  Then  spike  the  husk  to  its 
foundation — to  hegin  with  in  two  places  only, 
viz. :  at  the  sawyer's  corner  and  at  the  middle  of 
the  opposite  side,  so  as  to  enable  the  sawyer  to 
change  the  lead  by  wedging  the  blocks.  Then  fix 
or  hang  the  saw,  set  the  saw  guide  and  fire  away. 
III.     Band  saws. 

(a)  The  blade. 

The  blade  material  is  steel.  The  width  of  the 
blade  for  log  band  saws  is  from  10  inches  to  16 
inches — 14   inches   being   usual. 

Gauge  of  blade  is  from  19  gauge  to  13  gauge. 

Under  tension  of  blade  is  understood  the  curvature 
across  the  width,  which  is  increased  or  decreased 
by  hammering  at  center  or  at  edge.  The  tension 
gauge  with  curved  edge  guides  the  filer. 

(b)  The  tooth. 

Its  width  is  from  1%  inch  to  2%  inch. 
The  hook  or  pitch  is  from  400  to  65 °. 
The  depth  should  be  as  shallow  as  possible,   with 

gullets   kept    round,    since    cracks    usually    start 

from  a  corner  in  the  gullet. 
For   sharpening   the   tooth,   a  medium    soft   emery 

wheel  should  be  used  and  should  not  be  crowded 

too  hard  against  the  saw,  so  as  to  prevent  case- 
hardening. 
The  teeth  are  swaged — never  spring  set — like  gang 

saws.    The  full  amount  of  set  should  not  exceed 

9  gauge  in  a   14  inch  saw. 
Side    filing    or    side    dressing,    after    swaging,    is 

usually   practiced,    although    objected   to   by   the 

saw  makers. 
.    For    gumming,    either    a    gumming    press    or    the 

emery  wheel   is   used. 

(c)  The  filing  room. 

Every  band  saw  mill  has  a  separate  filing  room 
equipped  with  automatic  dressing  machines,  i.  e., 
automatic  sharpener,  automatic  swage,  automatic 
swage  shaper,  saw  stretcher 

In  the  band  saw  mill,  the  filer  is  considered  more 
important  than  the  sawyer  for  the  success  of 
the  mill. 

Saws  are  changed  three  or  four  times  a  day. 

"Brazing"  of  a  band  saw  means  joining  the  loose 
ends,  uniformly  beveled  or  ground  to  a  feather 
edge  Y\  inch  long.  A  strip  of  silver  solder  is 
placed  between  the  cleaned  laps,  which  are  then 
taken  between  the  cheeks  of  the  brazing  clamps 
heated  tn  a  bright  red  heat.     After  pressing  the 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  73 

clamps  together  for  several  minutes  and   allow- 
ing them  to  cool,  the  braze  is  dressed  down  with 
a  file  to  the  proper  thickness. 
The  filer  arrests   cracks   by  punching  a   small   pin 
hole  or  dot  at  extremity  of  crack. 

(d)  The    wheels. 

The  band  saw  runs,  belt  like,  over  two  wheels 
weighing  from  1.500  to  3,000  pounds  (the  lower 
heavier  than  the  upper)  ;  the  lower  wheel  driving 
the   upper  by  the  band   saw. 

The  strain  on  the  saw.  which  should  not  exceed 
5.000  pounds  and  by  which  slipping  off  is  pre- 
vented,  is  obtained  by   raising  the   upper  wheel. 

The  diameters  of  the  wheels  are  8  to  10  feet,  the 
face  about  11  inches,  the  teeth  overlapping  the 
wheel. 

The  crown  of  the  tire  is  up  to   1-64  inch. 

The  entire  length  of  the  log  band  saw  varies  from 
30  feet  to  70  feet. 

The  saw  guides,  lined  with  wood  or  babbit  metal, 
prevent  the  cutting  part  of  the  blade  from  bend- 
ing toward  the  carriage  or  toward  the  wheels, 
while  the  guard  rolls,  standing  about  2  inches 
back  of  the  saw.  prevent  it  from  slipping  back- 
ward at  the  approach  of  the  log. 

The  maximum  diameter  of  logs  that  can  be  handled 
by  band  saws  is  about  90  inches. 

The  weight  of  a  band  saw  mill  complete  is  20.000 
to  40,000   pounds. 

(e)  The  "Allis"  double  cutting  telescopic  band  saw. 
The  saw  blade  has  teeth  on  both  edges,  so  that  a 

board  is  obtained  at  each  trip  of  the  carriage. 

The  entire  mill   i-.   rai:-ed  or  lowered  by  hydraulic 
pressure  with  a  view  to  bringing  the  top  of  the 
logs  immediately   underneath  the  upper  wheel. 
IV.     Conclusions. 

(a)  The  superiority  of  the  band  over  the  circular  saw 
lies  in  a  saving  of  1.000  board  feet  in  every  16,- 
000  feet  of  4/4  inch  boards  obtained.  In  heavier 
planks  the  saving  is  less,  in  lighter  boards  more. 
The  boards  obtained  have  a  better  width.  Logs 
over  four  feet  through  cannot  be  handled  by 
circular  saws.  Further,  the  band  saw  allows  of 
a  more  rapid  feed.  Hence  it  is  used  preeminently 
for  valuable  logs,  for  big  logs  and  for  high  out- 
put. 

Frequently  mills  of  large  output  employ  simul- 
taneously band,  circular  and  gang  saws,  allotting 
the   logs   according  to  their   quality,   the  best  to 


IEST    UTILIZATION 

the  band  saw  and  the  poorest  to  the  gang  saw. 
Two  edgers  and  one  trimmer  can  take  care  of  such 
a  combined  output, 
(b)    Mammoth  mills  are  now  considered  uneconomical, 
since  it  is  difficult  to  take  care  ol  the  output  of 
boards  at   the  outlet    from   the   mill   door. 
The  output   per   mill   hand   in   big  concerns  is  up 

to   7,5C0  hoard    feet    daily. 
Four  acres  of  mill  pond  hold  up  to  1,000,000  hoard 

feet. 
Two    standard    gauge   trains    supply   an   output    of 
100,000   hoard   feet    from   an   average  distance  of 
TO  miles,  daily. 
R.     The  carriage. 

I.     The  composing  parts  are: 

The   truck   with   head   blocks,    knees,   dogs,   set  works,  and 

the  driving  machinery. 
The   carriage   is   subject   to   the   roughest   treatment.      Still, 
its  proper  alignment  is  as  essential  as  that  of  the  saw. 
(a)  'Idie    truck    is    made    of    timber    at    least    6    inches 
square,  thoroughly  seasoned  and  strongly  braced 
and   bolted. 
Construction  material   is: 

Up  North — Norway  pine,  birch  and  maple. 
Down  South — Yellow  pine  and  white  oak. 
The  length   should  correspond   with  the  maximum 

size  of  logs. 
So  called   screw   block   trailers  may  he  added,   in- 
creasing the  length    (in    longleaf   pine   mills)    up 
to  72  feet. 

(b)  The  head  blocks,  iron  with  steel  face,  are  let  into 

the  timbers  of  the  truck  and  form  a  groove  for 
the  tongue  of  the  knee,  which  slides  on  the  head 
blocks,  being  moved  forward  and  backward  by 
the  set  works. 
The  head  block  and  knee  form  a  right  angle  into 
which   the  log  is  firmly  pressed. 

(c)  The  knee  is  either  solid  or  hollow  and  carries  the 

dogs. 
The  dogs  are  hook^  or  clamps  or  teeth,  meant  to 

grasp   the    log.     They   are    fastened    either   inside 

or  outside  of  the  knee. 
Two    tooth    bars,   playing   inside   the   hollow    knee 

and    pressed    by    a    powerful    lever,    replace    the 

original    dogs   in   modern   mills. 
"Underdogs"  are  used  in  quarter  -awing. 
The    number    of    head    blocks,    knees    and   dogs    is 

variable.     The  minimum  is  two  of  each. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  75 

(d)  The  set  works  consist  of: 

■  The  set  beam,  a  shaft  running  underneath  the  car- 
riage from  head  block  to  head  block,  with  a 
pinion  at  each  head  "block.  This  pinion  corre- 
sponds with  a  rack  forming  the  tongue  or  basis 
of  each  knee. 

The  index  disc  and  ratchet. 

The  set  lever,  handled  either  by  the  sawyer,  in 
small  saw  mills,  or  by  the  setter,  in  larger  mills. 

The  set  works  are  usually  double  acting,  so  that 
the  knees  advance  with  the  to  and  fro  motion 
of  the  set  lever. 

In  addition,  each  knee  can  be  moved  individually 
i  n   iis  rack  by  the  so-called  taper  movement. 

The  knees,  before  a  new  log  is  loaded,  are  receded 
either  by  a  spring  device  or,  on  the  gig  motion 
of  the  carriage,  by  a  friction  device. 

The  brake  wheel  on  the  setshaft  acts  as  a  buffer 
when  logs  are  loaded  on  the  car. 

(e)  The  wheels. 

The  wheels  are   attached  either  to  the  carriage  or 
to  the   floor.     The   near   wheels   are   flat   on  the 
tire  and  the  far  wheels,  called  guide  wheels,  are 
grooved  on  the  tire. 
In  band  saws,  an  automatic  off-set  is   required  to 
prevent    the    face   of   the    log    from    striking   the 
saw  on   the  gig  motion. 
The  steel   rails  are  invariably  placed  on   stringers. 
II.     Driving   machinery. 

The  to  and  fro   trips  of  the  carriage  are  known  as   feed- 
ing and  gigging. 
In   small   mills  the  motive  power  is  derived  from   the  saw 
arbor  by : 
(a)    Rack  and  pinion  device. 

(M     Chain,   rope  or  cable  running  over  one  or  several 

sheave  drums. 

The    speed   is    regulated    either   by    so-called   cone 

pulleys    (two.  three  or  four  on  the  same  shaft) 

or  by  a  paper  friction  device. 

The  so-called  Reamy  Disc  Friction  allows  of  freely 

varying  the  speed. 
The  usual   feed,   with  the  cone  pulley,  is   from   ^ 

inch  to  3  inches  per  revolution  of  saw. 
In  large  saw  mills  the  piston  of  a  steam  cylinder 
pushes  the  carriage  to   and  fro   (so-called  shot- 
gun   feed).     In    that   case    the   carriage    usually 
runs  on  three  rails   (center  guide  rail). 


76  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

C.  Additional  parts  of  high  grade  saw  mills: 

I.  "The  log  haul  up"  (elevator)  consists  of  a  flanged  foot 
wheel  and  an  inclined  trough,  on  the  bottom  of  which 
runs  a  -strong  endless  chain  driven  by  sprocket  wheels. 
The  chain  has  steps  (called  welds)  at  intervals  of  about 
6  feet. 

The  haul  up  is  driven  by  a  separate  engine  or  from  the 
main  shall  by  double  sear  wheels.  It  consumes  a  great 
deal   of  power. 

At  the  upper  end  of  the  haul  up,  a  log  flipper  "boxes"  the 
lugs  out  of  the  trough  onto  the  log  deck,  which  is  usu- 
ally inclined  toward  the  carriage. 

On   the   log   deck,    the    logs    are    freed    from    dirt   and   bark 
by  hand. 
11.     "The  nigger,"   handled  by  the   sawyer,  throws  the  logs  on 
the  carriage  and  turns  them  by  a  boxing  movement. 

III.  "The    hog"    is   a    steel    hex    within    which   the    edgings    and 

trimmings    are    cut    into    small    slices    by    very    strong 
knives  rapidly  rotating. 

IV.  "Dust   conveyors"   convey   the   output   of   the   hog  and  the 

sawdust  automatically  to  the  boilers. 

D.  The  edger. 

The  boards,  falling  from  the  log,  are  conveyed  automatically  or 
by  hand  to  the  edger. 
I.     Parts  of  the  edger  are: 

(a)  One   or   several   circular    saws   of    (2   inches  to   28 

inches  diameter. 

(b)  Feed  works,  either  power  or  hand  driven,  consist- 

ing either  of  a  carriage  or  of  feed  rolls  or  of 
barbed  chains  by  which  the  hoards  are  fed  into 
the   saws. 

(c)  Edger  table. 
II.     Task  of  the  edger  is: 

(a)  Removal  of  defects,  knots,  bark  edge  at  the  side  of 

a  board. 

(b)  Splitting  hoards  into  pieces  of  different  quality. 

(c)  Rapid  sawing  to  proper  width  required  for  special 

purpose-. 

III.  Kinds  of  edgers. 

(a)  Hand  feed  edger,  with  one  or  two  saws. 

(b)  Power    feed   edger.    Usually    with   a    single    saw. 

(c)  Gang  edger. 

IV.  Pointers. 

(a)  The   distance   between   the   various   saws   in   gang 

edgers  is  regulated  by  overhead  levers  or  by 
hand   wheels. 

(b)  Several  hoards  can  be  h'i\  at  one  time. 

(c)  The  attendant   of  the   edger   must    be  a   lumber  in- 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


77 


spector  at  the  same  time,  so  as  to  turn  out  the 
maximum  value  of  edged  product. 

(d)  The  boards  are  taken  to  the  edger  from  the   live 

rolls  onto  which  the  board  drops  from  the  log. 
either  by  hand  or  automatically,  by  chain  con- 
veyors. 

(e)  The   boards   are   conveyed   from   the   edger   to   the 

trimmer  by  hand. 
E.     The  trimmer. 

In  large  mills,  trimming  follows  edging.     In   small  mills,  edging 
follows    trimming. 
I.     Parts  of  the  trimmer  are  : 

(a)    One   or   several   circular   saws   about    18   inches    in 
diameter.     A  one  saw  trimmer  is  called  a  "cut- 
off." 
(  b  )      Feed  works,  viz.  :    live  rolls  or  carriage  or  barbed 

chains  running  over   sprocket   wheels, 
(c)    Table. 
II.     Task  of  the  trimmer  is: 

(a)  The   shortening  of  boards   to  standard  lengths   of 

6.  8.  io.  12  and  up  to  20  feet,  allowing  2  inches 
extra  for  shrinkage. 

(b)  The    removal    of   defects   at    either   end,    so    as   to 

raise  a  board  into  a  higher  grade. 

(c)  The  cutting  of  straight    ends. 
III.     Pointers. 

(a)  Where    two    saws   are   used,   the    distance   between 

■  them  is  changed  by  a  lever  or  by  a  screw  wheel, 
shifting  one  of  the  saws,  while  it  is  in  motion, 
along  the  shaft. 

(b)  Chain   power   fed   trimmers   are   used   in   all    large 

mills.  The  saws  are  either  jump  saws,  easily 
pushed  from  below  the  table  in  pairs,  or  swing 
saws,  hanging  above  the  table  and,  similarly, 
pressed  down  by  the  attendant  in  pairs  by  a 
touch  on  hand  or  foot  levers. 
F.  Yard  work.  (Sorting  and  piling.) 
I.     Sorting. 

The  board  after  leaving  the  trimmer  is  taken  up  by  a  chain 
or  cable  conveyor  and  passes  by  the  lumber  inspector, 
who  pencil-marks  its  quality. 
The  various  qualities  are  either  at  once  thrown  into  parallel 
gutter  conveyors,  leading  to  separate  chutes,  below  which 
a  wagon  or  truck  is  in  waiting,  or  are  transferred 
to  the  piles  by  endless  chain  conveyors,  by  hand  trucks 
and  wagons.  Frequently  elevated  roads  traverse  the 
yard  on  which  and  below  wdiich  such  conveyance  takes 
place. 


FOREST    CT1L1ZATI0X 


Piling. 

Strong,  high,  horizontal  ground  sills  are  of  the  utmost 
importance.  The  front  sill  should  be  higher  than  the 
middle  and  hack  sills,  except  in  shed  drying. 

In  some  yards  the  front  of  the  piles  is  given  an  overhang- 
ing "batter,"  to  protect  it  from  rain,  an  arrangement 
feasible  only  in  low  piles.  The  usual  pitch  of  the  pile 
is  i  foot  in  10  feet  or  more. 

The  tiers  of  boards  are  kept  apart  by  three  or  four  well 
seasoned  cross  pieces  called  sticks — sawn  I  inch  square 
and  placed  directly  one  over  the  other. 

The  usual  width  of  the  piles  is  from  6  feet  to  10  feet. 

The  distance  between  the  piles  is  at  least  one  foot  and 
should  be  three  feet. 

In  order  to  prevent  end  cracks,  the  sticking  should  be 
placed  exactly  at  the  ends,  slightly  projecting  over  the 
ends. 

Each  pile  must  contain  equal  lengths,  as  "overlaps''  are 
sure  to  get   spoiled. 

Valuable  wide  boards  are  often  painted  at  the  ends. 

Oak,  ash,  hickory  and  elm  require  at  least  four  months 
for  air  drying;  lynn,  poplar  and  pine  about  two  and 
a  half  months. 

Slow  drying  involves  a  loss  of  interest,  large  yard  room, 
large  insurance  and  slow  filling  of  orders.  Still  in  the 
case  of  high  grade  hardwoods,  the  use  of  the  dry  kiln 


i-   disastrous  to  th< 


lumber, 
check 


badlv    as    thick    lumber. 


Thin    lumber    does    not 

Squares  check  worst  of  all. 
A  fermentation  and  incidentally  a  discoloration  takes  place 

where  two  fresh  sawn  surfaces  touch  one  another. 
Each  pile  should  have  a  roof  12  inches  high  in  front  and 
6  inches  high  in  back,  projecting  in  all  four  directions 
over  the  pile. 
Proper  curing  of  lumber  is  as  important  as  proper  sawing 
of  lumber. 
III.     Dry  kiln. 

A  dry  kiln  consists  of 

shed   with   gates   closing  tightly  ; 
lumber  conduit ; 
heating  apparatus. 
The   heat   is   supplied — slowly — 
either  by  a  hot  air  fan ; 
or  by  a  system  of  steam  pipes; 
or  by  steam  admitted  into  drying  room. 
The  air  in  the  dry  kiln  must  be  kept   in  constant  move- 
ment,  so   as  to   prevent    unequal   drying  of   the   lumber 
in  the  piles. 


B. 


F/3 REST    PflLIZATIOX 


* 


Lumber  can  be  more  evenly  dried  by  steam  than  by  hot 
air. 

Sapwater  heated  t»  boiling  p»int  expands  6«#  times.  C«i- 
sequently,  \\0»i.  at  212°  F.  contains  only  i/»>t  «f  the 
water  #riginally  found  therein. 

Before  building  a  mill  be  sure  to  consult  insurance  com- 
panies,  submitting  mill  plans. 

The  insurance  company  prescribes  the  distance  between 
the  yard,  boiler  house,  engine  h#use,  mill  and  dry  kiln. 
The  rate  of  insurance  «n  a  mill  is  5%  and  •ver. 

§  XVIII.       WOODWORKING    PLANT. 

Planing    (surfacing,    dressing   or    sizing). 

The  planer  consists  of  cylindrical  cutter  heads  carrying  two 
to  four  knives  and  making  3,oco  to  5,000  revolutions  per  min- 
ute.    It  is  preferably  belted  at  both  sides. 

The  smaller  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  with  its  knives,  the 
smoother  is  the  planing. 

The  feeding  is  done  either  by  two  to  four  feed  rolls  (above)  and 
friction  rolls  (below)  or  by  a  traveling  bed.  The  entire 
cutting  length  of  the  knives  should  be  uniformly  used. 

The  top  cutter  should  do  the  heavier  work  in  double  surfacers. 

The  knives  are  usually  sharpened  automatically. 

Lumber  is  fed  into  the  machine  at  the  rate  of  20  feet  to  150  feet 
per  minute.     Hardwoods  more  slowly  than  the  soft  woods. 

The  chip  breaker  is  merely  a  front  pressure  bar  preventing  long 
splinters  from  being  torn  off. 

Price  of  single  planers  is  $100  to  $400;  of  double  planers  $400 
to  $800. 

No  machine  should  have  wood  in  its  construction. 

Flooring. 

The  flooring  machine  is  a  surfacer  having  an  additional  outfit 
of  two  side  cutters  revolving  on  ratchet  spindles,  cutting 
tongues  and  grooves. 

The  machines  weigh  5  tons  and  more. 

The  usual  flooring  made  is  hard  maple. 

Planers  and  flooring  machines  must  be  provided  with  a  folding 
hood  connected  with  an  exhaust  fan,  so  as  to  prevent  the  shav- 
ings from  clogging  up  the  machinery  or  from  pressing  them- 
selves into  the  planed  surface. 

Resawing. 

Resaws  are  either  circular  or  band  resaws. 

The  use  of  a  resaw  involves  a  great  saving,  since  it  takes  a  very 
fine  kerf  and  at  the  same  time  relieves  the  work  of  the  main 


The  feed  is  automatic  and  consists  of  four  rolls. 
Circular  resaws  have  as  low  as  19  gauge  at  the  rim  and  are  fre- 
quently built   as  segment  saws.  j         /  / 


8o  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

I).     Ripping. 

The  rip  saw  is  a  circular  saw  running  on  a  bench  and  allowing. 
by  a  gauge  arrangement,  to  cut  any  desired  width  of  board  or 

strips.      It   is   usually   hand    fed. 
A  power  fed  gang  rip  saw  is  merely  an  edger. 

E.  Cut  off  saws. 

Cut  off  saws  are  either  swing  saws,  jump  saws,  stationary  saws 
with  carriage  moved  by  hand  or  automatically,  or  traveling 
railway  cut  off  saws  when  the  saw  is  moved  horizontally 
against  the  timber.- 

F.  Sand  papering. 

I.     Belt     sand    papering,     for    carriage     spokes,    axe    handles, 
buggy  poles  etc. 
II.     Disc   sand  papering,  notably  for  hoxes. 

III.  Spindle   sand   papering,   for   small   tool   handles. 

IV.  Cylinder  drum   sand   papering. 

The  object  to  be  sand  papered  is  always   fed  onto  the  ma- 
chine by  hand. 

G.  Scraping. 

Under  "scraping"  is  understood  the  removal  of  an  extremely  thin 

(not   over    1/64   inch )    layer   of   tissue   from   a   planed   surface. 

It    is    meant    to    replace   and    to   cheapen   the    process    of   sand 

papering,   and   is   not    intended   to    reduce   the   thickness.      The 

scraper  consists  of  power  driven,  smooth  feed  rolls  and  of  one 

stationary  knife,  over   which   the   hoards  are  passed.     Corky  or 

stringy  lumber  cannot  lie  scraped. 
H.     Mitering. 

In  mitering  the   stock  is   run  along  the  so-called  "fence"  against 

a  circular  saw.  the  plane  of  which  forms  a  variable  angle  with 

the  plane  of  the  saw  table. 
I.      Moulding. 

Mouldings  are  either  one,  two  or  four  sided. 

Cutter   heads,   into  which  cutters   of  variable  size  and   form   are 

inserted,  secure  any  variety  of  patterns  of  moulding.     Moulders 

are  often  called  "stickers." 
Miscellaneous. 
Under   "matching"    is    understood   the   cutting   of   a   tongue    and 

groove  into  the  edge  of  box  l>oards,  flooring  boards  etc.     The 

work  is  done  by  a  knife  and  cutter  head. 
Under  "gaining"  is  understood  the  ditching  across  a  piece. 
Under  "plowing"  is  understood  the  ditching  along  a  piece. 
"Tenoning"    is    especially    required    for    doors   and   blind   slats — 

single  and  double   tenons   being  distinguished. 
Door  panels  go  through  a  "panel  raising"  machine. 
Sash  and  door  "relishing"  means  the  biting  or  sawing  of  large 

teeth  into  the  tenon. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  81 


§X] 


VEXEERIXG    PLANT. 


Veneers  are  either  sawn  or  peeled  (sliced).  The  furniture  factory  and 
the  package  trade  use  veneers,  with  entirely  different  ends  in  view,  on  a 
daily  increasing  scale. 

The  thickness  of  sliced  veneers  ranges  down  to  1/120  inch;  veneers 
less  than  1/40  inch  thick,  however,  are  rarely  used. 

Sawn  veneers  are  1/20  inch  thick  or  thicker. 

A.  Veneer  saws. 

Any  saw  of  a  fine  gauge  is  a  veneering  saw.  Largely  used  are  the: 
I.     Horizontal   mill   saw ; 
II.     Fine   band   saw; 
III.     Circular  saw   ground  to  a  fine  gauge    (19  gauge)    at  rim. 
strong  (5  to  10  gauge)  at  center:  there  is  only  one  col- 
lar, to  which   saw   is  screwed.     Veneer  saws  consisting 
of  sections  screwed  to  a  common  centerpiece  are  com- 
mon. 

B.  Veneer  cutting  machines. 

Logs  are   boiled  or   steamed    (in  exhaust)    for  several   hours  be- 
forehand.    Usually,  logs  3  to  5  feet  long  are  used,  the  length 
of  the  log  almost  equaling  the  length  of  the  knife. 
I.     The  rotary  machine  peels  any  log  of.   say.  over   18  inches 
diameter,    notably    poplar,    lynn.    gum    and    cottonwood. 
Into   thin    layers   by   revolving  the   log  slowly  against   a 
sharp    stationary    knife.      A    clipper    cuts    the    roll    into 
pieces  of  proper  size  for  strawberry  boxes,  staves,  potato 
barrels,  box  boards,  furniture  backing  etc.     The  core  of 
the  log.   some  6  inches   in   diameter,   does   not  allow   of 
peeling. 
II.     The   stationary  log  cutter  consists  of  a  knife  set  in  a   sash. 
frame  removing  at  each  -troke  a  thin  slice  or  board. 
£    Advantages  of  veneering. 

I.  There  is  little  or  no  loss  of  timber  for  kerf  and  sawdust. 
Valuable  logs  (for  furniture,  cigar  boxes)  are  invariably 
veneered  nowadays.  Logs  too  short  for  lumber  are  fit 
for  peeling. 
II.  Veneers  show  little  shrinkage  and  little  checking.  Hence 
they  allow  of  rapid  seasoning.  For  that  purpose,  the 
veneers  are  frequently  passed  between  heated  rollers. 
III.  The  rotary  machine  yields  very  large  veneers  often  en- 
tirely free  from  knots  which  are  merely  contained  in  the 
core  left  unpeeled. 

§  XX.       BOX    FACTOR V. 

A.  Kinds   of  boxes. 

(a)  Planed  or  unplaned. 

( b )  Knocked   down   or   set  up. 

(c)  Nailed,  lock-cornered  or   dovetailed. 

B.  Material. 

Wood   as   light    as   possible— readily   planed,    nailed   and    treated. 


8§  »  FOREST    UTILIZATION  £7 


t 


The  best  is  white  pine;  next  are  spruce,  basswood,  poplar 
and,  more  recently,  yellow  pine,  hemlock,  gum,  Cottonwood. 
Elm  and  sycamore  are  used  for   special   purposes. 

C.  Machinery. 

A  well  equipped  plant  contains  planers,  resaws,  rip  saws,  cut  off 
saws,  box  board  matchers  (which  tongue  and  groove  com- 
posite sides),  lock  corner  machine  (or  nailing  machine  or 
dovetailing  machine),  sand  paper  machine  and  printing  ma- 
chine (drum  pattern). 

D.  Business   side. 

The  skill   of  the  box  maker  is  shown  by  working  up,   without 
waste,    the    proper    proportions    of    widths    and    thicknesses. 
Careful  piling  of  lumber  in  the  yard,  separating  according  to 
width  and  thickness,   is  very  essential. 
The   interdependence   between   crop   prospects   and   box  prices   is 

easily  felt  by  the  box  makers. 
For    large    boxes    the    nailed    pattern    is    preferred,    being    the 
strongest.      Box    shook    fasteners    and    box    strapping   increase 
the  strength. 
The    lock   cornered   box    is    preferred    for    starch,    plug    tobacco 
and    small    boxes.      Lock   cornered   boxes   are   required    either 
by   the   bail   qualities   of  the   lumber   or   by   the   quality  of  the 
stuff  packed.     Locked  corners  demand  gluing.     "Bevel  locked" 
corners  and  ''inclined  locked"  corners  are  scarcely  used.     The 
dovetailed    box    does    not    require    gluing.        The    mechanical 
process    for    stamp    locked    corners     (dovetails    stamped    into 
thin  boards)   is  not  yet  perfected. 
Expense  of  manufacture. 

I.  The  manufacture  of  i,oco  feet  of  lumber  into  shooks  in- 
volves a  bill  of  $4  for  labor  and  $1  for  wear  and  tear. 
II.  One  thousand  small  lock  cornered  boxes — 9x6x3  Aches, 
54  inch  thick  for  frame  and  3/16  inch  for  top  and  bot- 
tom— require  700  board  feet  of  lumber  worth  $8.50  in 
case  of  white  pine;  $5.10  for  labor;  $2.72  for  glue,  wear 
and  tear;  $-'.50  for  ten  packing  crates. 

§  XXI.       BASKETS. 

A.    Willow  baskets. 

They  are  hand  made,  mostly  from  cultivated  shoots  of  Salix 
viminalis,  aniygdalina  and  caspica.  Shoots  1  to  2  years  old 
are  used,  being  cut  either  in  fall  or  in  spring.  In  the  first 
case,  the  bundles  of  shoots  are  kept  in  water  over  winter.  The 
shoots  are  peeled  after  the  rising  of  the  sap  by  being  passed 
through  an  iron  or  wooden  fork;  then  rapidly  dried  to  retain 
the  white  color.  In  this  condition  the  material  may  be  stored 
away  for  years.  The  shoots  arc  bathed  in  water  before  weav- 
ing to  restore  flexibility  and  toughness.  The  bottom  of  the 
basket    is    made   first,    and    then,    frequently    with   the  help  of  a 


FOREST    UTILIZATION   "  .  8.3 

model,  the  standards  or  uprights  of  the  wall  are  fixed.     The 
manufacture  has  been  introduced  into  New  Jersey  and   New 
York. 
B.     Wooden  baskets. 

They    are    used   for   picking   and    transportation    of   bulky    farm 
produces.     Sizes  l/2  bushel  to  2  bushels. 
I.     The  hand  made  basket,  from  thin  strips  split  and  shaved 
from  basket  oak  and  white  oak  f HIT — "ii ^ 
II.     The  Briggs  stave  basket  consists  of  radial  ribs  cut  from 
2^4  inch  oak  planks  ;  cross  cut  into  lengths  varying  from 
-  12^  inch  for  l/2  bushel  to  18  inches  for  2  bushel  baskets. 

^  The  ribs  are  jointed  and  pointed  to  an  exact  fit  for  a 

round  center  plate  and  then  bent  over  a  model  form  hav- 
ing grooves  indicating  the  proper  position  for  each  rib 
and  for  the  strong  elm  hoop  clasped  around  the  rim. 
III.  The  common  wood  basket  is  made  of  straight  long  ribs 
up  to  14  inch  thick,  cut  on  a  rotary  veneer  machine.  No 
center  piece,  no  pointing  and  no  jointing  are  required. 
The  ribs  are  bent  over  a  model  form.  A  workman  is 
said  to  make  about  300  baskets  in  a  day. 

§  XXII.     'COOPERAGE. 

A.  Terminology. 

I.     "Slack"    cooperage    turns    out    barrels    for    packing    lime, 
vegetables,    cement,    salt,    nails,    crockery,    sugar,    flour, 
etc. 
II.     "Tight"   cooperage  deals  with  barrels   for   liquids  and   for 
meat    (pork). 

B.  Material   used : 

Any  species  may  be  used  for  slack  cooperage.  Alcoholic  liquors 
must  be  cased  in  white  oak  (Quercus  alba,  michauxii,  prinus, 
macrocarpa,  minor  etc.).  Red  oak  will  not  hold  whisky,  but 
is  used  for  other  staves,  flour  barrel  heading,  sawn  and  coiled 
hoops. 

White  ash  is   used   for  pork   staves  and  butter  tubs. 

Elm  yields  the  best  coiled  hoops  and  the  best  slack  staves. 

Cottonwood  and  gum  are  cut  for  staves  on  a  large  scale. 

Chestnut  is  used  for  cheap  slack  barrel  hoops ;  yellow  poplar 
for  tobacco  hogsheads ;  basswood  for  flour  barrel  headings ; 
beech  and  maple  for  sugar  barrels;  second  growth  of  hickory, 
birch    and    ash    for   hoops. 

For  buckets,  red  and  white  cedar;  for  tanks,  cypress  and  red- 
wood are  preferred. 

C.  Specifications : 

I.     Flour  barrels  contain   196  pounds,  or  3.57  bushels,   or  32 
gallons  of  flour. 
The  diameter  of  the  head  is   17  inches;    the  length  of  the 
staves   28  inches. 


^4 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


The    forms    preferred    in    slack    cooperage,    either    locally 
en-   for  given  goods,  vary  to  such  a  degree  that  figures 
descriptive  of  the  forms  cannot   he  recorded. 
II.      The   "Tight   Coopers'   Union"   specifies: 

(a)  Whisky    barrel    staves — length    34    inches    to    35 

inches,   thickness   %    inch,   width   4J4    inch   after 
jointing,   measured   across   bilge   on  the   outside. 

(b)  Wine    barrel    staves — length    34    inches,    thickness 

11/16  inch  after   drying  and  planing,   width   4r/2 
inches. 

(c)  Oil,    tierce    and    pork    staves    have    similar   dimen- 

sions,   allowing,    however,    of    sap,    one    or    twoP 
sound    worm    holes  and    knots    showing   on   one 
side  only. 

Variations  of  '  x  inch  in  length  and  1/16  inch  in 
thickness  are  permitted  in  all  staves  (so  called 
equalized    staves). 

Pipes,  butts  and  puncheons  contain  over  100  gal- 
lons and   are   used   for  port,   rum    etc. 

A   hogshead  of  claret  is  46  gallons. 

D.  Statistical  note- : 

I.  One  thousand  feet  board  measure  in  logs — Doyle's  rule — 
yield  2,500  sawed  flour  staves,  3.200  veneered  staves, 
4,000  cut  hoop-;  or  3.000  sawn  hoops. 
II.  One  cord  of  bolts,  with  the  bark,  will  make  1,000,  or, 
without  bark.  1,200  slack  staves. 
III.  In  Tennessee,  eight  white  oaks  (of  over  18  inches  diam- 
eter) are  said  to  average  1,000  half  barrel  beer  staves. 

E.  Prices   and    their    tendency: 

Staves—  Apr.  1,  1901.  Fob.  10.  1904. 

No.  1.  flour    barrel,    per    1,000 .*  o.on  $11.00  to  $13.50 

No.  1.  cottonwood.     per     1,000 6.00  

No.   i.  gum,    per  1.000 10.00  to    12.00 

Memphis  white  oak.   without  sup i20.<">  44.00 

Headii  ■_ 

No.  1.  Hour  barrel,    per  set 06%  .08  to       .osvi 

No.   l.  gum,    per   sot 04  .07%  to        .08 

Hoops- 
Coiled   i  im  hoops,   per  1,000 T.o  i  o.oo  to    10.00 

Hickory   hoops,    per    1.000 6.00  6.25  to      6.75 

Barrels 

Flour.    12    hickory    hoop    barrel -    .41  .45  to         .48% 

Floor,    s    patent    hoop   barrel .TO  .46 

Flour   mugwump    i  in   hickory   hoops) 39  .45 

oil    (52  gallon)    1.45 

The    price    of    white    oak    material     has    risen    rapidly    and    musl 

continue   to    rise    indefinitely,    substitutes    for   white   oak   being 

impossible. 
In    slack   cooperage,   on    the   other   hand,   raw   material   continues 

to  be  plentiful,  and  new,  cheaper  forms  of  packages  enter  into 

daily  competition    with   the  barrel. 
The    cost    of    making    tierces    at    Chicago    is:      Stave-    ($21    per 

I.ooo),    39  cents;    heading.    16   cenls;    hoops.    20   cents;    wages. 

2$  cents  ;  total.  $1. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  85 

F.     Manufacture    of    heading,    staves,    hoops    and    barrels. 
I.     Heading. 

Heading  for  tight  cooperage  is  sawn  from  split  bolts. 
These  bolts  are  obtained  in  the  woods  by  halving,  quar- 
tering and  splitting  (by  hand  and  always  with  the 
grain)  round  blocks  which  slightly  exceed  in  length 
the  diameter  of  the  heading.  The  heart  of  the  bolt  is 
not  removed.  The  bolts  are  wagoned  or  sledded  to  the 
heading  plant,  where  they  are  inspected,  sorted,  piled 
and  air  dried. 

Twenty-five  horsepower  are  said  to  be  required  at  a  head- 
ing plant.  The  output  at  a  "setting"  of  the  plant  aver- 
ages 200.000  sets  of  heading. 

The  tight  heading  plant  usually  contains  a  sawing  ma- 
chine, an  equalizer  and  jointer. 

(a)  The  heading  sawing  machine  consists  of  a  vertical 

circular  saw  (44  inches  diameter)  screwed  to 
the  arbor  without  a  loose  collar;  a  pendulum 
swing  with  "grate"  and  "dogs"  to  receive  the 
bolt :  a  slide  guiding  the  swing ;  a  gauge,  ad- 
justed by  screws;  a  separator  throwing  the 
sawed  slats  to  the  side.     Price  $300. 

(b)  The  equalizer  contains  a  tilting  table  or  a  carriage, 

which  is  forced  against  a  pair  of  circular  saws. 

(c)  The  jointer  edges  the  slats.     It  consists  of  a  strong 

wheel  carrying  on  its  side  4  to  6  straight  knives. 

The  wheel  is  covered  by  a  hood.     Price  $140. 
For  tight  cooperage  the  joints  are  made  secure  by 

blind  wooden  nails  and  by  coopers'  flag   (Typha 

latifolia)    glued   into  the  joints. 
Two    more    machines    are    required    to    finish    the 

heading    prepared    by    the    apparatus    mentioned 
.  under  a,  b.  and  c,  viz.  : 

(d)  The  heading  planer  carries  knives   16  inches  to  24 

inches  wide  and  has  a  capacity  of  8.500  headings 
a  day. 

(e)  The    heading    turner    cuts    the    heading    circularly 

and  carves  the   required  bevel   edge.      It  usually 
•    carries  a  concave  saw,  to  cut  through  the  boards, 
and  on  the  same  mandrel  a  small,  thick  circular 
saw  which  gives  the  bevel. 
The    heading,    held    in    clamps,    rotates    obliquely 
against  these  saws.     Price  $235.     Capacity  5.000 
a  day.     Heading  is  usually  kiln  dried. 
For  slack  heading,  quarter  sawing  is  usually  not 
required.      Ordinary  lumber   can   be   used.     The 
slack  heading  plant  may  or  may  not  contain  all 
of   the   machines    enumerated    under    a,    b,    c,    d 
and  e. 


86  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

The  tight  heading  plant  of  the  woods  contains 
the  machines  a,  1)  and  c,  while  the  machines  d 
and  e  are  usually  combined  with  the  cooper 
works,  unless  they  form  a  separate  establish- 
ment. 
II.     Staves. 

(a)  Staves  for  barrels  containing  the  more  valuable 
beverages  are  hand  made  (rived  staves).  The 
riving  of  staves  wastes  timber.  Proper  bilge  and 
curvature  are  obtained  either  by  hewing  (Ger- 
many)   or   in  the   finishing  plant    (America). 

The  white  oak  timber  used  must  come  from 
straight  trees  of  over  18  inches  diameter.  Such 
trees  are  found  in  clumps  only.  Hence  the.  ne- 
cessity of  a  portable  finishing  plant,  using  from 
15  to  35  horsepower.  At  each  set  or  site — now 
usually  15  miles  from  the  railroad- — at  least  100,- 
000  staves  are  manufactured.  Six  hundred  rough 
staves  have  the  weight  of  i.ooo  finished  staves. 
Hence  it  is  wise  to  bring  the  plant  -close  to  the 
timber. 

The  felled  tree  is  sawed  (by  hand)  into  blocks 
of  two  inches  more  than  stave  length,  which 
are  placed  on  their  larger  ends.  Then  the 
sap  line  is  demarked  with  a  pencil,  and  inside 
the  sap  line,  with  the  help  of  a  pattern  showing 
the  cross  section  of  a  stave,  as  many  staves  are 
pencil-marked    as    possible. 

By  axe,  wedges  and  wooden  mauls  the  block  is 
then  halved  and  quartered  (and  rehalvcd  and 
requartered  in  case  of  heavy  blocks),  the  clefts 
following  the  pencil  marks.  The  sectors  are 
then  split,  along  the  annual  rings,  into  rough 
staves — always   following  the  pencil  marks. 

The  core  of  at  least  four  inches  diameter,  con- 
taining  the    small    limb-stubs,    is    thrown    away. 

The  rough  staves  are  inspected  and  sorted  and 
piled  hogpen-fashion  for  air  drying,  either  be- 
fore or  after  sledding  or  wagoning  to  the  fin- 
ishing plant.  It  might  be  added  here  that  this 
finishing  plant  is — contrary  to  expectation — never 
combined  with  a  heading  plant, 
(b)  The  "stave  bucker,"  by  which  three-fourths  of  all 
rived  staves  made  in  the  United  States  are  re- 
fined, dresses  and  planes  both  sides  of  the  staves 
to  proper  curvature  and  bilge.  A  rack  forces  the 
rough  staves  through  the  narrow  passage  left  be- 
tween   two    knives     (either    straight    knives,    or 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  g7 

curved  to  correspond  with  the  periphery  of  the 
finished  barrel)  which  are  fastened  in  a  rocking 
frame. 

(c)  The  "stave  dresser"   frequently  takes  the  place  of 

the  bucker.  It  carries  knives  on  two  cutter- 
heads,  dressing  and  hollowing  the  stave  on  both 
sides  to-  proper  thickness  and  leaving  either  an 
abrupt  or  a  gradual  shoulder 

(d)  The   stave    saw   yields   staves   of   equal   form,   but 

greater  permeability,  more  economically  than 
the  hand.  Stave  bolts  must  have  the  following 
minimum  dimensions:  thickness  with  grain  5 
inches;   width   close  to  heart  3   inches. 

The  bolts  are  barked  and  hearted  in  the  woods, 
being  split  from  logs  having  at  least  a  diameter 
of    15    inches    inside   the   bark. 

The    stave    saw    consists    of: 

1.  A  hollow  steel   cylinder,  having  the  diam- 

eter of  the  barrels  to  be  made  and  car- 
rying  saw    teeth    at    one   end. 

2.  A    carriage    with    clamps    passing   the    saw 

cylinder. 
3-     A    stave   holder   running  into   the   cylinder 
_      and  removing  the  sawed  staves.  '  Capac- 
ity  12,000  staves  per  day. 

(e)  In  slack   cooperage,  a  stave  cutter   is   often   used, 

consisting  of  a  circle  (20  inches  for  fruit  bar-, 
rels)  with  one  knife  attached,  making  150  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  The  stave  bolts  are  steamed 
beforehand.  The  knife  separates  at  each  revo- 
lution of  the  circle,  or  by  each  singie  stroke, 
a  stave  from  the  bolt. 
Capacity  140,000  per  day.  Price  $130.  Horse^* 
power,   4. 

(f)  The    rotary   veneer  machine   is   now   also    used   to 

cut  4  inch  or  41/,   inch  gum  staves. 

(g)  The  stave  equalizer  trims  the  ends  and  gives  the 

staves    the    proper    length.      It    consists    of   two 
circular  saws  and  a  tilting  bed  or  a  carriage, 
(h)      Stave   listers   or  jointers  edge   the   staves  in   such 
a    way    that    the    edges    coincide    with    a    plane 
through  the  axis  of  the  barrel. 

Staves  for  export  are  straight  listed  and  without 
bilge. 

The  stave  jointer  is  either  a  circular  swing  saw 
or  it  consists  of  two  circular  saws;  or  of  a 
number  of  inclined  knives  held  by  cutterheads; 
or  of  one  knife  running  in  a  sash  frame;  or  it 
resembles    a    heading    jointer    (star jointer). 


a 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 

(i)  In  the  '"slave  planer."  a  steel  pattern  passing 
through  the  machine  with  the  stave  lifts  the 
cutters  in  such  a  way  a-  to  allow  the  shoulders 
of  the  .-laves  to  retain  a  greater  thickness  than 
the    middle    of    the    staves. 

III.  Hoops. 
In   tight   cooperage,   steel    or   iron   hoops   are    used,   driven 

over   the   barrel    by   hoop   drivers   or   trussing   machines 
and   sometimes  fastened  by  hoop   fasteners. 

In  slack  cooperage,  wooden  hoops  are  still  preferred  and 
wire  hoops  are  only  occasionally  used.  Wooden  hoops 
are  either  hand  made,  especially  the  long  white  oak 
hoops  used  on  tobacco  hogsheads,  or  sawed  from 
plank  by  a  hoop  machine,  or  finally  knife-cut  on  a 
rotary  machine  or  a  sash  frame  machine. 

A    machine   by   which    sawed   hoops    are   obtained   directl 
from  logs  does  not  seem  to  be  much  used.     By  special 
machinery     hoops     are     planed,     pointed,     lapped     and 
punched. 

A  hoop  coiler  rolls  the  hoops  into  bundles;  usually  the 
outfit  of  a  "sawed  hoop"  plant  consists  of  a  saw  bench, 
a  saw  machine  and  a  coiler. 

IV.  Barrels. 

Putting  up   a  barrel   requires : 

'  a  i  Heating,  in  order  to  increase  the  flexibility  of  the 
staves  held  together  by  an  iron  form  and  by  one 
or  two  hoops. 

(b)  Bending    in    an    apparatus     consisting     of     screw 

and    rope,    windlass    and    rope,    or    of    a    funnel 
press. 

(c)  Crozing,   i.   e..   making  a  groove   for  the   insertion 

of  the  heading,  either  by  a  hand  planer  or  by 
a  power  groover. 
The  finished  barrel  is  automatically  planed  on  the 
outside;  if  it  does  not  assume  the  exact  form 
of  a  doubly  truncated  parabolloid,  it  is  pressed 
into  shape  by  a  barrel  leveler. 

§  XXIII.       WAGON    WORKS. 

The  raw   material    must  be  tough  and  strong  and,   above  all,   air 

dry.     The   dry   kiln   often   follows   after  two   or  three  years   of 

air  drying. 
Second  growth  of  black  or  shell  bark  hickory  is  used  for  tongues, 

shafts,   spokes,   rims,  axles,   neck  yokes,  whiffletrees  and  eveners. 
White    oak    or    burr    oak    is    used    for    spokes,    tongues,    bolsters, 

hounds,    reaches   and   axles. 
Black  birch,  rock  elm,  white  oak  and  locust  are  used  for  hubs. 
Wagon  beds  are  made  of  yellow  poplar,   pines,  cottonwoods,   the 

composing    boards    being    either    ship    lapped    or    tongued    and 

grooved. 


i^^      /l^T^g         FOREST    UTILIZATION 


)uble]      ^ 
callyp> 
tised)    V 


White    ash,    bending   easiest    and    best    of   all    woods,    is    used    for 
rims,  bent  seat-;,  bent  bows,  shafts  etc. 

B.  The  manufacturing  machinery  is  usually  supplied  by  the  Defiance 

Machine   Works,   Defiance,   Ohio. 

I.  Hubs  are  cut  direct  from  log  to  proper  length  by  dor 
equalizing  saws  and  are  turned  on  outside  automatical 
on  a  lathe;  bored  for  boxes  (thimbles)  ;  chisel  morti 
for  spokes  ;  and  set  with  two  to  four  iron  rings. 
II.  Spokes  are  obtained  from  bolts  by  rip  sawing  into  squares 
which  are  turned  on  a  lathe  :  tenoned  at  the  big  end : 
equalized  in  length ;  sandpapered  and  polished ;  and 
driven  into  hubs  by  automatic  hammers. 

III.  Rims  and  felloes  are  either  bent  to  proper  form  or  sawn     ^ 

from  straight  bolts.  In  the  first  case,  the  bolts  are 
steamed  or  boiled ;  then  bent  and  pressed  in  an  iron 
pattern  when  hot ;  then  cased  up  and  dried ;  then  boreci^V^ 
to  receive  the  spokes;  rounded  on  the  inside  ..-with  a 
slight  elevation  left  around  the  hole  :  planed  and  finally 
sandpaper  polished. 
Very  wide  plank  is  required  for  sawn  felloes,  which  are 
obtained  either  by  a  set  of  concave  saws,  having  the 
required  curvature,  or  by  a  narrow  band  or  scroll 
saw  which  follows  the  pencil  marks  of  a  pattern  made 
for   each    piece   on    the    plank.  , 

IV.  Axles   are  turned  on  a  lathe  according  to  a   steel  pattern     i?J 

spanned  in  the  lathe ;  are  gained  to  receive  bolster- 
and  hounds  ;  and  have  the  thimble  skeins  driven  on  by 
hydraulic  pressure.  I 

V.  Shafts  and  poles  are  sawn  from  plank  1V2  inch  to 
2J4  inch  thick  and  Sy2  to  12  feet  long;  are  heated  and 
bent,  cased,  dried,   rounded  and  belt  polished. 

C.  Few   establishments^  make   entire   wagons.     Usually   shafts,   spokes, 

rims,    axles    etc.    are     made     in    factories   close     to     the     woods, 
while  other   factories  closer  to  the  cities  or  to  railroad  centers 
put  the  wagons   together   after  buying   their   component   parts. 
1 — 

§  XXIV.       SHIXGLE    MILLS. 

A.     Material. 

Breasted,  shaved,   rived  or   rifted  shingles    (meaning  hand  made) 
are   used  in  the  backwoods  only.     At  Biltmore,   shaved   shingles 
made  of  chestnut  cost  $2  per   M.,  while  so  called  boards,   two 
feet  long  and  six  inches  wide,  split  from  white  oak,  cost  $3  per  M. 
Shaved   shingles  cannot  be  laid  so  neatly  as   sawn  shingles. 
For  machine  made  shingles  are  used: 
On  the  Pacific  coast,  red  cedar ; 
In  the  Lake   States,   white  pine,   white   cedar,    spruce,   norway 

pine   and  hemlock ; 
In  the  South,  cypress,  longleaf  pine  and  shortleaf  pine. 


♦  F0RBST    UTILIZATION 

Durability. 

The   durability   is   said   to   be   for : 
White  pine  rived,  20  to  35  years. 
White  pine  sawn,  16  to  22  years. 
White  pine   (sappy)   sawn,  4  to  17  years. 
Chestnut  rived,  20  to  25  years. 
Cedar  sawn,   12  to  18  years. 
Spruce  sawn,  7  to  1 1  years. 
Specifications. 

The  usual  size  of  sawn  shingles  is:    16  inches  or  18  inches  long; 
4  inches  wide;   1-16  inch   thick  at  small   end;    y2   inch  thick  at 
butt  end.     A  bundle  of  shingles  contains  250  pieces,  is  20  inches 
long  and  has  24  tiers. 
A  carload  of  white  pine  shingles,  weighing  22,000  pounds,  contains 
70,000   16-inch   shingles;   a   large  car  of  red  cedar   shingles   con- 
tains  170,000  pieces. 
#ne  thousand  shingles  cover   100  square  feet  of  roof,  each  show- 
ing 14.4  square  inches  to  the  weather. 
A  rule  for  the  number  of  shingles  required  for  a  roof  is:  ascertain 
number   of  square   inches   in   one   side  of  roof;   cut   off  the   last 
figure,   and   the    result    is   the   number    of    shingles    required    for 
both    sides   of   the    roof.      In    this   case,    each    shingle    shows    20 
square   inches   to  the   weather. 
Shingles  are  usually  laid  to  show  4  inches  of  their  length,  which 
arrangement    yields,    in    16-inch    shingles,    a    quadruple    layer   of 
shingles  on  the  roof.     The  higher  the  grade  of  the  shingles,  the 
larger  is  the  weather  face  permissible. 
Machinery. 

The  machinery  used  in  a  shingle  plant  consists  of:  0 

I.  Drag  saw,  either  driven  from  a  countershaft  or  acting 
directly  from  the  piston,  cutting  the  logs  into  shingle 
lengths. 
II.  Roller,  a  circular  saw  cutting  the  round  blocks  into  bolts, 
the  thickness  of  which  equals  the  width  of  the  shingle. 
Bolts  split  with  an  axe  vivid  a  better  grade  of  shingles 
but  cause  a  large  waste  of  timber.  A  knot  saw  may 
be  used  after  bolting  to  remove  knots,  rot,  sap  etc. 
III.     Shingle  machine,  constructed  in  a  variety  of  forms: 

(a)  A  knife  is  spanned  in  a  sash  frame  moving  up 
and  down  and  severing  a  shingle  at  each  stroke 
from  steamed  bolts.  This  system,  furnishing 
"cut  shingles,"  is  not  much  used. 

(b)  The  shingle  saw  machine  uses  a  circular  saw 
lacking  the  loose  collar  and  screwed  onto  the 
fast  collar.  The  gauge  at  the  center  of  the 
saw  may  be  very  heavy  while  the  gauge  at  the 
rim  is  from   15  to  20  only. 

The  shingle  blocks  are  fastened  into  either  a  slid- 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  91 

ing  frame  or  a  rotating  frame  and  are  tilted  con- 
tinuously, so  as  to  alternate  edge  and  butt  cuts. 
The   sliding   frame    is    either    hand    fed   or  power 
fed.     A  machine  takes   from  one  to  ten  blocks 
at  a  time. 
IV.     The  jointer  is   meant   to   give  a  rectangular  shape   to  the 
shingle.     It  is  either  a  single  or  a  double  rip  saw   (two 
saws  4  inches  apart)  or  a  wheel  jointer  consisting  of  a 
steel  wheel  carrying,  close  to  the  circumference,  4  to  8 
knives    radially   or    almost    radially    set   and   of  a   hood 
covering  the    machine   and  connected   with   a   blowpipe 
to  remove  shavings.     The  shingles  are  placed  opposite 
an  opening  in  the  hood  and  pressed   by   hand   against 
the  knives,  which  make  about  500  to  Soo  revolutions  per 
minute. 
V.     The  shingle  packer,  used  for  16  inch  and  18  inch  shingles, 
consists   of   a  bench  and  two   slotted  and   overhanging 
steel   rods.     The  attendant  pressing  the  rods   down  by 
hand  or   foot  packs  the  shingles  tightly   with  their  fine 
ends  overlapping. 
VI.     Shingle    planers,    fancy    butt    shapers    and    dry    kilns    are 
found  in  up  to  date  plant?.     After  dry  kilning,  bundles 
require  tightening  up. 

§  XXV.       LATH     MILL. 

The  usual  length  of  laths  is  4  feet;  the  weight  per  1.000  is  500  pounds. 

One  thousand  laths  cover  70  square  yards,  and  a  cord  of  slabs  yields 
3,000  laths. 

All  softwoods,  further  yellow  poplar,  cottonwood  and  linden  form 
the  raw  material  for  lath. 

The   machinery   used  consists  of: 

A.  Slab  resaw,  by  which  the  last  board  is  cut  out  of  the  slab.     It 

contains  a  circular  saw  and  feed  works  pressing  the  slab  in  to 
the  saw. 

B.  Lath  bolter,  consisting  of  a  single  or  double  cutoff. 

C.  Lath  machine,  which  is  either  an  ordinary  rip  saw  having  up  to 

six  small  circular  saws  and  an  automatic  feed,  or  a  cutter- 
head  and  knife  machine.  The  latter  machine  makes  the  so 
called   "grooved"   lath. 

D.  Lath  bundling  machine,   which  presses   the   laths  together  by  a 

foot  or  hand  lever  and  facilitates  binding. 

§  XXVI.       CLAPBOARD     MILL. 

The  cross  section  of  clapboards  is  either  square  or.  more  usually, 
beveled,  with  the  big  edge  from  }i  inch  to  y%  inch  thick. 

They  are  manufactured  either  from  boards  1  inch  thick  fed  through 
a  resaw,  the  feed  rolls  of  which  are  inclined  toward  the  saw,  or 
by  special  clapboard  machinery  directly  from  the  log.  Logs,  in  the  latter 
case,  are  cut  in  pieces  of  proper  lengths  (4  feet  to  6  feet)   bv  a  drag  saw; 


92  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

are  turned  on  a  lathe  and  then  spanned  into  a  sliding  frame  (between 
pins).  Frame  and  log  pass  a  circular  saw  with  and  not  against  the 
rotation  of  the  saw.  After  passing,  the  log  is  automatically  turned  by  an 
angle  corresponding  with  the  bevel  of  the  clapboard. 

This  process  leaves  a   four  inch  core  unused. 

A  planer,  molder  or  jointer  dresses  the  sides  and  a  butter  or  trimmer 
dresses  the  ends. 

§  XXVII.      NOVELTY    MILL. 

Novelty  mills  have  sprung  up,  in  recent  years,  all  over  the  Northeast, 
manufacturing  trays,  wooden  dishes,  wooden  wire,  rules,  pen-holders, 
flasks,  skewers,  toys  and  thousands  of  playthings  of  the  hour. 

The  variety  of  the  raw  material  used  is  as  great  as  the  variety  of  the 
goods  manufactured.  Still,  birch  seems  to  be  the  acknowledged  leader 
for  novelty  makes. 

Wooden  dishes'  and  wooden  wire  may  deserve  particular  mention. 

A.  Wooden   dishes. 

I.  Material. 

Yellow  poplar  is  used  for  large  wooden  trays.  Second 
growth  white  pine  (cuts  taken  between  whirls)  is 
said  to  be  used  in  New  England.  Maple  is  preferred 
for  small  oval  wood  dishes,  turned  out  by  a  special 
machine  automatically. 

II.  Manufacture  of  oval   dishes. 

These  oval  dishes  are  obtained  from  sawn  blocks,  scal- 
ing from  6  inches  by  8  inches  to  7^4  inches  by  gl/2 
inches. 

The  dishes  are  cut  with  the  grain  from  the  side  face. 
Blocks  are  thoroughly  boiled.  The  cutting  knife, 
revolving  circularly,  makes  25  dishes  to  the  inch  and 
75,000  per  day. 

Two  facing  knives  shave  the  block  clean  between  every 
two  cuts,  carving  out  true  edges. 

A  screw  fed  carriage  automatically  feeds  the  block  into 
the  knives.  No  skilled  labor  is  required.  The  attend- 
ant merely  removes  the  remnants  of  a  spanned  block 
and  places  a  new  block  in  the  carriage. 

B.  Wooden  wire. 

Wooden    wire    is    used    for    mattings,    screens,    inner    rack    of 

ladies'  hats  etc. 
The    raw    material    consists    of    willow,    basswood    and    poplar 

plank. 
A   series  of  planing  knives,  in  the   form  of  sharp   rimmed,   tine 

steel    cylinders,    plies    in    a    sliding    frame    over   the    plank, 

severing  at  each  stroke  a  series  of  wires  having  the  len^ih 

of  the  plank. 
A  straight  planer  knife  follows  in  the  wake  of  the  fine  cylinders, 

removing  the  irregularities  left  on  the  plank. 

V 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  93 

§  XXVIII.       MATCHES     AND     THEIR     MANUFACTURE. 

Wooden  matches  are  either  round  or  square. 

A.  Round  matches  are  made  on  a  machine  resembling  the  wooden 

wire  machine  described  in   Section  XXVII. 

B.  Square   matches   are   made   from  blocks   16  inches  to   24   inches 

long  which,  after  steaming  or  boiling,  are  peeled  on  a  rotary 
veneer  machine  into  layers   having  the  thickness  of  a  match. 
I.     The   veneers  are  automatically  clipped  into   sheets  having 
a   length  of  6  feet   and   width   equaling  5   to    12   match 
lengths.     These  sheets  are  heaped  up  in  packs  contain- 
ing 50  to  60  tiers. 
II.     A    knife    system,    with    vertical    spur-knives,    plays    in    a 
vertical   sash   and   cuts   from   each   tier,   at  each   stroke, 
5  to  12  matches.     The  pack,  after  each  stroke,  is  moved 
forward   the   thickness   of  a   match.      The   machine   has 
a  daily  capacity  of  25,000,000  matches. 
III.     The  matches  are  then   dried   and  cleaned  by   sifting. 

C.  The    treatment    thereafter    is    identical    for    round    and    square 

matches,    consisting   of   the    following   operations: 
I.     Causing  the   match   pegs   to   lie  parallel,   by   rocking   them 
in  an  oscillating  drawer. 
U.     Fixing  about  2,250  matches  at  a  time  in  a  clasp  or  frame. 
III.     Dipping  the  clasp    (for  fine  matches)    wholly  into  paraffine 
and    the    tips    thereafter     into    a     chemical    compound 
(mastic)     which     forms    the     inflammable    head.      The 
mastic    consists    of   one    or    more    oxidizing    substances 
(chlorate   or   bichromate  of  potash),   often   mixed   with 
a  particle  of  some  explosive,  so  as  to  allow  of  ignition 
by  friction  on  any  rough  surface. 

D.  The    raw    material    for   matches    is    derived   from    cottonwoods, 

linden,    sapwood    of    yellow    poplar,    white    pine,    spruce.      A 
white,    soft    and    long   fibre   is    required. 

§  XXIX.       SHOE    PEGS    AND    THEIR     MANUFACTURE. 

\.     Wooden  shoe  pegs   are  used  to  fix  the   "uppers"   to  the   shoe   sole 
and  to  construct  the  heel.     The  pegs  are  automatically  fed  from 
a   pegging  machine. 
Pegs  are  3/8  inch  to  Ji  inch  long,  square  with  a  prismatic  head. 
The   raw   material   consists   of   birch   and    hard   maple. 
3.     Manufacture. 

I.     The  blocks   are  cut   into   discs.   3/3   to   7/8    inch  thick,  by   a 

circular  saw. 
II.     The  discs  are  pointed  in  a  pointing  machine,  which  plows 
parallel  grooves,  lengthwise  and  crosswise,  into  the  discs. 
The  distance  between  two  furrows  equals  the  width  of  the 
peg. 


94  F0RES1     UTILIZATION 

III.  The  splitting  machine  severs,  by  the  gradual  strokes  cf  a 

knife  (first  stroke  down  to  l/i,  second  stroke  down  to 
24  of  thickness  of  disc),  the  disc  into  strips  of  pegs  and, 
playing  crosswise,  into  individual  pegs.  After  each 
stroke  of  the  knife  the  disc  is  moved  toward  it  by  the 
width  of  one  furrow.  During  the  operation  the  disc 
is   held  in  a   leather   frame. 

IV.  The  wet,  red  pegs  are  then  bleached  by  applying  sulphuric 

acid;  then  dried  in  heated  drums;  then  cleaned  from 
splinters   and   irregularities  by   sifting. 

§  XXX.      EXCELSIOR     MILL. 

A.  Grades  of  product, 

First  Grade — Fine  wood  wool,  thickness  from   1/500  inch   to 

1/64  inch. 
Second  Grade — Common  fine  wood  wool. 
Third  Grade — Mattress   stock. 

The    greatest   demand    is   for   stock    1/100  inch  thick   and 
from  1/32  to  1/8  inch  wide. 

B.  Usage.     Excelsior  is  used  for  upholstering  and  for  packing  (glass- 

ware, furniture,  confectionery  etc.).  It  is  preferred  to  straw 
owing  to  its  greater  elasticity  and  to  its  lack  of  dust.  It  is  easily 
colored.  A  limited  amount  of  excelsior  is  woven  into  mattings 
and  rugs. 

C.  Kinds  of  wood. 

Basswood  is  best ;  balm  of  gilead,  cottonwood  and  yellow  poplar 
come  next.  Pine  and  spruce  also  arc  used.  One  cord  of  wood 
will  yield  1,500  pounds  of  excelsior. 

D.  Process  of  preparation. 

The  wood  is  peeled,  cut  into  38-inch  blocks,  and  the  blocks  split 
into  slabs  5  inches  to  6  inches  thick.  These  slabs  are  thoroughly 
air  seasoned  under  cover,  and  finally  cut  into  two  lengths  of 
18  inches  each. 

Frequently  the  core  of  blocks  peeled  on  the  rotary  veneer  machine 
is  used  for  excelsior. 

E.  Machinery. 

Excelsior   machines   are    small,    upright    knife   machines,    or   carry 
the  knives  on  a  disc  set  in  rapid  rotation.     The  modern  machine, 
however,   is  an  eight  block  horizontal   machine  consisting  of: 
T.     Two   sliding  steel    frames   carrying  eight   tool   heads   into 
which  the  knives  and  the  comb-like  spurs  are  spanned. 
The  sliding  .frames  are  moved  by  powerful  cranks  and 
pitmans  on  maple  slides. 
II.     Two    stationary    frames,    above    the    sliding   frames,    each 
having  four  sets  of  rolls,  each  set  pressing  a  block  by 
its  rotation  downward  against  the  knives. 
III.     The  shavings,  falling  through  the  sliding  frame,   are  car- 
ried out  by  bread  belts. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  95 

IV.  The  daily  capacity  of  an  eight  block  machine  is  4,000 
pounds  of  fine  wood  wool,  or  10,000  pounds  of  mattress 
stock. 

V.  Additional  machinery  consists  of  automatic  knife  grinders, 
baling  presses,  cut  off  saws  etc. 


VI. 


The  price  of  the  machinery  for  a  modern  plant  is  about 
$2,000.     About  30  horsepower  are  required. 


§  XXXI. 


GROUND   WOOD   PULP   AND  CHEMICAL  FIBRE  AND 


THEIR   MANUFACTURE. 


.     Historical   remarks. 

Up   to   1854   paper   was   made   from  cotton,   linen   and   hemp  fibre, 

precipitated   from  a   mush  in  the  shape   of  a  matting. 
Wood  grinding  was  invented  in  1854.     Since  1867  the  ground  wood 
is     refined     by    chemical    processes    which    separate    the    wood 
into    thinner    strings    of    cells    and    free    it    from    rosin,    tannin, 
albumen,  gums   etc. 
In    the    United    Stales    there    were,    in    1800.   82    mills    producing 
$4,600,000  worth  of  wood  paper,  while  the  value  of  the  output  in 
1900  approximated  $20,000,000. 
Rags,    manila,    straw    and    waste    paper    used   as    raw   material    for 
paper    -till   outrank    in   value    (in    1900)    the   wood    used    as   raw 
material. 
In    1900,   close  to  2,000.000  cords   of  wood  were  consumed,    worth 
nearly   $10,000,000:    three-fourths    being    spruce    and    one-fourth 
poplar  and  miscellaneous. 
If  the  United  States  shall  conquer  the  Swedish  and  German  export 
and    supply    the    entire    consumption    of   wood    paper    at    home, 
6,000,000  acres  of  well   managed  wood  lands  will  be  required  to 
produce  the  raw  material. 
Statistical    remarks. 

One  cord  of  wood  yields  one  ton  of  ground  pulp  wood  (mechanical 
fibre)  or  \'2  ton  of  chemical  fibre.     In  the  so  called  "news  grade" 
80%   of  pulp  is  mixed   with   20%  of  chemical  fibre. 
Japanese    paper    is    made    of   the    inner   bark    of   a    mulberry    tree 

(Brussonetia). 
For  highest  grades  of  writing  paper,  cotton  and  linen  are  used. 
An   average   mill   produces   2^,   tons   a   day.      - 
A  modern   pulp   plant    requires   annually,    at   least,   6,000   cords   of 

wood ;  a  modern  fibre  plant  at  least  25,000  cords. 
The  price  of  the  product  loco  factory  is  about: 
For  ground  wood  pulp.  $13  per  cord; 
For  soda  fibre,  $20  per  cord  ; 
For  sulphite  fibre,  $25  per  cord. 
The  plant. 

The  plant  requires  an  outlay  of  about  $10,000  per  ton  of  daily 
production.  Unlike  a  saw  mill,  a  paper  mill  cannot  be  shifted 
when  the  nearby  supply  of  raw  material  is  exhausted. 


go  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

A   plant    must   be   located : 

J.  Close  to  water;  water  is  not  so  much  used  for  motive 
power  as  for  the  dissolution  of  the  fibre  in  the  washing 
process. 
11.  Close  to  cheap  wood  supply:  wood  must  be  plentiful  and 
uniform,  of  a  long,  straight  fibre,  readily  interlacing  and 
white.  Spruce  is  considered  best,  the  price  at  river 
tri  ints  being  about  $3.50  per  cord  and  at  mill  from  $4.50 
to  $5.50.  Cottonwoods  and  poplar  are  next  in  impor- 
tance. Price  at  river  fronts  $2.  Hemlock  and  balsam 
are  mixed  with  spruce  in  a  daily  growing  proportion. 
I'.irch,  beech  and  maple  can  be  used  only  for  wrapping 
paper  and  cardboard,  the  fibre  being  short,  brittle  and 
unbleachable. 
The    use    of   pine    is    handicapped    by    the    expense    of   the 

removal  of  the  rosin. 
The    Pacific    spruces    and    o-t  ton  woods   may   have   a   great 
future. 
111.     Close  to  cheap  coal,  since  the  coal  consumption  per  pound 
of  paper  amounts  to  5/16  of  a  pound  of  coal.     So  much 
coal  is  required  for  heating,  drying  and  bleaching,  that 
all  excepting  15%  of  the  machinery  can  be  driven   free 
of  charge. 
D.      Process  of  manufacture. 

The  manufacture  is  either  purely  mechanical  (ground  wood  pulp) 
or  also  chemical.  In  the  latter  case,  distinguish  between  the 
soda  process,  the  sulphite  process  and  the  sulphate  process. 
The  electric  process,  though  very  promising,  is  still  in  early 
infancy. 
The    principle   of   manufacture    is: 

Grinding  and  beating  of  wood  in  water  until  it    forms  a  fluid  pulp: 
allowing  water  to  run  off  leaving  a  matted  stratum  of  wet  fibre; 
bleaching;  drying;  pressing. 
I.     Ground   wood  fibre. 

(a  1       The  wood  is  cut   into  bolts  one  foot  long  and  five 
inches    thick.        The    bark    is    removed,    and    the 
knots  are   usually  bored  out. 
Mi)     The    bolts   are   pressed    against    stone    mill-wheels 
which     turn     slowly     under    constant     influx     of 
water.     Bolts  must  be  ground  in  the  direction  of 
the  fibre. 
I  he  fluid  pulp  is  carried  through  sieves  retaining 
the    long    splinters,    which    are   transferred   to   a 
pulp  engine   for  mechanical   refining. 
(  A  )      The  fibre  is  ground  a  second  time  both  in  stamp- 
ers and   rotary  mills. 
The    fluid    is    separated    according    to    fineness    by 
sieves  of  different   mesh  which  allow  the  water 
to    run    off.      The    filtered    mass    is    taken    up    by 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  97 

endless  belts  of  cloth  which  carry  it  as  a  thin 
matting  through  a  series  of  heated  rolls, 
(f)  The  mattings  are  dried  by  superheated  steam,  by 
pressure  or  in  the  air.  Pulp  is  shipped  in  rolls 
about  3  feet  long  and  \y2  feet  in  diameter.  It  is 
not  paper  but  merely  the  leading  raw  material 
for  ordinary  paper. 
II.     Soda  process. 

This  process  consists  of: 

(a)  Sawing  wood  into  discs  about  i   inch  thick. 

(b)  Grinding  and  dissecting  the  discs  into  fragments 

about  1/24  inch  by  I  inch  in  size. 

(c)  Packing  the  material   into  perforated   iron  boxes 

which  are  placed  in  digestors  containing  a  solu- 
tion of  caustic  soda. 

(d)  Boiling  the  wood  for  four  hours  under  a  pressure 

of  125  pounds. 

(e)  Grinding   between   stones. 

(f)  Repeated  washing  and  sifting. 

(g)  Bleaching  with  chlorate  of  lime  and  washing. 
(h)     Taking  up  mass  by  endless  rolls  of  cloth  and  dry- 
ing it  between  heated  rollers. 

(i)     Reclaiming  caustic  soda  by  boiling  and  melting. 
III.     Sulphite  process. 

Same    as    the    soda    process,    excepting     points     "c,"     "d" 

and  "g." 
The    wood    fibre    is    first    cooked    without    chemicals    and 

then  boiled  for  60  hours  with  calcium  sulphite — a  cheap 

chemical  usually  prepared  at  the  mill  itself. 
No    or   only    little   bleaching    is    required,    the   fibre  being 

free  from  color  when  leaving  the  digestor. 
The  expense  of  manufacture  per  ton  of  sulphite  fibre  is 

said  to  be  as  follows : 

Two  tons  of  spruce $  9.00 

Coal    3.00 

Sulphur    3.30 

Lime  70 

Labor  inclusive  of  office  force 7.00 

Wear  and  tear  2.50 

Total    $25.50 

These  figures  may  seem  to  be  unusually  high. 

The  sulphite  process  offers  the  following  advantages : 

(a)  It  is  cheaper  (no  bleaching,  cheap  chemicals). 

(b)  It  does  not  interfere  with  the  strength  of  the  fibre. 

(c)  It  yields  a  larger  output  of  fibre  per  cord. 
Hence  the  sulphite  process  is  rapidly  superseding 

the  soda  process.    Exception  in  poplar. 


9S  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

IV.     Sulphate  process. 

It  is  adopted  in  mills  originally  arranged  for  caustic  soda 
process.  The  chemical  used  is  sodium  sulphate,  the 
price  of  which  is  only  one-third  that  of  caustic  soda.  It 
is  reclaimed  out  of  its  watery  solution  by  evaporating 
id  melting.  This  process  gives  the  old  soda  mills  a  new 
lease  of  life  which  were  about  to  be  forced  to  the  wall 
by  the  superiority  of  the  sulphite  process. 
V.     Electric  process. 

The  electric  current  is  used  to  obtain  from  an  8%  solu- 
tion of  common  salt  (Na  Ci)  its  composing  parts, 
viz.,  caustic  soda  and  hydrochloric  acid. 

These  substances,  alternatingly  acting  upon  the  wood  pre- 
pared in  the  manner  described  under  II,  a,  b,  and  c,  dis- 
solve the  lignin  and  destroy  the  incrustations  of  the 
fibre,  so  that  pure  cellulose  remains  in  the  digestors. 

Two  digestors  are  used,  connected  with  the  positive  and 
the  negative  electrode  of  the  current  respectively. 

The  process  is  said  to  be  faster  and  cheaper  than  the 
sulphite  process.     No  bleaching  recpiired. 

§  XXXir.      TANNING     MATERIALS    AND    TANNERIES. 

A.  Tanning  materials. 

Tanning  materials  used  in  the  United  State-  were  in  1900: 

Hemlock  bark,  1,170.000  cords. 

Oak,  445,000  coi 

Gambier,  128,000  bales. 

Hemlock  bark  extract,   13,000  barrels. 

Oak  bark  extract,  54.000  barrels. 

Quebracho  bark   extract,   20,000  barrel-. 

Sumac  bark  extract,  8,500  barrels. 

Chemicals,    $2,225,000    worth. 
In    the    sole   leather,    belt    leather    and    harness    leather    industries, 

vegetable  tanning  material  is  still  preferred.     Mineral  or  chem- 
ical  tannage,    however,   has   been    developed   during   the    last   ten 

years    to    a    degree    threatening    to    entirely    supplant    the    old 

methods. 
Since    1900,    extracts    obtained    from    chestnut    wood    have    gained 

both  favor  and  importance. 

B.  Tanbark  in  particular. 

I.     Notes  on  tanbark. 

(a)  The  corky  layers  of  bark  do  not  contain  any  tan- 

nin and  are  usually  shaved  off.  In  Europe, 
young  oak  bark  not  having  any  cork  is  prefer- 
ably used. 

(b)  Fresh    bark    contains    on    an    average    45%    water 

and   shrinks   heavily  during  the   drying  process. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  09 

(c)  While  oak  bark  must   be  peeled  in  spring  imme- 

diately when  the  sap  begins  to  rise  (April-May), 
hemlock  bark  may  be  peeled  at  any  time  from 
May  to   September. 

(d)  Bark  peeling  season  for  oak  is   from  early  April 

to  the  end  of  June.  Trees  in  the  bottoms  peel 
earlier  than  those  higher   up. 

The  bark  on  the  uphill  side  of  a  tree  is  thinner 
than  the  bark  on  the  downhill  side. 

Trees  exposed  to  the  weather,  isolated,  on  unpro- 
tected slopes,  have  short  boles  but  a  heavier 
bark  than  those  growing  under  the  reverse  con- 
ditions. 

Dying  trees  will  not  peel. 
II.     Peeling  process. 

(a)  Girdle  the  tree  about  four  feet  above  the  ground; 

remove  bark  from  stump  and  roots;  fell  the 
tree  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  bole  well 
raised  above  the  ground. 

(b)  Notch  (with  axe)  a  line  along  the  tree  and  rings 

around  the  tree  every  four  feet.  Have  two  men 
with  "spuds"  peel  the  ringed  sections,  and  see 
that  the  pieces  peeled  are  as  wide  as  possible  and, 
as  near  as  possible,  four  feet  long.  Large  pieces 
will  dry  well  and  will  save  expense  in  handling. 
Handling  costs  more  than  peeling. 

(c)  Lean    the    peeled    pieces    against    the    felled    bole, 

preferably  flesh  side  out,  as  high  above  ground 
as  possible,  and  see  that  the  air  circulates  freely 
around  them. 

(d)  See  that  the  bark  is  as  little   shaded  as   possible. 

Peel  before  leaves  are  out.  Never  leave  bark 
to   dry   in   a   moist  gully. 

(e)  Toward   evening,   turn  the   flesh   side  of  the  bark 

toward  the  object  supporting  it  so  as  to  protect 
it  from  dew.  The  expense  of  "curing"  is  so 
high,  however,  and  the  danger  of  spoliation  by 
rain  so  great,  that  bark  is  now  usually  placed 
at  once  "bark  side  out." 

(f)  Pile  the  bark  after  two  to  three  days,  provided  it 

is  not  wetted,  close  to  the  tree  in  loose  piles. 
These  piles  are  left  for  weeks  in  the  woods. 
Bark  is  sure  to  mold  if  a  rainy  season  sets  in. 
Free  access  of  air  greatly  reduces  the  danger  of 
damage. 

(g)  Finally    sled   the   bark,   by   hand    sleds,    cattle   or 

mules,  over  rough  trails  (best  grade  is  about 
20%)  to  the  wagon  roads,  to  be  removed  to 
tannery   or    railroad. 


o  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

III.     Remarks. 

(a)  The    minimum    diameter    of    trees    and    branches 

peeled  depends  on  the  price  of  bark  and  the 
price  of  stumpage.  At  the  present  time,  far 
from  the  tannery,  it  does  not  pay  to  peel  pieces 
of  less  than  10  inches  diameter. 

(b)  The   expense   of  the  harvest  of  oak  bark   is  per 

cord: 

Roads,  45c;   felling,  27c;  peeling,  57c;  piling, 

72c. 
On  the  average  a  man  will  peel  per  hour  from 
0.3  to  0.38  cord. 

(c)  Tannin    percentages    of    dressed    bark    are,    after 

Sargent : 

Mangrove     30    %  Burr  and  red  oak...  4.6% 

Sumac    18    %  Chestnut   6.7% 

Sassafras    root 58    %  Douglas  fir 13.8%  f 

German  oak 14    %  Eastern    hemlock.  ..  .13.1% 

Cal.    Chest,    oak 16.5%  Western   hemlock...  .15.1% 

Live    oak 10.5%  Eastern    spruce 7.2% 

Chestnut  oak 6.2%  German    spruce 8    % 

Spanish    oak 8.6%  German    fir 6    % 

Black   oak 5.9%  Larch    7    %' 

White   oak 6    %  Birch    4    % 

C.     Wood  extracts  in  particular. 

I.  Tannin  extracts  are  manufactured  from  bark,  chestnut 
wood,  quebracho,  mangrove  and  oak.  Quebracho  wood 
contains  24%  of  tannin;  chestnut  wood  14%  (?)  of  tan- 
nin. 
II.  The  wood  is  shredded  in  a  chipper  and  the  tannin  ex- 
tracted (not  entirely)  by  steam  or  hot  water  under 
pressure.     The  liquid  obtained  is  condensed. 

III.  While   in   France   the    sappy  branches    and   young   shoots 

of  chestnut  are  preferred,  in  America  the  heart   wood 
and  especially  the  butt  is  preferred. 

IV.  The  wood  is  cut  4  feet  to  5  feet  long.     The  leather  trust 

uses  a  cord  of  160  cubic  feet  =  iJ4  cords  of  128  cubic 
feet. 
V.     Clear    water,    cheap    transportation    and    cheap    fuel    are 
required  for  successful  manufacture. 
Only     sound     wood     is     used ;     wormholes     in     chestnut, 
however,  do  not  interfere  with  its  value. 
VI.     Extracts    exposed    to   air    or    exposed    to   heat    spoil    rap- 
idly. 
VII.     Extracts    are    shipped    in    barrels    of    56    gallons    capacity 
or  in  tank  cars. 
VIII.     The  price  of  chestnut  extract  is  1V2C  to  2c  per  pound.     At 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  101 

a   price   of   ij^c,   extract   is   cheaper  than   oak  bark  at 
$6  per  cord. 
IX.     One  cord  of  chestnut  wood  yields  500  pounds  of  extract 
containing  about  25%  tannin. 

D.  The  methods  of  tannage  employed  nowadays  are: 

I.  Tanning  by  means  of  aluminum  salts. 

II.  Chamoying  by  means  of  certain  oils  or  acids  of  oils. 

III.  Tanning  by  salts  of  chromium. 

IV.  Vegetable  tanning,  using  the  wood  of  quebracho,  chestnut 

and  oak;  the  bark  of  various  oaks,  hemlock,  spruce, 
douglas  fir,  birch,  larch,  willows;  fruits,  cups  and  galls, 
i.  e.,  divi-divi,  catechu,  myrobalans;  further,  the  leaves 
of  sumac.  Instead  of  using  these  vegetable  matters, 
their  watery  extracts  frequently  are  applied. 

E.  Object  of  tanning. 

Tannage  tends  to  render  the  skin  permanently  supple  and  durable 
by  impregnation  with  tannin.  Aside  of  the  mechanical  imbedding 
of  molecules  by  impregnation,  a  chemical  action  ( fermentation  > 
may  take  place  in  the  case  of  bark  tannage,  due  to  the  presence 
of  microbes  in  the  bark,  chemically  binding  the  tannin  to  the 
albumen  and  gelatine  of  the   skin. 

F.  Criteria  of  a  good  method  of  manufacture  are : 

I.  The  weight  of  the  leather  produced.  Since  leather  is 
sold  by  th,e  pound,  the  tanner  tries  to  press  into  the 
hide  the  maximum  amount  of  tannin,  tannin  being  much 
cheaper  than  hides. 
Beyond  a  certain  point,  this  extravagance  of  impregnation 
fails  to  increase  the  wearing  qualities  of  leather  and  is 
therefore  useless  to  the  buyer. 
II.  The  color  of  the  leather  produced  and  the  adaptability 
of  the  leather  for  coloring. 

III.  The  possibility  of  tannin  being  washed  out  through  wear 

and  tear.  From  chromium  tanned  leather  even  a  boil- 
ing process  will  not  remove  the  tannin. 

IV.  Quickness    in    filling    orders    and    amount    of    capital    re- 

quired. 
V.     Cheapness  of  manufacture.     The  best  leather  is  produced 
slowly  only  by  use  of  materials   rather  poor  in  tannin. 

G.  Statistical  notes. 

I.  One  ton  (2,240  pounds)  of  hemlock  bark  will  tan  300 
pounds  of  sole  leather  or  400  pounds  of  upper  leather; 
4  to  5  pounds  of  good  oak  bark  are  required  to  produce 
1  pound  of  sole  leather. 
One  acre  of  hemlock  wood  is  said  to  yield  about  7  cords 
of  bark,  and  1,500  board  feet  of  timber  are  said  to  carry 
one  cord  of  bark. 
One  acre  of  hardwoods  will  yield  on  the  average  not 
over    one-half    cord    of    chestnut    oak   bark. 


z  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

One  cord  of  chestnut  wood  yields  one  barrel  of  extract. 
II.  The  price  of  bark  at  the  tanneries  ranges  from  $4  to 
$16  per  cord.  The  cord  of  bark  is  not  measured,  but 
is  weighed,  2,240  pounds  being  called  a  cord. 

The  price  of  a  cord  of  chestnut  wood  f.  o.  b.  cars  is 
$2.50  to  $3. 

III.  One  hundred  pounds  of  dry  hides  yield  150  to  185  pounds 

of  leather;  100  pounds  of  green  hides  yield  60  to  80 
pounds.  The  cost  of  the  hide  amounts  to  from  50%  to 
75%  of  the  cost  of  production. 

IV.  The  number  of  tanneries  in  the  United  States  has  greatly 

decreased  from  the  year  1880  (5,628  plants)  to  1900 
(1,306  plants).  The  small  tanneries  using  old  fashioned 
and  wasteful  methods  have  been  killed  by  the  large  and 
intelligently  conducted  modern  plants.  The  leather 
trust  controls  over  100  of  the  largest  plants. 

The  investment  of  capital  has  increased  from  $73,000,000 
in   1880  to  $174,000,000  in   1900. 

The  cost  of  raw  material,  $155,000,000,  and  the  value  of 
the  product,  $204,000,000,  have  remained  almost  unal- 
tered  during   the   same  period. 

V.  "Hides"  are  obtained  from  oxen,  cows  and  horses;  "kips" 

from  yearling  cattle;   "skins"   from  calves,  sheep,  goats 
and  pigs. 
Calf  skin  is  used  for  upper  leathers  of  shoes;  sheep  skin 
for  cheap  shoes,  linings  and  gloves ;   goat  skin   for  fine 
upper  leathers  and  gloves. 
Hides   often   are    split    and   the    so   called    grain   and   flesh 
splits  are  used   in  place  of  goat  and  calf  skin. 
H.     Manufacture. 

The  old  fashioned  methods  used  from  time  immemorial  consisted 
of  rinsing  skins ;  scraping  off  the  flesh ;  treating  the  hair  with 
lime ;  placing  alternating  layers  of  crushed  oak  bark  and  of 
skins  in  rough  vats.  The  time  consumed  in  this  process  of 
manufacture  frequently  exceeded  a  year.  The  best  leather, 
however,  is  produced  in  this  way. 
The  modern  process  in  manufacturing  sole,  belt  and  harness  leather 
is : 

I.  Soak  in  soft  water  (heated  to  less  than  700  F.)  to 
remove  salt  and  blood  and  to  restore  the  original  soft- 
ness and  pliability  of  the  skin. 
II.  Loosen  hair  by  either  liming  green  hide  in  milk  of  lime 
for  three  to  six  days  or  sweating  dry  hides  at  ~o°  in  a 
close  room,  inviting  a  partial  decomposition  of  the  hair 
sheath.  The  sweating  is  preferred  for  acid  hemlock 
tannage. 
III.  Remove  on  the  "beam,"  by  hand  or  machine,  flesh,  hair, 
blood,    lime,    dirt. 


-<#■ 


EST    UTILIZATION  103 


IV.  Prepare  the  liquors  in  the  leech  house  The  liquors 
contain  often  from  5%  to  6^4%  of  tannin  only.  Cold 
water  extracts  only  part  of  the  tannin  from  either  bark 
or  wood.  Very  hot  water  may  extract  all,  extracting 
with  it,  however,  undesirable  coloring  matters  and  kill- 
ing the  fermenting  microbes. 
V.  The  tannage  itself  is  either  "Acid  hemlock  tannage"  or 
"Non-acid  hemlock,  oak  and  union  tannage." 

(a)  Acid  hemlock  tannage  consists  of: 

1.  Coloring  in  a  dilute  solution  of  tannin. 

2.  Placing  skin  for  2  to  4  days  in  a  sulphuric 

bath    (of   10%    to   30%)    by   which  the 
hide    is    swelled    to    a    great    thickness. 

3.  Placing  the  hide  in  a  strong,  concentrated 

solution   of   tannin. 

(b)  Non-acid    hemlock,    oak    and    union    tannage 
(2-3  hemlock,  1-3  oak  bark)  : 

1.  Treat  the  hide,  to  begin  with,  with  very 

weak  solutions  of  tannin. 

2.  Gradually   increase  thereafter  the  concen- 

tration of  the  liquors.     If  a   hide   is   at 

once  hung  in   a  strong  liquor,  its  outer 

layers   only   are   tanned.     The   hide   will 

not  swell,  and  the  inner  layers  will   fail 

to  be  impregnated. 

VI.     The   operations  finishing  the  process  of  manufacture  are: 

Washing;     scouring    off    the    so    called    bloom;     stuffing 

(which   means  bathing  in  grease);   drying;    dampening 

and    rolling   under    pressure ;    redrying ;    glossing   on    a 

brass  bed  by  brass  rollers. 

§  XXXIII.       CHARCOAL   BURNING   IN    CHARCOAL   KILNS. 

Distillation  of  wood. 

Destructive   distillation  of   wood,  under   reduced  admission  of  air, 

yields   chemically  the   following   proportion  of  substances: 
I.     25  %  of  non-condensable  gases,  viz. : 

carbon  monoxide  acetylene 

carbon  dioxide  propene 

marshgas  ethylene 

II.     40%  of  condensable  vapors,   viz.  : 

acetone  formic  acid 

furfurol  butyric  acid 

methyl   alcohol  crotonic  acid 

methylamine  capronic  acid 

acetic  acid  propionic  acid 


104  FOREST    UTILIZATUX 

III. 


10%  of  tarry  liquid,  viz. : 

tar 

cresol 

creosote 

phlorol 

toluol 

naphtalene 

xylol 

pyrene 

cumol 

chrysene 

methol 

paraffin 

25%   of  solid 

residue,   viz. : 

charcoal 

inorganic  salts 

IV. 


B.  The  kiln  process. 

In  the  kiln  process  of  destructive  distillation  of  wood,  all  of  the 

above    substances   are   allowed  to   escape    unused,   excepting   the 

solid  residue. 
Modern   technology  succeeds   in  catching  and   utilizing  several  of 

the  substances  given  under  II  and  III,  as  appears  from  Section 

XXXV. 
Still,    the  large    majority   of  the   charcoal    commercially    used     is 

produced  by  the  old  and  wasteful  charcoal  kiln. 

C.  Characteristic  qualities  of  charcoal. 

I.     Charcoal  has  per  cubic  foot  a  larger  heating  power  than 
wood. 
II.     Owing  to  its  lesser  weight,  it  is  very  cheaply  transported. 
III.     Its  freedom  from  sulphur  and  phosphates  makes  it  valu- 
able for   metallurgic  work    (Swedish  charcoal   iron). 

D.  The  work  at  the  kiln.  "  ' 

I.     For  use  in  kilns,  wood  must  be  thoroughly  seasoned,  free 
from  heavy  knots.     The  billets  must  have  equal  length. 
The   kilns    should   be   charged   with   one   species   and   one 
assortment  of  wood  only  at  a  time. 
II.     The  work  consists  of: 

(a)  Preparation  of  ground  near  water  by  leveling  and 

hoeing  the  soil,  by  removing  roots   and  stones,. 

by  raising  the  center  of  the  circle  to  be  occupied 

by  the  kiln  about   10  inches  over  its  circumfer-; 

ence. 
The  diameter  of  the  circle  is  from  15  feet  to  30 

feet    usually.        The    best    soil    is    loamy    sand, 

which  secures  proper  regulation  of  the  draft. 
The  site  should  be  protected  from  wind.     Twigs 

are  woven  into  a  wind  screen  on  the  windward 

side,  if  necessary. 

(b)  Erecting  the  "chimney"  by  placing  three  or  four 

poles  of  even  height  at  one  foot  distance  from  a 
center  pole,  fastening  them  together  to  the  cen- 
tral pole  by  withes. 
The  chimney  is  cylindrical  if  kiln  is  lighted  from 
above,   pyramidal  if  kiln  is  lighted  from  below. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  105 

The    chimney    is    filled    with    inflammable    sub- 
.     stances     (dried  twigs  etc.). 

(c)  Constructing  the  kiln  proper.^ 

The  kiln  should  have  a  parabolic  form.  It  con- 
sists of  two  or  more  tiers  of  billets  placed 
almost  vertically,  the  bark  turned  outward,  the 
big  end  downward,  the  finest  pieces  near  the 
chimney  and  near  the  circumference,  the  largest 
pieces  half  way  between. 

These  tiers  are  topped  by  a  cap,  consisting  of 
smaller  billets  placed  almost  horizontally.  A 
cylindrical  chimney  extends  through  the  cap 
A  pyramidal  chimney  is  closed  by  the  cap. 

In  the  latter  case  a  lighting  channel  is  left  on 
the  ground  running  radially  on  the  leeward  side 
from  the  bases  of  the  pyramidal  chimney  to  the 
circumference.  This  channel,  too,  like  the 
chimney,  is  filled  with  easily  inflammable  ma- 
terial. 

(d)  Stuffing   all    irregularities,   interstices,   cracks    etc. 

showing  on  the  outside  of  the  kiln  with  small 
kindling. 

(e)  Covering   the   kiln    by   two   draft-proof   layers   so 

as  to  exclude  or  restrict  the  admission  of  air. 

1.  The  green  layer,  }A  to  34  feet  thick,  made 

of  green  branches,  grass,  weeds  and  moss. 

2.  The  earth  layer.  4  inches  to  6  inches  thick, 

consisting  of  wet  loam,  charcoal  dust 
etc. 

If  kiln  is  lighted  from  below,  a  belt  about 
1  foot  high  running  around  the  circum- 
ference on  the  ground  is  left  without 
earth  cover  until  fire  is  well  started. 

The  earth  layer  and  the  green  layer  are 
thoroughly  joined  by  beating  with  a  pad- 
dle. 

In  large  kilns  a  wooden  frame  (the  armor) 
consisting  of  T  sections  is  used  to  pre- 
vent the  cover  from  sliding  down. 

III.  The  kiln  is  lighted  early  in  the  morning  on  a  quiet  day. 

The  cylindrical  chimney  is  stuffed  up  with  wood  from 
above  and  then  closed  on  top  by  heavy  covering  after 
the  fire  is  well  started  in  the  cap. 
The  lighting  channel,   in  the  case   of  a   pyramidal   chim- 
ney, is  similarly  stuffed  and  closed. 

IV.  The  regulation  of  the  fire  and  of  the  draft  are  the  most 

important  functions  of  the  attendant  who  guides  the  fire 


io6 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 


evenly  and  gradually  from  the  cap  down  to  the  bottom. 
The  means  of  guidance  are: 

(a)     To  cluck  draft,  increased  earth  cover. 

To  increase  draft,  holes  of  about  i]/2  inches  diam- 
eter punctured  through  the  cover  with  the  pad- 
dle reversed. 
If  wind   is   strong,  all  holes  are  closed  and  earth 

cover  increased 
Cracks    forming   in    the   cover   must   be   closed   at 

once. 
In  dry  weather  the  kiln  is  continuously  sprinkled. 
The  kiln   may   explode  if  cover  is  too  heavy   and 

draft  too  strong. 
The    color   of   the    smoke    escaping    through     the 
punctures   indicates  the  completion  of  the  char- 
ring process  above  the  holes   (transparent  bluish 
color). 
The    holes    are    then    closed,    and    another    row    of 
punctures    is    made    about    two    feet    below    the 
closed  holes. 
Refilling  is   required   where  dells   are   forming   irregularly, 
while  the  kiln  gradually  collapses  to  half  of  its  original 
volume. 
For  refilling,  the  cover  over  the  dell  is  quickly  removed, 
all   holes   having  been   closed  beforehand,   and   the   dell 
is  rapidly  filled  with  fresh  wood. 
When  the  bottom   holes  show  the  proper  color  of  smoke, 
the  charring  process   is   completed.     All  holes  are  then 
closed   and  the  kiln   is   allowed  to  cool. 
The   duration   of   the   charring  process   is    from   six   days 
to  four  weeks,  according  to  size  of  kiln.     The  contents 
vary   between    four   and    sixty    cords. 
The  kiln  is  gradually,  beginning  at  the  leeward  side,  un- 
covered, and  the  crust  of  earth,  after  hoeing,  is  thrown 
.on  again.     The  earth,  trickling  down,  quenches  the  fire. 
After  another   twelve   to  twenty-four  hours,   preferably 
at    night,   the   coal    is   taken   out    in   patches. 
Water   must   be   ready  at   hand,    since  fire   usually  breaks 
out   when   coal    is    drawn. 

E.  Statistical   note^. 

The  loss  of  weight  in  the  charring  process  is  75  %. 
The  loss  of  volume  is  50  %. 

In  America  charcoal  is  sold  by  the  bushel,  a  bushel  weighing  about 
25  lbs. 

F.  Appendix. 

In    Norway,   Sweden  and   Russia   kilns  of  trapezium   form  are  built 

of  peeled  logs  15  to  30  feet  long. 
The  lighting  channel   runs  lengthwise  on   the   ground. 


\  I. 


VII. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  W7 

The   kiln   is   lighted   at    the   narrow    end   and   covered   with    green 

branches  and  earth  in  the  usual  manner. 
The   side   walls   being   almost  perpendicular,    the   cover   is   held   in 

place  by  slabs  spliced  against  the  walls.    No  refilling  is  required. 
Fire  is  conducted   from  the  top  of  the  kiln  at  the  big  end  toward 

the  bottom  of  the  kiln  at  the  little  end. 
The  process  lasts  six  to  eight  weeks. 
The   billets   are   placed   horizontally,    skidway   fashion,    the    largest 

billets  being  put  in  the  center  and  the  smallest  at  the  head  and 

at  the  foot  of  the  kiln. 


8  XXXIV.       LAMPBLACK    AND    BREWER'S    PITCH,    AND    THEIR    MANUFACTURE. 

The  former  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  patent  leather;    the  latter  for 
pitching  beer  barrels. 

A.  Raw  material  is   spruce  rosin. 

B.  The  process  consists  in  a  combined  melting  and  pressing  of  rosin. 

The  brewer's  pitch  runs  out  through  a  pipe  connecting  the  bases 
of  the  melting  vats  with  a  cooling  vat. 

C.  The   solid    residue   remaining   in   the   vats   is    slowly   burned   in   an 

oven.  The  smoke  passes  through  a  cool  room  and  into  a  smoke 
room,  the  top  opening  of  which  is  covered  by  a  common  bag. 
In  this  room  pine  soot  or  lampblack  is  deposited.  The  draft 
is  regulated  by  the  attendant  according  to  the  shape  or  bulge 
which  the  bag  assumes  under  the  influence  of  the  smoke. 

D.  Some  turpentine  can   be  derived  at  the  same  time  if  the  vats  are 

closed  air  tight  and  if  the  escaping  gases  are  condensed  in  a 
worm. 

8  XXXV.       PYROLIGNEOUS       ACID,       WOOD       (METHYL)       ALCOHOL,       AND      THEIR 

MANUFACTURE. 

A.  Raw  materials  :    These  are,  preferably,  broad  leafed  species— beech, 

birch,  maple— which  must  be  thoroughly  seasoned. 
Heavy  stuff  is  preferable,  it  is  said,  to  small  stuff. 

B.  Distillation:    The  process  consists  in  a  dry  distillation  of  the  wood, 

differing  from  the  charcoal  kiln  process  merely  by  allowing  the 
gases  to  condense. 

The  distillation  takes  place  in  large  horizontal  iron  cylinders, 
usually  about  10  feet  long  by  5  feet  in  diameter,  into  which  the 
wood  is  run  on  steel  trucks.  After  closing  the  cap  of  the  cylin- 
ders (admission  of  air  reduces  the  output  of  pyroligneous  acid) 
the  cylinders  are  slowly  heated  to  a  redhot.  The  gases  forming 
are  led  through  long  worm  pipes  into  a  condenser. 

Not  all  of  the  gases  formed  allow  of  condensation.  The  uncon- 
densable  gases  are  conducted  to  the  fire  room. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  tar  is  forming  and  is  let  out  by  a 
system  of  pipes  into  a  collecting  basin.  Conifers  yield  more 
wood   tar  than  hardwoods. 


108  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

C.  Further   treatment. 

The  gases,  condensed  to  a  liquid  a  large  proportion  of  which  is 
water,  are  then  treated  with  lime.  Lime  neutralizes  the  pyrolig- 
neous  acid,  forming  acetate  of  lime. 

The  liquid  is  then  redistilled,  wood  alcohol  going  over  first,  water 
next.  The  residue  is  boiled  down  in  open  pans  to  the  consist- 
ency of  a  sugar,  the  acetate  of  lime  of  commerce.  From  it  acetic 
acid  and  its  salts  are  derived  in  chemical  works. 

D.  The  output. 

One  hundred  volumes  of  air   dry   wood   furnish   up   to   forty-eight 

volumes   of  pyroligneous  acid. 
One    and    three-quarters    cords    of    beech    yield    2,650    pounds    of 

liquids,  25  gallons  of  tar  and  700  pounds  of  charcoal. 
The  2,650  pounds  of  liquids  furnish  200  pounds  of  acetate  of  lime 

and  9  gallons  of  82%  wood  alcohol. 

E.  Use :     Acetate   of  lime   is   used   by  the   chemical    industry   in   the 

manufacture  of  acetic  acid  and  of  the  salts  of  acetic  acid. 
Wood   alcohol    is   used   largely    in    the    manufacture    of    varnishes, 
dyes,  celluloid  and  especially  for  heating.     It  is  poisonous. 

§  XXXVI.      TRUE    OR    AETHYL    ALCOHOL    AND    ITS     MANUFACTURE. 

A.  Principle   underlying  the  process. 

Wood  boiled  under  pressure  in  the  presence  of  acids  yields  sugar 
(dextrose).  This  sugar,  freed  from  the  acid  admixed,  is  allowed 
to  ferment  under  the  influence  of  yeast  and  changed  into  aethyl 
alcohol. 

B.  Raw  material : 

Cottonwoods,  linden,  yellow  poplar  are  said  to  be  superior  to  the 
heavy  hardwoods  as  well  as  to  conifers.  Possibly  chestnut  wood, 
from  which  the  tannin  is  withdrawn  in  tannin  extract  factories, 
may  answer  as  a  raw  material.  Unless  sawdust  is  available,  the 
wood  is  prepared,  sawed  and  pounded  as  if  it  were  to  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  chemical  fibre. 

C.  Process : 

The  acid  used  doe^  not  enter  into  any  chemical  combination  with 
the  wood.  It  merely  acts  by  its  presence  and  is  said  to  be  most 
efficient  when  in  statu  nascendi.  Sulphuric  acid,  sulphurous 
acid,  hydrochloric  acid  or  a  mixture  of  these  and  similar  acids 
are  used. 

The  temperalure  of  the  lead-coated  vats  containing  acid  and  wood 
is  gradually  raised  to  about  2500  F.  Hydraulic  pressure  is  also 
applied,  either  before  or  after  the  boiling  process.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  partial  conversion  of  cellulose  into  starch  seems  to 
be  due  to  pressure— not  to  boiling.  The  acid  is  then  neutralized 
and  the  temperature  reduced  to  about  850  F.  By  the  addition  of 
j'east  (fed  on  phosphates  of  potash  and  of  ammonia")  a  violent 
fermentation    of   the   sugar    is   started,    ending   within    thirty-six 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  iog 

hours,  when  the  yeast  has  dropped  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vat  while  the  sugar  has  been  converted  into  alcohol. 
The  liquid  is  distilled  and  redistilled,  yielding  alcohol  of  any  de- 
sired concentration. 
The  wood  remaining — only  20%  of  its  weight  seems  convertible  into 
sugar — might  be  used  for  paper  manufacture  or  as  fuel  for  the 
boilers.      Classen   claims,   after   his   methods,    to   obtain    at   least 
30  %   dextrose   from  absolutely   dry  wood. 
D.     Output. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  dry  wood  are  said  to  actually  yield  about 
5  pounds  of  96  %  alcohol.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  far 
from  being  perfect.  A  number  of  chemists,  notably  Classen, 
are  hard  at  work  to  further  improve  and  to  cheapen  the  process. 
Cheap  alcohol — a  fuel,  a  source  of  light  and  a  source  of  tech- 
nical energy — manufactured  from  wood  will  be  a  boon  for 
household,  industries  and  forest. 

§    XXXVII.       ARTIFICIAL    SILK    MADE    FROM    CELLULOSE. 

A.  History. 

Artificial  silk  was  first  prepared  by  Hilaire  de  Chardonet  in  1884. 
Today  many  patents  and  numerous  factories  to  exploit  them 
exist  in  the  old  country. 

B.  Process.  • 
There  are  two  main  processes  in  use,  namely  : 

I.  A  solution  of  nitrocellulose,  a  compound  of  nitric  acid 
and  cellulose  in  ether  or  alcohol,  is  pressed  through 
minute  capillary  pipes,  appearing  in  long,  silky  threads. 
Additional  chemicals  (methods  of  Vivier,  Lehner)  re- 
duce or  entirely  destroy  the  inflammability  of  the 
product. 
II.  Pure  cellulose  is  readily  dissolved  in  a  few  chemicals 
only.notably  in  concentrated  copper  oxide  dissolved  in 
ammonia.  This  solution  forms  a  waxy  mass  which  is 
pressed  through  minute  capillary  openings  and  appears 
in  the  form  of  supple,  long,  silky  threads,  immediately 
entering  a  bath  of  sulphuric  acid.  Here  cellulose  is  set 
free,  now  a  solid  thread,  while  blue  vitriol  and  sul- 
phate of  ammonia  result  at  the  same  time.  The  threads 
are  spun  exactly  like  threads  of  natural  silk. 

C.  Qualities   of  product. 

Artificial  silk  has  an  exquisite  shine  and  is  easily  colored  before 
the  pressing  process.  The  tearing  strength  of  silk  obtained  from 
nitrocellulose,  however,  is  now  only  33%  of  that  of  true  silk, 
its  toughness  only  45%. 

Artificial  silk  is  used  on  a  daily  increasing  scale  in  silk  weavings. 
New  methods  and  modifications  of  manufacture  continuously 
increase  its  chances  as  a   substitute   for  natural   silk. 


no  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

S      XXXVIII.      MANUFACTURE  I  CD    FROM     WOOD. 

A.     Principle. 

Any  wood  heated  to  about  4000  F.  in  the  presence  of  caustic  sub- 

stances  \iclds,   among  many  other  products  of  disintegration,  a 

goodly  percentage  of  oxalic  acid. 
M.     Raw  material. 

Any  wood  finely  ground  or  pulverized,  and  especially  sawdust  and 

mill   refuse,  is  well  adapted  to  the  process — oak  as  well  as  beech, 

pine,   chestnut   etc.     Cottonwood   is   said  to   lie   rather  poor  as  a 

raw    material. 

C.  Process. 

A  mixture  of  caustic  soda,  caustic  potash  ami  sawdust  is  heated, 
under  continuous  stirring,  in  open  pan-  I  '•  ■  foot  deep  and  6  feet 
square)  by  superheated  steam  or  air.  The  temperature  is  grad- 
ually raised  to  4800  (not  over)  F.,  remaining  at  that  figure  for 
about  1^2  hours.  The  melted  mass,  consisting  of  oxalate  of 
sodium  and  of  carbonate  of  potassium,  is  thrown  into  water  and 
allowed  to  cool,  when  the  oxalate  forms  a  dough  of  minute  crys- 
tals. This  dough  is  freed  from  water  by  centrifugal  power,  then 
treated  with  lime  and  thereafter  with  sulphuric  acid,  with  the 
result  that  gypsum  is  precipitated  from  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid. 

D.  Output. 

One  hundred  parts  of.wood  yield  up  to  80  parts  of  oxalic  acid. 
The  cptantity  of  output  depends  on  proper  mixture  v\  caustic  soda 
and  potash,  and  on  proper  regulation  of  the  temperature. 

§  XXXIX.      THE    MAPLE   SUGAK    INDUSTRY. 

In  the  sap  of  all  broad  leafed  species  considerable  quantities  of  sugar 
arc  found.  This  quality  is  commercially  important,  however,  only  in  the 
case  of  hard  maple.  In  1000  there  were  produced  51,000,000  pounds  of 
maple  sugar  and  about  3,000,000  gallons  of  maple  syrup. 

New  York,  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire  lead  this  industry.  Seven- 
teen percent  of  all  granulated  sugar  made  in  the  United  States  is  obtained 
from  the  maple  tree. 

Vermont  protects  its  maple  sugar  industry  from  counterfeits  by  State 
inspection  and  official  stamp. 
A.     Tapping  the 

I.     Time.     End  of  January  and  February  is  best. 

Cold  nights  and  hot  days  necessary  for  best  results. 
II.     A   hole   is   made,    with   an   auger,    T<    inch    to    ?4    inch   in 
diameter,   slightly   slanting  towards   the   entrance,   to   a 
depth  of  2  inches  to  8  in<  int  2  to  3  feet  above 

ground.  Holes  on  north  side  of  tree  said  to  be  most 
productive.  Holes  10  feet  above  ground  do  not  yield 
any  sap. 
TIL  A  wooden  or  galvanized  iron  spout  (3  to  8  inches  long 
with  a  hook  at  the  end  to  suspend  the  bucket)  is  in- 
serted into  the  hole. 
IV.     Buckets    are   emptied   at    least    daily,   as    the   sap    ferments 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  m 

easily.  The  sap,  poured  into  large  tanks  resting  on 
sleds,  is  quickly  taken  to  the  sugar  shed.  Buckets  must 
carefully  be  kept  clean. 
V.  Production  per  tree  is  4  lbs.  of  sugar  per  season.  The  sea- 
son lasts  not  over  a  month.  The  trees  are  not  affected 
by  tapping,  either  in  quality  or  vitality.  A  new  hole  is 
made  every  year. 
B.     Boiling  process. 

Immediately  after  gathering,  the  sap  is  boiled  down  in  open  pans. 
I.     Manufacture  of  sugar. 

Syrup   is   boiled   to   the  consistency   of   wax,   poured   into 
forms  and  stirred  to  prevent  formation  of  large  crystals. 
Crystalization    takes    about    12   hours.      Fifty   quarts   of 
sap  yield  2  lbs.  of  sugar. 
II.     Manufacture  of  syrup. 

The  sap  is  boiled  down  to  a  lesser  consistency  and«at  once 
canned  or  bottled. 

§  XL.      NAVAL    STOKES,    THEIR    PRODUCTION    AND    MANUFACTURE. 

A.  Statistics. 

In  1902  the  United  States  produced  600,000  bbls.  of  turpentine 
worth  $13,200,000;  2,100,000  bbls.  of  rosin  or  colophany  worth 
$4,200,000. 

One  acre  of  orchard  yields  in  three  years'  tapping  25  gallons  of 
spirits  of  turpentine,  worth  $8,  and  800  pounds  of  rosin  worth 
$4,  at  a  labor  expense  and  manufacturing  expense  of  $10.  Thus 
a  profit  of  $2  per  acre  is  left  to  the  owner. 

Orchards  are  leased  actually  at  $1  to  $2  per  acre  for  three  years. 

B.  Methods  of  orcharding. 

I.     Southern  method   (also  Austrian  method). 

(a)  Species  used:    Longleaf  pine  (used  now  down  to 

8  inches  in  diameter);  Cuban  pine;  echinata 
(small  trees  preferred)  ;  after  W.  W.  Ashe, 
also  Taeda;    in  Austria,   Pinus  Austriaca. 

(b)  Operations   of  the  first  season: 

1.  Boxing:  The  tree  is  cut  into,  8  inches 
above  ground,  with  a  narrow,  thin- 
bladed  "boxing  axe."  Usually  two  boxes 
to  a  tree,  on  opposite  sides.  Width  of 
box  is  14  inches;  depth  horizontally  4 
inches,  vertically  7  inches ;  height  of  the 
tip  above  the  lip  about  10  inches.  Box- 
ing takes  place  in  January  and  Feb- 
ruary. 

2.  Cornering:  Immediately  after  boxing 
the  tree  is  "cornered."  Cornering  im- 
plies the  removal  of  two  triangular 
strips    of  bark  and   sapwood   above   the 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 

box,  running  as  high  as  the  tip.  The 
resulting  grooves  act  as  gutters  for  the 
rosin. 

3.  Hacking:    Hacking  or  chipping  begins   in 

early  March  and  is  continued  until 
October.  The  "hack"  is  a  bent-bladed, 
sharp  instrument  which  is  used  obliquely 
across  the  tree,  producing  a  series  of 
V  shaped  grooves  in  the  outer  layers  of 
sapwood  above  the  box  and  the  corners. 
The  points  of  the  Vs  stand  in  a  vertical 
-line  over  the  tip.  The  surface  thus 
scarified  is  called  a  face.  The  chipping 
removes  ]/2  inch  of  sapwood.  The  face 
of  the  first  season  is  from  18  inches  to 
24  inches  high  and  always  remains  as 
wide  as  the  box. 

4.  Collecting:     The   virgin    dip    accumulating 

in     the    box    during    the    first    season    is 
dipped    out    seven    or    eight    times ;    the 
rosin,   hardened  on  the   face,   is  scraped 
off. 
(c)     Operations  of  subsequent  seasons: 

In  the  following  seasons,  the  face  is  gradually  car- 
ried upward  until  the  working  becomes  unprofit- 
able. 
The  output  of  dip,  now  called  yellow  dip,  decreases 
from  year  to  year,  with  the  increase  of  distance 
between  freshly  hacked  face  and  box.    The  scrape 
preponderates  over  the  dip. 
Longleaf  pine  may  be  tapped  for  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  years,  if  intermissions  of  a  few  years  per- 
mit the  trees  to  recuperate. 
II.     French  method  (Hugues  system). 

(a)  Species   used:     Pinus  maritima,   which   grows  on 

the   sand   dunes   fringing  the   western   shore   of 
France,  is  exclusively  treated  to  this  method. 

(b)  Operations : 

w  Remove  the  rough  bark  around  the  tree  to 
prevent  pieces  of  bark  from  falling  onto 
the  face. 

2.  In    early    March    make    a    scar    close    to 

the  ground  4  inches  wide  and  \YA  feet 
high,  removing  2/5  inch  of  sapwood.  The 
instrument  used  is  a  bent-bladed, 
crooked-handled  axe. 

3.  Insert   a   toothed   collar,   made   of   zinc   or 


EST    UTILIZA1  ,,., 

into   an   incision   cut   with   a   sharp 

curved  knife  at  the  bottom  of  the  scar. 

4      Hang  a   glazed   earthen   pot   on  a   nail   ini- 

tely    under    the    lip    of    the    collar. 

Th«  nches 

at  top  and  3  inches  wide  at  1 

I    the    4-im :  Wcck 

rd   until   October,   taking   each  time 

..   . 

final  length  of  the  face  reached  in  a 
mini'  is  up  to  30 

spring 

unwater 
t   than 

- 

■ 
lid,  t' 
III      I  ■ 

02  in  the 

■ 

-  lii^li 
■ 

i.    cut 

■ 

J      ll  lilt' 

the  h 

lit     to 

tilting- 

contrivance.    Th  r  pro 

the  mouth 
. 
in  earthen  cup  of  a  capacity  equal- 
ing tl 

■n  the  side  of  the  upper  gutter  in 

such  a  way  that  inch 

.    and   that   the   nailhole 

le  from  the  spoilt.  The 


ii4  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

nailhole  should  be  two  inches  below  the 
rim  of  the  cup. 
5.     Chipping  as    in   method    I ;     cups   emptied 
from  time  to  time  into  collecting  buckets. 

(c)  Operations  of  subsequent  seasons: 

Next  season,  the  uppermost  chipped  channels  are 
used  for  the  insertion  of  the  gutters.  The  cup 
is  fastened  at  the  upper  end  of  the  face  made  in 
the  previous  year. 

(d)  Equipment: 

Equipment  required  for  10,000  boxes  is :  10,500 
cups  (cost  iJ/ic  each  =  $131.25)  ;  gutter  strips 
made  from  1,886  pounds  of  galvanized  iron, 
29  gauge  (cost  of  materiaf  $103.27;  cutting  and 
shaping  gutters  cost  $4)  ;  10,000  six-penny 
nails  (costing  $1.05)  ;  freight  charges  are  about 
$30;  labor  at  the  trees  requires  an  outlay  of  $80. 

(e)  Results: 

Dr.  Herty  justly  claims  financial  superiority  of  this 
method  over  the  old  Southern  method,  due  to  an 
increased  output  of  turpentine. 
C.     Manufacture  of  naval  stores  from  pine  products. 
I.     From  rosin  of  longleaf  pine  etc. 

(a)  Melting  crude  rosin  in  order  to  separate  from  the 

liquid  constituents  pieces  of  bark,  wood  and  a 
pitchy  residue. 

(b)  Dry  distillation  of  the  latter  in  a  copper  distilling 

apparatus,  heated  usually  from  an  open  fire  be- 
neath the  apparatus;  but  preferably  from  steam 
of  high  temperature. 

(c)  Cooling  of  gases  in  a  worm  and  condenser  where 

there  are  obtained : 

1.  An    upper   layer    of   turpentine     which     is 

redistilled. 

2.  A   middle   layer   of  rosin    (colophany)    of 

a  light  yellow  color,  which  is  sifted  re- 
peatedly  into  different  qualities. 

3.  Water    forming  the  lowest  layer. 

II.     From  roots,  branches  and  stumps  of  pine,  the  stumps  to 
be  dug  out  a  few  years  after  the  trees  are  cut. 

(a)  Cut  the  wood  into  kindling. 

(b)  Fill   it    (from  above)    into  a  gasproof  brick  still- 

room,  15  feet  high  and  6  feet  through,  holding 
from  5  to  6  cords  of  kindling.  The  top  and 
bottom  of  the  still  are  funnel  shaped  and  pro- 
vided with  pipes.  The  still  is  surrounded  by 
the  fire  room. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  115 

(c)  After  closing   the   upper  funnel,   apply  heat   very 

gradually.  Within  24  hours  turpentine  begins 
to  escape  through  the  top  pipe  which  leads 
through  a  worm  into  a  condensed.  When  the 
gases  appear  dense  and  thick,  the  top  pipe  is 
closed  and  the  gases  (now  largely  containing 
pyroligneous  acid)  are  forced  through  the  bot- 
tom pipe  to  be  condensed  in  another  con- 
denser. Light  (at  a  later  stage  dark)  tar  is  let 
out  through  this  same  pipe.  The  fires  are 
checked  when  the  tar  begins  to  flow  freely. 

(d)  The  process  takes,  for  heating.  3  days;    for  cool- 

ing, 8  days.  Charcoal  is  left  in  the  still  room. 
Proper  regulation  of  temperature  is  most  essen- 
tial. 

(e)  One   cord   of  pine   kindling  yields   about  25   gal- 

lons of  tar,  1  to   \y2  gallons  of  machine  oil,  y2 
to    1    gallon    of   turpentine,    some    pyroligneous 
acid  and  l/z  cord  of  charcoal. 
III.     Uses  of  naval  stores: 

(a)  Spirits  of  turpentine  are  used  for  colors,  paints, 

varnishes,  asphalt  laying,  solvent  for  rubber. 

(b)  Colophany  is  used  for  glue  in  paper  manufacture, 

varnishes,  soap  making,  soldering,  manufacture 
of  sealing  wax. 

(c)  Wood  tar  made  of  conifers  is  lighter  than  water 

(owing  to  spirits  of  turpentine  therein  con- 
tained) ;  made  of  broadleafed  is  heavier  than 
water.  It  contains  tolnol,  xylol,  cumol,  naph- 
talin,  paraffin,  phenol,  kreosol,  pyrogalol  and 
many  other  carbohydrates. 

Caustic  soda  causes  the  solution  of  the  aromatic 
alcohols  contained  in  wood  tar.  From  this  solu- 
tion true  creosote  is  derived. 

Dry  distillation  of  wood  tar  yields : 

1.  Light  wood  oil ; 

2.  Heavy  wood  oil ; 

3.  Shoemaker's  pitch,  a  residue. 

D.     Conifers  other  than  pines  are  used  only  to  a  limited  degree  in  the 
manufacture  of  naval  stores. 

(a)  The  larch  yields  the  so-called  Venetian  turpentine, 

which  is  obtained  by  boring  (with  V/2  inch 
auger)  a  deep  hole  into  the  heart  of  the  tree. 
The  hole  is  closed  by  a  plug.  After  a  year  the 
turpentine,  entirely  filling  the  hole,  is  extracted. 

(b)  Spruce  was  tapped  for  turpentine  on  a  large  scale 

in  the  old  country  before  the  orchards  of  the 
South  were  developed.     Only  scrape  is  obtained 


i if)  FOREST    UTILIZATION 

from  long  and  narrow  faces.  The  scar  invites 
red  rot,  badly  checking  the  value  of  the  timber. 
The  output  in  ten  years  is,  per  acre,  73  lbs.  of 
crude  spruce  rosin, 
(c)  Fir  has  rosin  ducts  only  in  the  bark.  Blisters  or 
bubbles  of  the  bark  filled  with  rosin  yield  the  so- 
called  "Canada  balsam"  and  "Strassburg  tur- 
pentine," collected  in  tin  cans.  The  blisters  are 
opened  with  the  rim  of  the  can. 

§  XLI.      VANILLIN. 

Vanillin,  a  substitute  for  vanilla,  which  has  caused  the  price  of  bean 
vanilla  to  decline  rapidly  and  permanently,  is  obtained  from  spruce  (fresh 
cut)  by  removing  the  bark  and  collecting  the  sap  either  with  sponges  or 
,broad-bladed  knives.  The  sap  is  then  boiled,  strained  and  condensed  in 
the  vacuum  pan  to  one-fifth  of  its  former  volume. 

In  the  cooling  room,  crystals  of  coniferine  are  formed  from  the  syrup. 
Coniferine,  when  treated  witli  potassium  bichromate  and  sulphuric  acid, 
is  oxydized  into  vanillin.  The  syrup  obtained  as  a  by-product  is  distilled 
and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  alcoholic  beverages. 

Eighty  gallons  of  sap   yield  one   gallon  of  coniferine. 

§  XLTI.       BEECHNUT    OIL. 

Mast  years  of  beech  occur,  according  to  climate,  every  3  to  8  years. 
The  nuts  are  gradually  dried,  slightly  roasted,  peeled  and  cleaned  of 
shells;  then  either  ground,  applying  moderate  heat,  or  pounded  in  mills 
by  stampers.  The  oil  oozing  out  is  strained  and  placed  in  a  cool  room 
(in  earthenware  vessels),  where  the  clean  oil  forms  a  top  layer  to  be 
poured  off  gradually. 

The  residue  is  pressed  into  cakes  and  used  as  feed  for  stock. 

Two  hundred  pounds  of  dry  beechnuts  yield  5  quarts  of  oil. 


§  XLIII. 


PINE    LEAK    IIAIK. 


Pine  leaf  hair,  or  curled  pine  straw,  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  wool 
and  cotton  in  upholstering,  carpets  etc.     The  stuff  is  mothproof. 

Three  hundred  to  400  pounds  of  needles  yield  100  pounds  of  wool. 

The  price  is  $3  to  $12  a  cwt,  according  to  the  quality. 

A  by-product  is  known  as  pine  needle  extract,  used  by  the  perfumer. 

The  process  of  manufacture  consists  of: 

Drying  the  freshly  cut  needles;  steaming;  fermentation;  crushing 
and  disfibreing  in  pounding  mills;  repeated  washing  of  the  feltlike  mass; 
loosening  on  sets  of  oscillating  sieves;  drying  and  bleaching.  The  product 
has  a  greenish  or  yellowish  color.  It  is  called  "pine  hair"  in  North 
Carolina,  where  the  industry,  now  extinct,  promised  a  successful  career 
twenty  years  ago. 


FOREST    UTILIZATION  117 

§  XLIV.       IMPREGNATION    OF    WOOD. 

Impregnation  tends  to  increase  the  durability  of  wood  by  injecting  an 
antiseptic  liquid  and  may  mean  a  desirable  or  undesirable  change  of  color, 
and  in   some  cases  fireproofing.     Little  is  known  about   the  latter. 
Pour  principles  may  be  applied: 
A      Immersion: 

I.  The  oldest  method  used  was  immersion  in  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  salt.  European  railroads  place  ties  for  eight  days 
in  large  tanks  tilled  with  a  light  solution  of  ■con 
sublimate.  Nio  other  work  required.  The  method  is 
called  "Kyanizing."  Drawbacks  are  that  the  liquid  is 
washed  out  on  wit  ground:  that  spikes  do  not  hold  well 
in  the  timber.     Expense  per  cubic  foot.  6 

1 1      "Metalized"  w 1  is  obtained 

Immerse  the  wo, 1,1  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron:    then 

ir  the  w 1  with  chloride  <>i  calcium.     In  the  outer 

layers  of  the  wood  gypsum   ( Sulphate  ot  lime)   is  formed 
gi  ther  with  chloride  of  iron.     Such  wood  is  impermea- 
ble to  water  and   has  a  metallic   shine. 
B      Boilini 

I.      Boiling  in  salt  water  or  in  a  solution  of  borax  seems  to  be 
a   method   rarely  practiced.      Roiling,  however,   with    ex- 
haust Steam,  when  a  black  juice  i-  forced  OUt  of  )!• 
i>  frequently  -em  abroad. 
In    the    latter   case    the    log   is    practically    -team    dried. 
II      "Franks"  mixture  consists  0195$   liquid  manure  and  5  '  i 
•  lime.     It  is  pumped  into  within  which  the 

w 1   1-  Boiled    for  .?  to  8  day-       The  liquid  enters  to  a 

deptli  of  about  3  inches  and  darken-  the  wood  to  a  ma- 
hogany tint. 
Ill       A    method   called    "-iderizing"   injects   by   a   boiling   process 
lOlution   of   copperas.       The    wood   is   then    dried,   and 
liquid    glass    (a   hoi    solution   of   silicate   of  aluminum) 
smeared  on  the  surface.     By  a  chemical  reaction  silicates 
of  iron  are  formed  in  the  outer  layers,  which  are  insolu- 
ble in  water  and  resist  decomposition.    The  wood  at  the 
same  tune  obtain-  a  beautiful  gloss. 
1       I  -<■  of  hydrostatic  pressure : 

A  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol")  is  used  after 
herie.  It  is  kept  in  a  tank  30  ft.  to  40  ft.  above  ground. 
The  timber  must  be  fresh  cut  with  the  bark  on  and  is  spread 
on  a  rough  log-deck.  At  the  big  end  of  each  stick  a  ring  made 
of  rope  is  held  in  place  by  a  board  or  heading  nailed  to  the  log. 
A  hose  connected  with  the  tank  inject-  the  liquid  into  the  -mall 
cleft  forme. I  between  log  and  heading.  After  a  few  hours,  drops 
of  vitriol  appear  at  the  small  end.  -bowing  that  the  process  is 
complete.  The  pressure  being  slight,  only  the  outer  sappy  layers 
are   impregnated.     This  method   is  largely  used  abroad,  often   in 


FOREST    UTILIZATION 

the  woods  themselves,  for  telegraph  poles  of  A)ine/spruce,  fir  etc. 
Expense  per  cubic  foot,  4c. 

Use  of  steam  pressure  : 

The  wood  is  dried  thoroughly,  then  placed  on  small  steel  cars  run- 
ning into  long  cylinders  or  boilers,  closed  by  a  strong  head.  A 
vacuum  pump  removes  the  sap  water  and  causes  a  vacuum  to 
form  in  the  wood  itself.  Then  an  antiseptic  liquid  is  pressed  into 
the  boilers;    temperature  of  liquid  is  150°  to  2000. 

The  liquids  used  are: 

(a)  Chloride  of  zinc. 

(b)  Creosote  or  rather  cheap  coal  tar  oils. 

(c)  Gases  of  tar  oils   (so  called  thermo-carbolization). 

The  creosoting  method  is  used  for  ties  and  paving  blocks.  Creo- 
soted  timber  holds  nails  well;  creosote  is  not  washed  out  by 
rain ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  darkened  color  of  the  wood  is 
sometimes  objectionable.  It  is  claimed  that  creosoting  in  the 
United  States  has  failed,  probably  because  an  extravagant  amount 
of  the  liquid  has  been  pressed  into  the  timber.  In  Germany  the 
expense  per  tie  is  only  63c  as  against  $1.25  in  the  United  States. 

Results : 

Heart  wood  is  not  as  permeable  and  hence  not  as  impregnable  as  sap 
wood.  Maple,  birch,  beech,  spruce,  sappy  pine  etc.  are  more 
benefited  by  impregnation  than  white  oak,  longleaf  pine  etc. 
Generally  the  duration  of  life  of  impregnated  ties  is  increased 
at  the  following  ratio :  Beech,  400% ;  yellow  pine  and  oak, 
200%  ;  spruce,  50%. 

Obviously,  every  additional  pound  of  preservative  pressed  into  the 
fibre  has  a  lesser  effect  on  the  lastingness  of  the  wood  than  the 
preceding  pound.  For  every  woody  species  the  limit  must  be 
found  at  which  additional  impregnation  proves   unremunerative. 


FOREST  MENSURATION 


By 

C.  A.  SCHENCK,  Ph.D. 

Director  Biltmore  Forest  School,  and  Forester  to 
the  Biltmore  Estate 


MCMV 


THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

*/SEWANEE  TENNESSEE 


PREFACE 


Dear   Readers  : 

In  the  following  pages  an  attempt  is  made  to  treat  ''Forest  Men- 
suration" from  a  scientific-mathematical  standpoint  as  well  as  from 
the  view  point  of  practical  application. 

Naturally,  pamphlets  of  as  restricted  a  character  as  this  treatise  on 
forest  mensuration  address  themselves  to  a  very  restricted  circle  of 
readers ;  and  the  expense  of  printing  is  never  covered  by  the  returns  from 
sales. 

Thus  it  becomes  necessary,  in  order  to  reduce  the  expense  of  pub- 
lication, to  omit  all,  or  practically  all,  lengthy  explanation  of  a  mathe- 
matical nature  which  the  teacher  at  a  forest  school  can  easily  supply 
in  the  course  of  his  lectures. 

The  present  Biltmore  pamphlet  on  Forest  Mensuration  is  intended, 
above  all,  to  assist  the  students  enlisted  at  the  Biltmore  School.  It  con- 
tains the  teacher's  dictation  which  the  students,  in  former  years,  were 
compelled  to  take  down  in  long  or  shorthand,  to  the  annoyance  of  both 
teacher  and  students. 

It  cannot  be  expected  that  a  present-day  lumberman  will  take  a  direct 
and  personal  interest  in  any  of  the  following  paragraphs.  Still,  in  con- 
servative forestry,  in  destructive  forestry,  and  in  any  other  business  en- 
terprise, the  truism  is  worth  remembering  that  "knoivlcdge  is  the  Inst 
of  assets." 

Knowledge  certainly  forms   the  only  unalienable  factor  of  production. 

With  the  advent  of  high  stumpage  prices,  the  owner  of  woodland  will 
be  inclined  to  consider,  under  many  circumstances,  the  advisability  of 
forest-husbandry — an  idea  which  was  as  preposterous  in  past  decades  of 
superabundance  of  timber  as  the  raising  of  beef  cattle,  some  sixty  years 
ago,  in  the  prairies  then  abounding  in  buffalo. 

Financially  considered,  a  proper  outcome  of  forest-husbandry  is  and 
must  be  based  on  a  proper  application  of  the  theories  and  principles 
involved  in  forest  mensuration. 

I  shall  be  deeply  grateful  to  a  kind  reader  who,  discovering  mistakes 
or  incongruities  in  the  following  paragraphs,  will  take  the  trouble  of 
sending  me  a  timely  hint.  Most  truly, 

C.  A.  SCHENCK, 

Director  Biltmore  Forest  School,  and 

Forester  to  the  Biltmore  Estate. 

August   I,   1905. 


LECTURES  ON  FOREST  MENSURATION 


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SYNOPSIS  OF  CONTENTS  BY  PARAGRAPHS. 

I.  Definition  and  subdivision. 

CHAPTER  I.— VOLUME. 

Section  I.— Volume  of  Trees  Cut  Down. 

II.  Units  of  volume. 

III.  Mathematical  form  of  trees. 

IV.  Cylinder 

V.  Apollonian  Paraboloid. 

VI.  Cone. 

VII.  Neill's  paraboloid. 

VIII.  Riecke's,  Huber's  and  Smalian's  formule. 

IX.  Hossf eld's  formule. 

X.  Simony's  formule. 

XI.  Sectional  measurement. 

XII.  Measuring  the  length  of  a  log. 

XIII.  Measuring  the  sectional  area. 

XIV.  Instruments  for  measuring  diameters. 

XV.  Units  of  log  measurement  in  the  United  States. 

XVI.  Board-rules. 

XVII.  Standard-rules. 

XVIII.  Cubic  foot-rules. 

XIX  Equivalents. 

XX.  Xylometric  method. 

XXI.  Hydrostatic  method. 

XXII.  Factors  influencing  the  solid  contents  of  cordvvood. 

XXIII.  Reducing  factors  for  cordwood. 

XXIV.  Local  peculiarities  with  reference  to  stacked  wood. 
XXV.  Bark. 


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Section  II. — Volume  of  Standing  Trees. 

XXVI.  Methods  of  obtaining  the  volume  of  standing  trees. 

XXVII.  Helps  and  hints  to  find  the  volume  of  standing  trees. 

XXVIII.  Scientific  methods  of  ascertaining  the  cubic  contents  of 
standing  trees  by  mere  measurement. 

XXIX.  Form  factor  method. 

XXX.  Kinds  of  form  factors  mathematically. 

XXXI.  Kinds  of  common  form  factors  in  European  practice. 

XXXII.  Means  for  exact  mensuration  of  standing  trees. 

XXXIII.  Measuring  the  height  of  a  standing  tree. 

XXXIV.  Factors  influencing  the  exactness  of  hypsometrical  ob- 

servations. 


vi.  Forest  Mensuration 

Par.  XXXV.  Indirect  mensuration  of  diameter. 

Par.  XXXVI.  Pressler's  telescope. 

Par.  XXXVII.  Auxiliaries  for  calculation. 

Par.  XXXVIII  Tree  volume  tables. 


XXXIX. 


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XL. 

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XLI. 

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XLII. 

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XLIII. 

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XLIV. 

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XLV. 

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XLVI. 

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XLVII. 

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XLVIII. 

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XLIX. 

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LI. 

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LIII. 

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LIV. 

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LV. 

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LVI. 

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LVII. 

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LVIII. 

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LIX. 

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LX. 

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LXI. 

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LXII. 

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LXIII. 

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LXIV. 

Par. 

LXV. 

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LXVI. 

Par. 

LXVII. 

Par. 

LXVIII. 

Section  III. — Volume  of  Forests. 

Synopsis    of   methods    for   ascertaining   the   volume    of 

forests. 
Estimation  of  forest  volume. 
Principles  underlying  the  exact    mensuration  of  forest 

volume. 
Field  work  for  exact  valuation  surveys. 
Basal  assumptions. 
Selection  of  sample  trees. 
Draudt-Urich  method. 
Robert  Hartig  method. 
Average  sample-tree  method. 

Exact  mensuration  without  cutting  sample  trees. 
Combined  measuring  and  estimating. 
Form  factor  method. 
Form  height  method. 
Volume  table  method. 
Yield  table  method. 
Distance  figure. 

Algon's  Universal  Volume  Tables. 
Schenck's  graphic  method. 
Factors  governing  the  selection  of  a  method  of  valuation 

survey 
Factors  influencing  the  selection  of  sample  plots. 
Sir  D.  Brandis  method. 
Pinchot-Graves  method  on  Webb  estate. 
The  gridironing  method. 
Forest  reserve  methods. 
Sample  squares. 
Pisgah  Forest  method  of  1896. 
Pisgah  Forest  method  for  stumpage  sale,  bark  sale  and 

lumbering  operations. 
Henry  Gannett's  method,  adopted  for  the  Xllth  census. 
A  forty  method  used  in  Michigan. 
Dr.  Fernow's  forty  method  used  at  Axton. 


CHAPTER  II.— AGE  OF  TREES  AND  OF  FORESTS. 

Par.  LXIX.     Age  of  trees  cut  down. 

Par.  LXX.     Age  of  standing  trees. 

Par.  LXXI.     Age  of  a  forest. 


Forest  Mensuration 


CHAPTER  III.— INCREMENT  OF  TREES  AND  OF  FORESTS. 

Section  I. —  Increment  op  a  Tree. 

Par.  LXXII.  The  kinds  of  increment. 

Par.         LXXIII.  Height  increment. 

Par.  LXXIV.  The  current  height  increment. 

Par.  LXXV.  The  average  height  increment. 

Par.  LXXVI.  Relative  increment  of  the  height. 

Par.        LXXVII.  Diameter  increment. 

Par.      LXXVIII.  Sectional  area  increment. 

Par.  LXXIX.  Relative  increment  of  diameter  and  of  sectional  area. 

Par.  LXXX.  Volume  increment. 

Par.         LXXXI.  Section  analysis. 

Par.        LXXXII.  Noerdlinger's  paper-weight  method. 

Par       LXXXIII.  Schenck's  graphic  tree  analysis. 

Par.       LXXXIV.  Wagener's  method  and  stump  analysis. 

Par.        LXXXV.  Pressler's  method. 

Par.      LXXX VI.  Breyman's  method. 

Par.     LXXXVII.  Factors  influencing  the  cubic  volume  increment. 

Par.  LXXXVIII.  Volume  increment  percentage  of  standing  trees. 

Par.      LXXXIX.  Interdependence  between  cubic  increment  and  increment 

in  feet  b.  m.,  Doyle. 

Par.  XC.  Construction  of  volume  tables. 

Section  II. —  Increment  of  a  Wood. 

Par.  XCI.  Increment  of  forests. 

Par.  XCII.  Method  of  construction  of  normal  yield  tables. 

Par.  XCIII.  Gathering  data  for  normal  yield  tables. 

Par.  XCIV.  Normal  yield  tables,  their  purpose  and  contents  abroad. 

Par.  XCV.  Retrospective  yield  tables. 

Par.  XCVI.  Yield  tables  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry. 

Par.  XCVII.  The  increment  of  a  woodlot. 

Par.  XCVIII.  Ascertaining  the  increment  of  woodlots  by  sample  trees. 

Par.  XCIX.  Current  increment  ascertained  from  average  increment. 


Par. 
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CHAPTER  IV.— LUMBER. 

C.     Units  of  lumber  measure. 
CI.     Inspection  rules  and  nomenclature. 


Par. 


CHAPTER  V.— STUMP  AGE-VALUES. 
CII.     Stumpage-values. 


t? 


I 


FOREST   MENSURATION 


PARAGRAPH     I. 

DEFINITION    AND    SUBDIVISION. 

Definition :  By  "Forest  Mensuration,"  the  forester  ascertains  the  vol- 
ume, the  age,  the  increment  and  the  stumpage  value  of  trees,  parts  of 
trees  and  aggregates  of  trees.  As  a  branch  of  forestry,  forest  mensura- 
tion may  be  divided  into  the  following  five  parts : 

I.     Determination   of  volume   of  trees   cut   down,   of   standing  trees 
and  of  forests. 
II.     Determination  of  age  of  trees  and  of  forests. 

III.  Determination  of  increment  of  trees  and  of  forests. 

IV.  Determination  of  sawn  lumber. 
V.     Determination  of  stumpage  value. 

Circular  445  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry  defines  mensuration  as  "the 
determination  of  the  present  and  future  product  of  the  forest." 

American  literature  is  found  in  Bulletin  20,  Division  of  Forestry;  Bul- 
letin 36,  Bureau  of  Forestry;  S.  B.  Green,  page  132;  Lumber  &  Log  Book 
and  Lumberman's  Handbook,  edited  by  the  "American  Lumberman." 


CHAPTER  I.— VOLUME. 

SECTION  I.— VOLUME  OF  TREES  CUT  DOWN. 
PARAGRAPH  II. 

UNITS     OF     VOLUME. 

The  volume  of  a  tree  or  of  a  tree  section  is  expressed : 

1.  For   scientific   purposes,   on   the  basis   of  exact  measurements,   in 

cubic  feet  or  cubic  meters. 

2.  For  practical  purposes,  by  estimates  according  to  local  usage,  often 

assisted    by    partial    measurement,    in    local    units     (feet    board 
measure;  standards;  cords;  cubic  feet;  cord  feet;  etc.). 

PARAGRAPH    III. 

MATHEMATICAL     FORM     OF     TREES. 

Trees  do  not  grow,  like  crystals,  according  to  purely  mathematical  laws. 
Tree  growth  is  deeply  influenced  by  individuality,  by  surroundings,  by 
accidental  occurrences,  etc. 

2 


2  Forest  Mensuration 

The  body  of  a  tree,  considered  as  a  conoid  (a  solid  body  formed  by 
the  revolution  of  a  curve  about  an  axis),  is  very  complicated,  being 
formed  by  a  curve  of  high  power.  This  is  the  case  even  in  straight  and 
clear  boled  conifers.  The  tree  bole  shows,  however,  in  certain  sections 
of  its  body  frequently  a  close  resemblance  to  a  truncated  neilloid,  cylinder, 
paraboloid  and  cone. 

The  longitudinal  section  of  conoids  is  outlined  by  a  curve  correspond- 
ing with  the  general  equation 

yj  _  pxn 

in  which  y  is  the  ordinate  (corresponding  with  the  radius  of  the  basal 
area),  x  the  abscissa  (representing  the  height  of  the  conoid),  n  the 
power  of  the  curve;  whilst  p  is  merely  a  constant  factor.  The  volume 
v  of  the  conoid  is  obtained  by  integral  calculus : 

v  =  y2  ™ 

n  +  1 

It  is  equal  to  sectional  area,  s,  times  height,  h,  over  (n  +  i). 

The  truncated  volumes  are  developed  by  deducting  a  small  top  conoid 

from   a    large    total    conoid. 

Sjhj  —  s2h2 

vol.  tronc.= 

n  +  1 

In  the  general   curve  equation 

y2  =  pxn 

we  find  represented: 

A.  For  n  equal   to  o,   the  cylinder ; 

B.  For   n    equal    to    i,    the    Apollonian    paraboloid,    wherein    the    ratio 

between  sectional  area  and  height  is  constant ; 

C.  For  n  equal   to  2,  the  cone,   wherein  the   ratio  between   radius  of 

sectional  area  and  height  is  constant; 

D.  For  n  equal  to  3,  Neill's  paraboloid,  the  truncated  form  of  which 

is  found  at  the  basis  of  our  trees. 

The  top  of  the  tree  resembles  a  cone  or  Neilloid ;  the  main  bole 
resembles  the  cylinder  or  the  Apollonian  paraboloid. 

The  cross  section  (see  Par.  XIII.)  through  a  tree  taken  perpen- 
dicular to  its  axis  shows  a  more  or  less  circular  form.  Near 
sets  of  branches  and  near  the  roots,  however,  the  outline  is 
irregular.  The  center  of  the  circle  usually  fails  to  coincide  with 
the  axis  of  the  tree. 

PARAGRAPH   IV. 

CYLINDER. 

The  cubic  contents  v  of  a  cylinder  are  equal  to  the  height  h  of  the 
cylinder,  multiplied  by  the  sectional  area  J  of  the  cylinder. 

vol.  cylinder  =  h.s 


Forest  Mensuration  3 

PARAGRAPH    V. 

APOLLONIAN    PARABOLOID. 

The  volume  v  of  the  Apollonian  paraboloid  is  equal  to  height  multi- 
plied by  J^  sectional  area,  or  equal  to  V*  of  a  cylinder  having  the  same 
height  and  the  same  basal  area. 

h.s 
vol.  apol.  = 

The  volume  t  of  the  truncated  Apollonian  paraboloid  may  be  ascer- 
tained as : 

A.  Height  of  trunk  times  arithmetical   mean   of  top   sectional   area 

and  base  sectional  area. 

Sj  +  s, 
t.  apol.  =  h 

B.  Height  of  trunk  times  sectional  area  in  the  midst  of  the  trunk. 

t.  apol.  =h.si 


PARAGRAPH   VI. 

CONE. 

The  volume  of  the  ordinary  cone  is  equal  to  height  of  cone  times  1/3 
sectional  area  at  the  base. 

h.s 

vol.  coDe  = 

3 

The  volume   t  of  the  truncated  cone  is   equal   to   1/3  height  of  trunk 
times  sum  total  of  top  sectional  area  Si,  basal  sectional  area  S2,  and  V  si  S2 


h  , 

t.  cone  =  —  (Sj  -\-  s2  -f-  Ks1s2 


PARAGRAPH  VII. 

NEILL's     PARABOLOID. 


The  volume  of  the  Neilloid  equals  *4  ot  its  height  times  sectional  area 
at  the  base. 

h.s 

vol.  neil.  = 

4 

The  volume  of  the  truncated  neilloid  t  equals 

t.  neil.  = — I   st  +s2  -f  f '  sxs2    L^si  +  ^•S2J  ) 

wherein  h   denotes  the  height  of  the  trunk;   sx  and  s2  the  top  sectional 
area  and  the  basal  sectional  area  of  the  trunk. 


4  Forest  Mensuration 

PARAGRAPH  VIII. 
riecke's,  huber's  and  smalian's  formule. 

Formules  of  practical  and  scientific  application,  used  here  and  abroad, 
to  ascertain  the  contents  of  logs,  are  those  published  by  Smalian,  Riecke 
and  Huber. 

Riecke's  formula  holds  good  for  n  equal  to  o,  I  and  2,  and  is  almost 
correct  for  the  neilloid. 

Smalian  over-estimates  and  Huber  under-estimates  the  actual  contents 
of  the  truncated  cone  and  of  the  truncated  neilloid. 

Riecke — Vol.   of  trunk  =  —  (Sj  -f-  4s •  -f  s2) 

Huber— Vol.    of    trunk  =  h.sj  ^l^JL^^J^J^^^tt^    Ot*^*^' 

h 
Smalian — Vol.  of  trunk  =  —  (sx  -f-  s2) 


Si  designates  the  sectional  area  in  the  midst  of  the  trunk,  whilst  Si  and  S2 
represent  basal  sectional  area  and  top  sectional  area. 


PARAGRAPH  IX. 
hossfeld's  formule. 
The  formule  given  by  Hossfeld  is : 

h 
Vol.  of  trunk   =  —  (3  s>  -f  s2) 
4 

It  holds  good  for  cylinder,  cone  and  paraboloid.  Si  designates  the  sec- 
tional area  at  $  of  the  height  of  the  trunk. 

PARAGRAPH    X. 

simony's   formule. 

Simony's  formule  requires  measurements  of  sectional  areas  at  %,  J/2 
and  Y\  of  the  height  of  the  trunk,  thus  avoiding  the  irregularities  caused 
by  the  roots  at  the  base  and  by  the  branches  at  the  top  of  a  tree-trunk. 

h 
Vol.  of  trunk   =  —  (2  sj  —  sj  +  2  sj  ) 

This  formule  holds  good  for  the  four  standard  conoids. 

PARAGRAPH  XI. 

sectional  measurement. 

The  formules  given  in  Paragraphs  III.  to  X.  have,  in  C.  A.  Schenck's 
opinion,  a  historic  interest  only  when  applied  to  whole  trees.  It  is  much 
safer  to  ascertain  the  volume  of  a  tree  bole  by  dissecting  it  into   (imag- 


Forest  Mensuration  5 

inary)  log  sections  of  equal  length,  considering  each  of  such  sections 
as  a  cylinder  or  as  a  truncated  paraboloid.  The  shorter  the  length  of 
the  sections,  the  greater  the  accuracy  of  the  result.  In  scientific  research, 
the  length  of  a  section  varies  from  5  feet  to  10  feet.  Obviously,  at  the 
top  of  the  bole  an  uneven  length  is  left,  which  it  might  be  wise  to  ascer- 
tain as  a  cone  (or  paraboloid — Bulletin  20).  The  volume  of  the  total 
bole,  from  stump  to  tip,  equals,  if  the  length  of  such  full  section  is  "1," 
and  that  of  the  top  cone  is  "b,"  and 

1)  if  sectional  areas  si,  S2,  S3, sn  are  measured  at  the  big  end  of  each 

section : 

1  b.sn 

vol    bole  =  —  (sx  +  2  s2  +  2  s3 +  sn  )  +  -— 

&  3 

2)  if  sectional  areas  Sx,Sn,  Sm, sm  are  measured  in  the  midst  of  each 

full  section,  and  sectional  area  sn  at  the  basis  of  the  top  cone: 

b.Sn 
vol.   bole  =  1  (si  -f-  sn  -+-  Sm -f-  sm)  -f 

The  former  formula  is  based  on  Smalian  and  the  latter  on  Huber. 

In  a  similar  way,  and  with  still  greater  accuracy,  the  more  complicated 
formulas  of  Riecke,  Hossfeld  and  Simony  might  be  adapted  to  sectional 
measurements. 

Remark:  If  the  diameter  in  the  middle  of  a  log  is  larger  than  the 
arithmetical  mean  of  the  end  diameters,  then  the  log  contains  more  vol- 
ume than  the  truncated  cone,  and  vice  versa. 

If  the  sectional  area  at  the  midst  of  the  log  is  larger  than  the  arith- 
metical mean  of  the  end  sectional  areas,  then  the  log  contains  more 
volume  than  the  truncated  paraboloid,  and  vice  versa. 

PARAGRAPH    XII. 

MEASURING    THE    LENGTH    OF    A    LOG. 

The  length  of  a  log  is  measured  with  tape,  stick  or  axe  handle.  In 
American  logging,  logs  are  usually  cut  in  lengths  of  even  feet,  increased 
by  an  addition  of  two  inches  to  six  inches,  which  addition  allows  for 
shrinkage,  for  season  checks,  for  damage  to  the  log  ends  inflicted  by 
snaking  or  driving,  and  for  the  trimming  in  the  saw  mill  required  to 
removed  such  end  defects. 

In  Continental  Europe,  the  standard  log  lengths  are  multiples  of  even 
decimeters.     An  excess-length  of  up  to  eight  inches  is  neglected. 

Crooked  logs  are  made  straight  by  deductions  either  from  the  length 
or  from  the  diameter.  Crooked  trees  should  be  dissected  into  very  short 
logs. 

The  standard  length  of  a  New  England  log  is  13  feet. 

In  the  case  of  big  logs,  great  care  must  be  taken  by  the  sawyers  to 
obtain  end-cuts  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  log. 

The  sum  of  the  lengths  of  logs  cut  from  a  tree  is  termed  "used  length." 
The  total  length  of  that  portion  of  a  bole  which  is  merchantable  under 
given  conditions  is  called  "merchantable  length." 


6  Forest  Mensuration 

PARAGRAPH  XIII. 

MEASURING    THE    SECTIONAL    AREA. 

The  sectional  areas  are  ascertained  with  the  help  of  measuring  tape, 
caliper,  tree  shears,  tree  compasses,  Biltmore  measuring  stick,  etc. 

The  sectional  area  is  thus  derived  from  the  measurement  either  of  the 
diameter  or  of  the  circumference. 

For  exact  scientific  investigations  the  planimeter  or  the  weight  of  an 
even-sized  piece  of  paper  may  be  used. 

It  is  best  to  consider  the  sectional  area  of  a  tree  as  an  ellipse,  the 
surface    of    which    is: 

■K 

surface  =  —  D.d, 

4 

the  big  diameter  D  being  measured  vertically  to  the  small  diameter  d. 

Usually,  however,  the  average  diameter  of  the  tree  at  a  given  point 
is  found  as  the  arithmetical  mean  of  the  big  and  small  diameter  at  that 
point  measured  crosswise  and  not  as  the  square  root  of  the  product  of 
such  diameters.     Since 

D  +  d         , 

—  >^D.d, 

the  average  diameter  is  invariably,  though  slightly,  over-estimated  by 
crosswise  measurement.  Hence  it  is  wise  to  drop,  as  an  arbitrary  offset, 
the  excess  of  fractions  of  inches  over  full  inches. 

The  arithmetical  mean  of  the  sectional  areas  belonging  to  diameters 
measured  crosswise  leads  to  still  greater  mistakes. 

PARAGRAPH  XIV. 

INSTRUMENTS    FOR    MEASURING   DIAMETERS. 

Log  calipers  are  made  of  pyrus  wood  or  of  metal.  American  make 
(Morley  Bros.,  Saginaw,  Mich.)  cost  $4.00  each.  The  moving  leg  of  the 
caliper  is  kept  in  place  by  a  spring  or  a  screw  or  a  wedge. 

The  best  European  makes  are  the  "Friedrich"  and  the  "Heyer  and 
Staudinger."  Wimmenauer's  "addition-caliper"  counts  the  trees  and  adds 
their  sectional  areas  automatically. 

Short  legged  calipers,  named  "Dachshunds"  by  C.  A.  Schenck,  can  be 
used  for  trees  the  radius  of  which  exceeds  the  length  of  the  legs.  The 
diameter  is,  in  that  case,  indirectly  found  by  the  help  of  the  secant  joining 
the  tips  of  the  legs,  which  are  about  5"  long. 

"Tree  compasses,"  opening  from  six  inches  to  thirty-six  inches,  and 
made  of  nickel-plated  steel,  cost  (at  Morley  Bros.)  $7-50.  "Tree  shears" 
(Treffurth)  find  the  angle  formed  by  the  shear-legs  when  pressed  against 
the  tree  and  directly  derive  therefrom  the  diameter  or  the  sectional  area 
of  the  tree. 

The  "diameter  tape"  slung  around  the  tree  usually  yields  too  large  a 
diameter,  since  the  circle  embraces  the  maximum  of  surface  by  the  min- 
imum of  length. 


Forest  Mensuration  7 

The  "Biltmore  Measuring  Stick"  can  be  well  used  in  timber  cruising. 
It  requires  the  exact  adjustment  of  distance  between  eye  and  fist  of  ob- 
server (usually  26  inches),  and  gives  directly  the  diameter  at  the  point 
of  the  stick  where  the  sight  line  passes  the  tree  tangentially.  The  stick 
is  held  horizontally  against  the  tree. 

26-inch  Biltmore  Measuring  Stick. 


Length  on 
the  stick. 

Diameter 
with  bark. 

Contents  of 
butt  log. 

Contents  of 
two  logs. 

Contents  of 
three  logs. 

2.8" 
5-4" 
7-7" 
9.9" 

3" 
6" 

9" 
12" 

Allowing   three   inches   for   bark   and 
three  inches  for  taper,  per  log;     assuming 
that  all  logs  are  14'  long. 

1 1.9" 
13-8" 
156" 
17.3" 

15" 
18" 
21" 
24" 

22  ft.  b.  m. 

56  "       " 
106  "       " 
171   "       " 

29  ft.  b.  m. 

78  "       " 
162  "       " 
277  "       " 

39  ft.  b.  m. 

85  "  " 
1S4  "  " 
333  "       " 

18.9" 
20.4" 
21.9" 
23-3" 

27" 
30" 
33" 
36" 

253  "       " 
350  "       " 
463  "       " 
591   "       " 

424  " 
603  "       " 
813  "       " 
1054  "       " 

530  " 

774  " 
1066  " 
1404  "       " 

Mr.  Snead  recommends  to  measure  the  circumference  outside  the  bark 
at  the  big  end  and  to  divide  the  result  by  4.  He  claims  that  the  quotient 
yields  the  diameter  at  the  small  end  inside  bark  in  such  a  way  as  to  offset 
mistakes  made  by  Doyle,  who  under-estimates  small  logs  and  over-esti- 
mates big  logs.  Snead's  suggestion  is  good,  provided,  that  the  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  log  is  fairly  circular,  and  that  the  difference  between  the  small 
diameter  inside  bark  at  the  small  end  and  the  big  diameter  outside  bark 
at  the  big  end,  amounts  to  about  7  inches. 


Diameter  at  small  end 
inside  bark. 


Contents  of  16  foot  logs,  in  feet  b.m. 


Doyle. 


Snead. 


Actual  saw  cut. 


10  inches. 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 


36' 

I2l' 
256' 
441' 
676' 
96l' 


8i' 
169' 
289' 
441' 
625' 
841' 


70 
157' 
279' 
436' 
628' 
8.56' 


The  multiples  of  sectional  area  (derived  from  the  diameter  in  inches, 
but  expressed  in  square  feet)  by  length  of  log  are  readily  obtained  from 
cylinder  tables  published  by  various  authors.  The  log  scale  or  log  rule 
used  by  the  lumbermen  (Lufkin  rule)  gives  at  a  glance  the  contents  of 
logs  8  to  20  feet  long,  according  to  their  diameter. 


8  Forest  Mensuration 

PARAGRAPH  XV. 

UNITS     OF    LOG     MEASUREMENT    IN     THE     UNITED    STATES. 

The  units  of  log  measurement  used  in  the  United  States  differ  greatly. 
Graves'  Handbook  gives  43  '"rules."  The  rules  can  be  subdivided  into 
three  main  grops : 

Board  feet  group    (Par.   XVI.); 
Standard  log  group    (Par.  XVII.); 
Artificial  cubic  foot  group   (Par.  XVIII.). 

PARAGRAPH  XVI. 

BOARD-RULES. 

A  foot  board  measure  is  a  superficial  foot  one  inch  thick,  in  boards  one 
inch  or  more  in  thickness.  It  is  a  superficial  foot,  irrespective  of  thick- 
ness, in  boards  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness. 

The  "board  rules"  merely  guess  at  the  number  of  feet  board  measure 
obtainable  from  logs  of  a  given  diameter.  The  guess  is  based  upon 
either  graphical  considerations,  circles  of  specified  diameters  being  sub- 
divided into  parallelograms  \~%,  inch  thick  (diagram  method),  or  else 
on  mathematical  considerations,  with  a  view  to  the  fact  that  a  cubic  foot 
of  timber  should  theoretically  yield  12  board  feet  of  lumber,  whilst  the 
actual  loss  for  slab,  saw  kerf,  etc.,  will  reduce  the  output  by  30%  to 
50%.  In  the  Biltmore  band  saw  mill,  by  over  one  thousand  tests,  the 
actual  loss  for  logs  12  inches  to  40  inches  in  diameter  has  been  found  to 
amount  to  30%,  or  close  to  1/3.  Consequently,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
band  saw  obtains  from  a  cubic  foot  of  log  8  board  feet  of  lumber. 

The  number  of  board  feet  which  a  log  actually  yields  depends  on: 

1.  The  actual  cubic  volume  of  a  cylinder  having  the  length  and  small- 
est diameter  inside  bark  of  the  log. 

2.  The  defects  of  the  log  (heart  rot,  wind  shake,  bad  knots,  crooks), 
which  are  usually  eliminated  by  edger  or  trimmer. 

3.  The  gauge  of  the  saw,  on  which  the  saw  kerf  depends.  The  kerf 
of  band  saws  amounts  to  %  inch,  of  circular  saws  to  usually  %  inch,  of 
inserted  tooth  saws  (of  large  diameter)  to  Y$,  inch,  of  resaws  to  1/16 
inch. 

4.  The  exactness  of  the  work,  especially  depending  on  trueness  of  saw, 
proper  lining  of  saw  and  sawyer's  skill ;  further,  on  the  exactness  of  the 
setworks. 

5.  The  thickness  of  boards  obtained ;  the  minimum  width  of  boards 
permitted ;  the  amount  of  lumber  wasted  in  the  slabs ;  shrinkage  in  drying. 

The  following  table  compares  the  contents  of  logs  in  cubic  feet  with 
their  contents  in  feet  board  measure  as  found  by  C.  A.  Schenck  through 
a  thousand  tests  of  actual  yield  in  yellow  poplar,  as  given  by  Doyle's 
rule  and  by  Lumberman's   Favorite   rule. 

The  figures  given  in  columns  c,  f  and  i  show  the  contents  of  a 
log  in  feet  board  measure  after  Schenck's  findings,  Doyle's  and  Favorite 


Forest  Mensuration 


rules.  They  are  converted  into  cubic  feet  (columns  d,  g,  and  j)  by  divid- 
ing by  12.  The  loss  incurred  in  sawing  is  shown  by  percentages  (col- 
umns e,  h,  k)  representing  the  ratio  between  the  actual  cubic  con- 
tents of  a  log  (as  given  in  column  b),  and  the  cubic  contents  of  inch 
boards  (columns  d,  g,  j)  obtained  from  such  log. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  loss  in  the  actual  yield  according  to  Schenck 
forms  a  nearly  constant  proportion  of  the  cubic  contents  of  a  log  in  the 
case  of  all  diameters,  whilst,  according  to  Doyle's  and  Favorite  rules,  the 
figures  of  loss  vary  greatly. 

The  table  refers  to  logs  12'  long  sawed  into  i-inch  boards. 


Diameter 

Contents. 

Schenck. 

Doyle. 

Favorite. 

of 

Cubic 

Log. 

Feet. 

Feet 

Cubic 

Loss 

Feet 

Cubic 

Loss 

Feet 

Cubic 

Loss 

Inches. 

b.  m. 

Feet. 

% 

b.  m. 

Feet. 

% 

b.  m. 

Feet. 

% 

a. 

b. 

c. 

d. 

e. 

f. 

g- 

h. 

i- 

j- 

k. 

8 

4  2 

1 2 

0.9 
1.6 

76 
70 
65 
61 

9 
10 

5 
6 

3 
5 
0 

19 

27 
37 
48 

23 
3-i 
4-0 

1 1 

8 

12 

9 

4 

"78' 

"e>:5 

31 

57 

49 

4.1 

"56' 

13 

11 

0 

96 

8.0 

27 

61 

51 

54 

62 

5-2 

53 

14 

12 

S 

112 

9-3 

27 

75 

6.3 

5i 

74 

6.2 

52 

15 

14 

7 

129 

10.7 

27 

9i 

7.6 

48 

.  90 

7-5 

49 

16 

16 

8 

146 

12.  2 

27 

108 

9.0 

46 

107 

8.9 

46 

17 

18 

9 

162 

13-5 

29 

127 

10.6 

44 

125 

10.4 

45 

18 

21 

2 

180 

15.0 

29 

147 

12.3 

42 

148 

12.3 

42 

19 

23 

6 

197 

16.4 

30 

169 

14. 1 

40 

170 

14.2 

39 

20 

26 

2 

212 

17-7 

32 

192 

16.0 

39 

186 

15-5 

4i 

21 

28 

9 

230 

19.  2 

34 

217 

18. 1 

37 

214 

17.8 

38 

22 

3i 

7 

248 

20.7 

35 

243 

20.3 

36 

243 

20.3 

36 

23 

34 

6 

266 

22.  2 

36 

271 

22.6 

35 

268 

22.3 

36 

24 

37 

7 

298 

24.8 

34 

300 

25.0 

33 

294 

24-5 

35 

25 

40 

9 

33i 

27.6 

32 

33i 

27.6 

32 

326 

27.2 

33 

26 

44 

2 

362 

30.2 

32 

363 

30.3 

3i 

358 

29.8 

33 

27 

47 

7 

394 

32.9 

3i 

397 

33- 1 

30 

390 

32-5 

32 

28 

5i 

3 

422 

35-2 

3i 

432 

36.0 

30 

422 

35-2 

3i 

29 

55 

0 

456 

38.0 

3i 

469 

39- 1 

29 

448 

37-3 

32 

30 

58 

9 

488 

40.7 

31 

507 

42.3 

28 

474 

39-5 

33 

3i 

62 

9 

5i8 

43-2 

3i 

547 

45-6 

27 

509 

42.4 

23 

32 

67 

0 

556 

463 

3i 

588 

49  0 

27 

544 

45-3 

32 

33 

7i 

3 

596 

49-7 

30 

631 

52  .6 

26 

589 

49.1 

3i 

34 

75 

7 

634 

52.8 

30 

675 

56.3 

26 

634 

52.8 

30 

35 

80 

2 

670 

55-8 

30 

721 

60. 1 

25 

662 

55-2 

3i 

36 

84 

8 

710 

59-2 

30 

768 

64.0 

25 

690 

57-5 

32 

37 

89 

6 

755 

62.9 

30 

817 

6S.1 

24 

734 

61.2 

32 

38 

94 

5 

806 

66.7 

29 

867 

72.3 

23 

778 

64.8 

3i 

39 

99 

5 

850 

70.8 

29 

910 

75-8 

24 

824 

68.7 

3i 

40 

104 

7 

901 

75o 

28 

972 

81.0 

23 

870 

72.5 

3i 

From  column  e  it  is  evident  that  the  bandsaw  wastes  close  to  1/3 
of  the  cubic  contents  of  a  cylindrical  log,  or  4'  b.  m.  out  of  every  cubic 
foot. 

Consequently,   from  hardwood  logs   12  feet  to   16  feet  long,   the  band- 


io  Forest  Mensuration 

saw    will    obtain    the    following   actual   number    of    feet    b.    m.    (in    4/4" 
thickness)  : 

D2  X  0.78  X  12  X  8 
(a)  from  12  foot  logs:  ,  almost  equal  to  D2X-5 


144 

Ds  X  0.78  X  14  X  8 

144 

D5  X  0.78  X  16  X  8 

Hence  it  can  be  stated  generally,  for  logs  of  medium  length  "L,"  that 
their   contents    in   band-sawed    inch    lumber   approximate 

D2       L  — 2 

—  X  feet  b.  m. 

10  2 


PARAGRAPH  XVII. 

STANDARD    RULES. 

The  standard  rules  do  not  estimate  the  contents  of  a  log  according  to 
output  in  board  feet,  but  compare  the  log  with  a  local  average  log.  Such 
average  logs  used  to  have,  in  the  Northeast,  formerly,  a  diameter  of 
either  19  inches  (Adirondacks)  or  22  inches  (Saranac  River)  or  24 
inches,  and  were  in  all  cases  13  feet  long. 

The  19  inch  standard  log  rule  is  known  as  Dimick's  rule.  Here  the 
"standard"  or  "market"  is  a  log  13  feet  long  and  19  inches  thick.  On  a 
22  inch  base  it  is  13  feet  long  and  22  inches  thick.  On  a  24  inch  base 
it  is  13  feet  long  and  24  inches  thick. 

The  standard  contents  of  a  given  log  are  found  by  dividing  the  cubic 
volume  of  the  standard  log  into  the  cubic  volume  of  the  given  log. 

d'Xh 

v  (in  standards)  equals: 

H  192  X  13 

Scientifically  and  mathematically  the  standard  rules  are  superior  to 
the  board  rules.  One  market,  at  a  19  inch  base,  is  generally  considered 
equivalent  to  200  board  feet ;  at  a  22  inch  base,  to  250  board  feet ;  at  a 
24  inch  base,  to  300  board  feet. 

It  is  easily  shown  that  the  output  of  small  logs  is  not  as  badly  under- 
estimated, and  the  output  of  big  logs  not  as  badly  over-estimated  on  the 
basis  of  standard  rules,  as  is  the  case  when  Doyle's  rule  alone  is  applied. 


PARAGRAPH    XVIII. 

CUBIC    FOOT-RULES. 

In  a  third  group  of  rules,  a  new  unit,  the  "artificial  cubic  foot,"  is 
introduced.  This  group  of  rules  is  established  by  law  in  Maine  and  New 
Hampshire.     (See  Graves'   Handbook,  page  45.) 


J-xmJ- 


Forest  Mensuration  n 

The  artificial  cubic  foot  corresponds  with  a  log  12  inches  long  and 
16  inches  thick,  which  naturally  contains  1.4  cubic  feet.  The  rule  as- 
sumes that  40/140  or  28.5%  of  a  log  goes  to  waste  in  the  sawing  process 
dust  or  slab. 

To  quickly  transform  artificial  cubic  feet  into  board  feet,  the  laws  pre- 
scribe certain  arbitrary  equivalents,  instead  of  allowing  12  board  feet 
to  equal  one  artificial  cubic  foot  of  timber.  In  New  Hampshire,  10  board 
feet  equal  one  artificial  cubic  foot.  In  Maine,  11.5  board  feet  equal  one 
cubic  foot.  The  rules  might  be  used  in  connection  with  a  cylinder  table, 
deducting  28.5%  from  the  table  data  and  multiplying  the  remainder  by 
10   or  by   11.5. 

Remark  :  According  to  the  Forest  Reserve  Manual,  logs  over  24  feet 
long  are  treated  as  16  foot  logs  and  fractions  thereof. 


PARAGRAPH  XIX. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

One  cubic  meter  equals  35.316  feet  or  1.308  cubic  yards. 

1,000  board  feet  of  sawn  lumber,  1  inch  and  more  thick,  correspond 
with   2.36   cubic    meters   of   sawn    lumber. 

A  product  of  one  cubic  meter  per  hectar  (2^  acres)  equals  a  product 
of  14  cubic  feet  per  acre. 

One  gallon  equals  231  cubic  inches  in  liquid  measure,  or  268.8  cubic 
inches  in  dry  measure   (which  is  also  l/z  peck). 

One  liter  equals  1.0567  quarts;  one  cubic  foot  equals  7.4805  gallons 
or  28.3   liters. 

Logs  yielding  when  split  one  cord  of  wood,  will  yield,  when  sawn: 


For  log  diameter: 

Feet  board  measure: 

20" 
25" 
30" 

35" 
40" 

515' 
566' 
605' 
629' 
649' 

The  Forest  Reserve  Manual  adopts  2  cords  as  equivalent  to  1,000  cubic 
feet  b.  m.,  provided  that  the  wood  is  split  from  timber  10  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  over. 


[2  Forest  Mensuration 

Table  Showing  Relative  Contents  of  Logs  Without  Bark. 


Log  diameter. 


20 


25 


30 


1  cubic  foot  equals  ft.  b.  m.  Doyle 

1  cubic  meter  per  liectar  corre- 
sponds with  ft.  b.m.  Doyle  per 
acre : 

1  cubic  meter  of  log  yields  ft.  b. 
m .  Doyle : 

1000  ft.  b.  m.  Doyle  equal  cubic 
ft: 

1000  ft.  b.  m.  Doyle  equal  cubic 
meters 

Artificial  cubic  feet  per  1  ft.  of  log 

No.  of  legal  N.  H.  feet  b.  m.  per 
1  ft  of  log: 

Ft.  b.  m.  Doyle  per  1  ft.  of  log. .  . 


44. a 

•87.4 


4.12 

57.68 

1455 

242.7 

6.87 
•4 

4- 
2.3 


6.2 

86.8 

218.2 

161. 8 

4-39 
•9 

9- 
7-5 


7-3 

102.2 

258.8 

136.4 

3-86 
1.56 

15-6 
16. 


8.09 

113.26 

285.7 
123.6 

3-5 
2.45 

24-5 
27-5 


8.64 

120.96 

303  -7 


PARAGRAPH    XX. 


XYLOMETRIC    method. 


The  so-called  "physical  methods,"  by  which  the  volume  of  a  (partic- 
ularly irregular)  piece  of  a  tree  may  be  accurately  found,  require  either 
the  submersion  of  the  piece  in  water  (xylometric  method)  or  the  weigh- 
ing of  the  piece  after  finding  its  specific  gravity  (hydrostatic  method, 
§XXL). 

The  xylometric  method  can  be  applied  in  three  ways,  thus : 

a.  Submerge  the  wood  in  a  graded  cylinder  partly  filled  with  water 
and  find  the  water  level  before  and  after  submersion. 

b.  Submerge  the  wood  in  a  barrel  partly  filled  with  water;  dip  out 
the  water  with  a  gallon  measure  until  the  water  is  as  low  as  it  was  before 
submersion.  The  number  of  gallons  dipped  out  equals  the  volume  of 
the  wood  submerged.     One  gallon   equals   231   cubic   inches. 

c.  Place  a  piece  of  wood  in  an  empty  barrel  of  known  contents;  fill 
to  the  rim  with  water  by  the  gallon.  The  difference  between  the  known 
contents  and  the  number  of  gallons  required  gives  the  quantity  of  wood 
in  gallons. 

In  a,  b  and  c  it  is  necessary  to  use  wood  dry  on  the  outside,  to  leave 
the  wood  in  the  water  a  short  time  only,  and  to  stir  it  up  while  in  the 
water   so   as    to   remove   air   bubbles. 


PARAGRAPH  XXI. 

HYDROSTATIC      METHOD. 


The  hydrostatic   method   deals   with   specific   gravities.     Specific  gravity 
is    weight   of   an   object   divided   by   the   weight   of  an   equal   volume   of 


Forest  Mensuration 


13 


water.  In  the  metric  system,  it  equals  weight  in  kilograms  over  cube- 
decimeters  of  volume.  The  specific  gravity  is  found  by  weighing  a  given 
body,  and  then  weighing  it  again  immersed  in  water.  It  equals  weight 
outside  water  over  loss  of  weight  submerged  in  water.  The  division  of 
the  metric  weight  of  a  large  body  by  the  specfic  gravity  of  a  sample  piece 
yields  the  volume  of  the  body  in  cubic  decimeters. 

Since  wood  is  lighter  than  water,  usually,  a  piece  of  lead  must  be 
attached  to  the  wood  in  order  to  submerge  it.  There  must  be  ascer- 
tained: 

1.  The  absolute  weight  of  the  piece  of  lead,  H; 

2.  The  weight  of  the  same  piece  submerged  in  water,  h; 

3.  The  absolute  weight  of  the  wood  and  of  the  lead,  G; 

4.  The  weight  of  wood  and  lead  submerged  in  water,  g. 

The  weight  of  the  wood  alone  is,  consequently,   (G — H). 
The  specific  gravity  of  the  wood  is 

G  — H 


(G- 


h) 


g)-(H 

The  volume,  in  cubic  feet,  of  a  quantity  of  wood  weighing  n  pounds, 
and  having  the  specific  gravity  s,  is 


volume 


63 


16n 

1000s 


The  figure  63  represents  the  weight  in  pounds  of  one  cubic  foot  of 
water. 

The  specific  gravity  of  wood  is  greatest  close  to  the  stump  and  in  the 
branches.  For  some  species  the  outer  layers  show  the  greatest  specific 
gravity;  for  others  the  inner  layers. 


Species. 

Spec,  gravity, 
air  dry. 

Weight  of  lumber  per 
1000  ft.  b.  m.  in  lbs. 

Weight  of  one 
cord  in  lbs. 

White  oak 

Beech 

Hard  maple .... 
Yellow  pine .... 

Spruce 

White  pine 

•75 

.66 
■52 
•45 
•39 

3900 
3692 
3432 
2704 
2340 
2028 

3985 
3767 
35io 
2761 
2391 
2069 

Rules  to  convert  specific  gravity  into  weight  per  1,000  feet  board 
measure  or  into  weight  per  cord  read  as  follows : 

1.  Multiply  specific  gravity  by  5,200.  The  result  is  the  weight  of 
lumber  per  1,000  feet  board  measure  in  pounds. 

2.  Multiply  specific  gravity  by  percentage  of  solid  wood  contained  in 
a  stacked  pile;  then  multiply  the  product  by  8,050.  The  result  gives  the 
weight  per  cord  in  pounds. 


14  Forest  Mensuration 

PARAGRAPH  XXII. 

FACTORS   INFLUENCING   THE   SOLID   CONTENTS   OF   CORDWOOD. 

The  solid  contents  of  wood  stacks  depend  on  the  size  and  the  form  of 
the  pieces  composing  them  and  on  the  method  of  piling.  The  solid  con- 
tents of  a  cord  can  be  found  only  by  the  methods  described  in  Para- 
graphs XX.  and  XXI.  The  European  experiment  stations  have  collected 
data  to  that  end  on  a  very  large  scale,  and  have  established  the  following 
laws : 

a.  The  bigger  the  pieces  of  wood  in  a  stack,  the  larger  are  the  solid 
contents  of  the  stack. 

b.  The  longer  the  pieces  of  wood,  the  smaller  are  the  solid  contents 
of  the  stack. 

c.  Pieces  piled  parallel  and  tightly  greatly  increase  the  solid  contents 
of  the  stack. 

d.  During  the  drying  process,  hardwoods  shrink  approximately  by 
12%,  and  soft  woods  by  9%.  The  shrinkage  is  partly  offset  by  the 
cracking  of  wood. 

These  rules  are  important  in  the  pulp,  tanningwood  and  firewood  trade. 


>/ 


PARAGRAPH  XXIII. 

REDUCING     FACTORS     FOR     CORDWOOD. 


The  countries  using  the  metric  system  pile  wood  in  space  cubic  meters. 
One  space  cubic  meter  equals  .274  cord.  The  pieces  contained  therein 
are  3.28  feet  long.     For  such  conditions  the  following  figures  hold  good : 

a.  First  class  split  wood,  obtained  from  sound  pieces  12  inches  in 
diameter,  contains  per  cord  102.4  cubic  feet  of  solid  wood  (reducing  fac- 
tor 80%). 

b.  Composed  of  inferior  split  wood,  obtained  from  round  pieces  having 
a  diameter  of  6  inches,  a  cord  contains  96  cubic  feet  of  solid  wood  (re- 
ducing  factor  75%). 

c.  In  heavy,  round  branch  wood  (diameters  of  about  6l/2  inches) 
87  cubic  feet  of  solid  wood  are  found  in  a  cord  (reducing  factor  68%). 

d.  In  round  pieces  of  branch  wood,  4  inches  in  diameter,  77  cubic 
feet  are  found  in  a  cord   (reducing  factor  60%). 

e.  In  faggots,  25  to  51  cubic  feet  make  a  cord  (reducing  factor  20% 
to  40%). 

The  percentages  for  broad  leafed  species  are  smaller  than  those  for 
conifers,  owing  to  the  latter's  straight  growth. 

At  Biltmore,  one  cord  of  8  foot  split  oak  contains  about  80  cubic  feet; 
one  cord  of  kindling  finely  split  about  90  cubic  feet;  one  cord  of  blocks 
12  inches  long  about  100  cubic  feet  of  solid  wood. 


Forest  Mensuration  15 

In  the  sale  of  tannin  wood  it  is  well  to  sell  5  foot  sticks  finely  split 
rather  than  heavy  blocks  4  feet  long. 

In  the  sale  of  pulp  wood,  12  foot  sticks  yield  much  higher  returns  than 
4  foot  sticks,  if  sales  are  made  by  the  cord. 


PARAGRAPH    XXIV. 

LOCAL   PECULIARITIES   WITH    REFERENCE   TO   STACKED   WOOD. 

Tannin  and  pulp  wood  industries  sometimes  figure  at  a  cord  containing 
160  stacked  cubic  feet,  equal  to  1%  ordinary  cords  of  128  stacked  cubic 
feet. 

After  Graves  (page  65),  a  cord  of  firewood  is  in  certain  sections  under- 
stood to  be  5  feet  long,  4  feet  high  and  6l/2  feet  wide. 

Under  "a  cord  foot"  is  understood  a  stack  1  foot  by  4  feet  by  4  feet 
(yi   cord   or    16   stacked   cubic    feet). 

Under  "a  cylindrical  foot"  is  understood  a  stacked  cubic  foot  equal 
to  1/128  cord.  The  number  of  such  feet  (a  misnomer  for  stacked  cubic 
feet)    in    a    stick    is 

d*Xl 

144 

(/  equals  length  of  stick  in  feet;  d  equals  its  diameter  in  inches). 

In  New  England,  a  cord  of  pulp  wood  is  sometimes  measured  by 
calipering  the  round  sticks  composing  it,  and  tables  are  constructed  to 
facilitate  calculation.     Proceed  as  follows : 

Ascertain  diameter  of  sticks  in  inches,  square  them  singly,  total  the 
results  and  divide  by  144.  Multiply  the  quotient  by  length  of  sticks  in 
feet  and   divide  by   128. 


PARAGRAPH    XXV. 


Bark  is  usually  sold  and  bought  by  the  cord.  The  tanneries,  however, 
instead  of  measuring  a  cord  of  128  cubic  feet,  apply  the  misnomer  "one 
cord"  to  a  weight  of  2,240  lbs.   (the  long  or  European  ton). 

Twelve  cords  of  bark  fill  one  common   (old)   freight  car. 

A  stack  of  bark  contains  from  30%  to  40%  solid  bark.  The  specific 
gravity  of  fresh  oak  bark  is  0.874;  dried,  it  is  0.764. 

The  bark  of  white  oak  has  been  found   (at  Biltmore),  to  comprise: 
In  trees  20  years  old,  55%  of  the  wood,  or  35%  of  the  whole  bole; 
In  trees  60  years  old,  41%  of  the  wood  or  28%  of  the  whole  bole; 
In  trees  100  years  old,  29%  of  the  wood  or  22%  of  the  whole  bole; 
In  trees  140  years  old,  21%  of  the  wood  or  17%  of  the  whole  bole. 


i6 


Forest  Mensuration 


Chestnut  oak  peeled  at  Biltmore  yields  the  following  results  per  tree, 
arranged  according  to  the  diameter  of  the  trees  4^2  feet  above  ground: 


Diameter  of  tree 

Dry  Bark  in 

Kilogram  =  -j-^  cord,  per  Tree. 

chest  high  in  inches. 

Minimum 

Average. 

Maximum. 

6 

5 

13 

27 

7 

6 

17 

36 

8 

8 

24 

48 

9 

12 

33 

61 

10 

18 

45 

77 

11 

26 

60 

95 

12 

37 

73 

114 

13 

50 

88 

135 

14 

65 

105 

158 

15 

81 

126 

180 

16 

98 

150 

204 

17 

116 

172 

234 

18 

136 

195 

266 

19 

159 

224 

3i4 

20 

181 

250 

365 

21 

205 

275 

22 

230 

305 

23 

265 

336 

24 

275 

375 

If  the  percentage  of  bark  in  a  log  or  tree    (scaled  with  the  bark)    is 
p,  then  the  bark  percentage  in  ratio  to  the  solid  wood  alone  is : 

100  X  p 
100  — p 

According   to   thickness   of  bark   and    diameter   of   logs,   the    following 
percentages  can  be  given  for  the  ratio: 

bark 


bark  plus  timber 


Thickness  of  bark. 

Diameter  with 

bark — inches. 

\" 

1" 

\\" 

2" 

10 

19% 

36% 

51% 

64% 

15 

12% 

24% 

36% 

46% 

20 

9% 

19% 

27% 

36% 

25 

7% 

15% 

22% 

29% 

30 

6% 

12% 

19% 

24% 

Forest  Mensuration 


SECTION  II.— VOLUME  OF  STANDING  TREES. 
PARAGRAPH  XXVI. 

METHODS    OF    OBTAINING    THE    VOLUME    OF    STANDING    TREES. 

The  volume  of  standing  trees  may  be  ascertained 

By  estimating  it   (Far.  XXVII.)  ; 

By  measuring  heights  and  diameters   (Par.  XXVIII.)  ; 
By   the    form    factor   method,    which    combines    estimates    and   meas- 
urements   (Par.   XXIX.   f.f.). 

By  these  means  can  be  obtained  the  volume  of  the  bole  (from  roots  to 
top  bud),  or  the  volume  of  saw  timber  in  any  of  the  43  log  scales,  or 
the  volume  of  firewood  in  cords,  etc.,  or  the  total  volume,  including  brush 
and   roots. 

Under  "used  volume,''  Circular  445  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  For- 
estry understands  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  logs  cut  frem  a  tree;  under 
"merchantable  volume"  the  total  volume  of  that  portion  «f  the  tree  which 
is  merchantable   under  certain   conditions. 

PARAGRAPH  XXVII. 

HELPS    AND    HINTS    TO    FIND    THE    VOLUME    OF    STANDING    TREES. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  cubic  contents,  wood  contents  or  lumber 
contents  of  a  standing  tree.  In  the  case  of  estimates  in  board  feet,  the 
result  depends  on  the  exclusion  or  inclusion  of  crooked  and  defective 
pieces,  on  the  taper  of  the  bole,  on  the  soundness  of  the  heart,  and  on 
the  minimum  diameter  admissible  in  the  top  log.  Compare  end  of  Par- 
agraph   XXXII. 

Most  hazardous  is  the  volume  estimate  of  over-aged  trees,  especially 
in  the  case  of  hardwoods    (chestnut). 

The    following   helps    might    guide    the    novice: 

1.  The  volume  of  a  sound  tree  bole,  in  cubic  meters,  is  equal  to 

1000 
for  example,  diameter  (breast  high)  30  c.  m. ;  contents  0.9  cubic  meters. 

2.  The  contents  of  a  standing  tree,  in  cubic  feet,  are  about 

o 

— D2 
10 

for  example,  diameter   (breast  high),  25  inches;  contents    (from  butt  to 
tip),  125  cubic  feet. 

3.  The  number  of  feet  Doyle  in  a  tall  sound  tree  equal 

3 


D- 


^JjtI^Xjlj^J^ 


1 8  Forest  Mensuration 

for  example,  diameter   (breast  high),  20  inches;  contents  600  feet  board 
measure. 

4.  The  contents  of  a  tree   in   feet   Doyle  approximate,   assuming  that 
the  bole  is  cut  into  16  foot  logs,  and  that  the  tree  tapers  2  inches  per  log : 

NX  D  (D— 12) 

wherein  N  represents  the  number  of  logs  obtainable;  D  the  diameter  of 
the  butt  log  without  bark  at  breast  height. 

5.  The  cordwood  contained  in  a  sound  bole  is : 

D2 


X  C 
1000 


wherein    C   amounts    to : 


1.5  in  the  case  of  trees  8"   through ; 
2.0  in  the  case  of  trees    16"   through; 
2.5   in  the   case  of  trees  24"   through. 


PARAGRAPH  XXVIII. 

SCIENTIFIC    METHODS    OF    ASCERTAINING    THE    CUBIC    CONTENTS    OF    STANDING 
TREES     BY     MERE     MEASUREMENT. 

The  cubic  volume  of  the  bole,  on  the  basis  of  diameter  measurement 
and  height  measurement,  in  the  case  of  a  standing  tree,  may  (with  the 
help  of  climbing  iron,  ladders,  camera  or  instruments  constructed  for 
the  purpose)    be  figured  out: 

1.  According  to  the  formulas  of  Hossfeldt,  Riecke  and  Simony.  In 
this  case,  the  upper  diameters  must  be  measured   indirectly. 

2.  According  to  Huber's  and  Smalian's  formulas,  the  diameters  of 
equal  sections  of  the  trees  being  indirectly  measured. 

3.  According  to  Pressler's  formula,  which  is,  for  the  volume  of  the 
bole  lying  between  chest  height  and  top  bud,  2/3  of  sectional  area  "S" 
at  chest  height  times  "rectified"  height  of  bole.  The  rectified  height  "r" 
is  the  distance  of  chest  height  from  that  point  of  the  tree  bole  which 
has  l/2  of  the  chest  height  diameter  (from  the  "guide  point").  The 
equation  2/3  r  x  S  holds  good  for  paraboloid,  cone  and,  at  a  slight  mis- 
take,  for  the   neilloid. 

The  volume  of  that  part  of  the  tree  bole  which  lies  below  chest  height 
is  ascertained  (as  a  cylinder)  as  being  equal  to  sectional  area  chest  high 
times  4.5. 

Remark:    4.3'   is  the  chest  height   usually   recognized  by  the  authors; 
Pinchot  adopts  4.5'. 
The  Pressler  formula  does  not  hold  good  for  truncated  boles. 


Forest  Mensuration  19 


PARAGRAPH    XXIX. 

FORM    FACTOR    METHOD. 

The  form  factor  or  form  figure  method  relies  on  the  measurement  of 
the  sectional  area — usually  the  one  at  breast  height, — the  measurement 
or  the  estimation  of  the  total  height  and  the  estimation  of  the  form 
figure. 

The  form  factor  is  a  fraction  expressing  the  relation  between  the  actual 
contents  of  a  tree,  in  any  unit,  and  the  ideal  contents  which  a  tree  would 
have  if  it  were  carrying  its  girth  (like  a  cylinder)  up  to  the  top  bud 
undiminished. 

The  form  factor  may  be  given  in  reference  to  the  volume  of  the  entire 
tree,  inclusive  of  branches  in  cubic  feet;  or  in  reference  to  the  volume 
of  the  bole  only;  or  in  reference  to  the  merchantable  part  of  the  bole; 
in  the  latter  case  either  in  feet  board  measure  or  in  standards  or  in  cords. 

Historic  Remarks  :  Some  of  the  older  authors  on  mensuration  saw  in 
the  cone  and  not  in  the  cylinder  the  ideal  form  of  the  tree,  basing  their 

s  X  h 

form  factors  on  the  ideal  volume  — . 


PARAGRAPH   XXX. 

KINDS    OF    FIRM     FACTORS     MATHEMATICALLY. 

Scientifically  we  distinguish  between : 

1.  The  absolute  form  factors  which  have  reference  only  to  the  volume 
standing  above  chest  height.  They  can  be  readily  ascertained  with  the 
help    of    Pressler's    formula.     Generally    speaking,    V    equals    Sx  H  x  F. 

After  Pressler,  V  equals  S  x  2/3  x  r;   thus  \~  equals  F. 

H 
For  the  cone  the  absolute  form  factor  is  one-third ;  for  the  neilloid 
one-fourth ;  for  the  paraboloid  one-half,  whatever  the  height  of  the  tree 
may  be.  Hans  Rienicker,  the  author  of  these  form  factors,  finds  for 
trees  up  to  50  years  old  a  form  figure  of  35%  to  43%  (in  regular,  dense 
German  woods);  in  trees  50  to  100  years  old,  F  increases  up  to  50%; 
thereafter  occurs  a  slight  decrease  below  50%. 

2.  The  normal  form  factors  which  were  recommended  by  Smalian, 
Pressler  and  other  old-time  authors.  They  have  reference  to  the  entire 
volume  and  necessitate  the  measurement  of  the  diameter  at  a  given  frac- 
tion (usually  1/20)  of  the  total  height  of  the  tree.  Frequently,  in  case 
of  tall  trees,  the  point  of  measurement  cannot  be  reached  from  the  ground. 
The  bole  form  factor  for  diameters  measured  at  1/20  of  the  height  is : 
For  a  paraboloid,  0.526;  for  a  cone,  0.369;  for  a  neilloid,  0.292.  These 
form  factors,  like  the  absolute  form  factors,  are  independent  of  the  height. 

3.  The  so-called  "common  form  factors"  which  do  not  express,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  form  of  the  tree,  since  they  do  not  bear  any  direct 
ratio   to   the   degree   of  the   tree   curve.     They   should   be   termed,   more 


20 


Forest  Mensuration 


properly,  "reducing  factors."  These  form  factors  alone  are  nowadays 
practically  used.  They  are  based  on  diameter  measurements,  chest  high, 
and  have  reference  not  merely  to  the  bole  of  the  tree,  but  as  well  to  any 
parts  of  the  bole,  to  root  and  branch  wood,  to  saw  logs,  etc.  These  form 
factors  depend  entirely  on  the  height.  If,  for  instance,  a  paraboloid  is 
one  rod  high,  the  form  factor  is  0.673;  and  if  it  is  8  rods  high,  the  form 
factor  is  0.517. 


PARAGRAPH    XXXI. 

KINDS    OF    COMMON    FORM    FACTORS    IN    EUROPEAN     PRACTICE. 

The  following  kinds  of  form  factors  may  be  distinguished: 

1.  Tree  form  factors.     The  tree  is  considered  as  bole  plus  branches. 

2.  Timber  form  factors.  The  term  timber,  in  Europe,  includes  all 
parts  of  the  tree  having  over  3  inches  diameter  at  the  small  end. 

3.  Bole  form  factors.  Bole  is  the  central  stem  from  soil  to  top  bud. 
For  America,  form  factors  would  be  of  great  value  ascertained  by  exact 
measurements  and  arranged  according  to  diameter,  height  and  smallest 
log  diameter  used. 

Tables  of  form  factors  may  be  constructed,  for  instance,  for  shortleaf 
pine,  on  the  basis  of  Olmsted's  working  plan,  pages   17-33- 

PlNUS   ECHINATA. 


Diameter. 

Merchantable  length 

Cubic  feet 

Form  fig. 

Contents 

of  bole. 

Ideal  cylinder. 

b.  m.  Doyle. 

16" 

36' 

50.3 

3-6 

180 

18" 

47' 

83.1 

3 

6 

300 

20" 

5i' 

112. 1 

4 

0 

440 

22" 

56' 

147.8 

4 

0 

600 

24" 

59' 

185.3 

4 

2 

780 

26" 

61' 

224.9 

4 

4 

980 

28" 

62' 

263.1 

4 

5 

1 190 

30" 

62'  6" 

306.7 

4 

6 

1420 

32" 

63' 

351-8 

4 

7 

1680 

34" 

63'  6" 

400.3 

4 

8 

1930 

36" 

64' 

457-3 

4-9 

2200' 

The  influence  of  age,  soil,  density  of  stand,  height,  diameter  and 
species  on  the  various  form  factors,  with  cubic  measure  as  a  basis,  has 
not  been  fully  ascertained. 

For  the  tree  form  factor,  the  most  important  influence,  in  the  case  of 
trees  less  than  150  years  old  and  raised  in  a  close  stand,  seems  to  be 
that  of  the  height  of  the  tree ;  with  increasing  height  the  tree  form  factor 
decreases — e.  g.,  for  Yellow  Pine: 

One  pole  high    93 

Two  poles  high    65 

Four  poles   high 53 

Six    poles    high    49 


Forest  Mensuration  21 

The  timber  form  factor,  based  on  cubic  measure  of  a  tree,  rises  with 
increasing  age  and  increasing  height  up  to  a  certain  point  (for  Yellow 
Pine  at  3  poles),  provided  that  the  term  timber  includes  all  stuff  over 
3  inches  in  diameter.  The  timber  form  factor  is  a  function  more  of 
the  diameter  than  of  the  height.  Timber  form  factors  of  Yellow  Pine 
are: 

Trees    1   pole   high    07 

Trees   2   poles  high   36 

Trees  3  poles  high  48 

Trees  4  poles  high  46 

Trees  7  poles  high   45 

The  timber  form  factor  in  shade  bearers  is  a  little  higher  than  that 
in  light  demanders  (within  an  age  limit  of  150  years,  for  trees  in  close 
stand). 

The  bole  form  factor  can  be  found,  in  fact,  only  for  species  forming 
a  straight  bole  free  from  large  branches  (hence  especially  for  conifers). 
The  bole  form  factors,  to  begin  with,  are  large;  with  increasing  height, 
they  decrease  gradually  to  a  par  with  the  timber  form  factors — c.  g.,  for 
Yellow   Pine: 

1  pole   high 70  3  poles  high 49 

2  poles    high 55  4  poles  high 47 

7  poles  high 45 

European  common  form  factors  are  collected  by  thousands  of  measure-  -^ 
ments  taken  in  a  large  variety  of  localities.     It  must  be  remembered  that 
a  form  factor  read  from  a  table  is  never  applicable  to  an  individual  tree, 
and  is  only  applicable  to  an  average  tree  amongst  thousands. 

For  trees  less  than  120  years  old,  the  branch  wood  (stuff  less  than  35; 
inches  in  diameter)  comprises  from  15%  to  28%  of  the  entire  tree  vol- 
ume; this  figure,  in  the  case  of  broadleaved  species,  rises  from  25%  up.  ^ 
to  33%.  For  trees  as  now  logged  in  America,  the  branchwood  percentage^, — 
is    naturally    very    much    smaller. 

The    tree    form    factor    equals  stump  plus  bole  plus  branches 

ideal  cylinder 

The  timber   form  factor  equals  all  stuff  having  over  3"  diameter 

ideal  cylinder 

The  bole  form  factor  equals  bole  from  ground  to  tip 

ideal  cylinder  ^~ 

By  form  height  is  meant  the  product  of  height  (total  height  of  tree) 
times  form  factor,  or  else  that  much  of  the  height  of  the  ideal  cylinder 
which  the  tree  volume,  poured  into  the  ideal  cylinder,  would  fill.  Since 
the  form  factor  on  the  whole  decreases  with  increasing  height,  the  form 
height  is  a  fairly  constant  quantity;  at  least  for  trees  of  merchantable 
size.  Hence  the  helps  and  hints  given  in  Paragraph  XXVII  (to  quickly 
find  the  volume  of  standing  trees  from  mere  diameter-measurement)  may 


22  Forest  Mensuration 

lay  claim   to  correctness   in   many  cases.     For   instance :   The   cubic   con- 
tents of  a  tree  are  supposed  to  be  equal  to 


After  Paragraph  XXVII 


T> 

D2  X  H  X  F 

144 

•11 

•>    2, 

these  contents  are 

o 

-X  D2 

10 

I)- 

5 

"   = 

D2  X  78  X  H  X 

F 

H  X 

288 
F  =  =37 

7.8 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  form  height  of  trees  I  foot  to  2  feet  in  diam- 
eter is  close  to  37.     And  for  such  trees  the  equation  holds  good. 

The  form  height  may  also  be  defined  as  "volume  (standards,  cords, 
bark,  etc.)   per  square  foot  of  sectional  area  chest-high." 

PARAGRAPH   XXXII. 

MEANS    FOR    EXACT    MENSURATION    OF    STANDING    TREES. 

The  means  used  to  find  the  exact  solid  volume  of  standing  trees  are 
instruments  for  measuring  the  total  height  of  the  merchantable  length 
of  a  tree;  instruments  for  measuring  the  diameter  at  given  heights;  fur- 
ther tables  based  on  scientific  research  and  experience,  or  tables  merely 
meant  to  facilitate  calculation.  Instruments  for  measuring  diameters  far 
above  ground  are  needed  for  the  use  of  the  formulas  given  by  Riecke, 
Hossfeldt,   Pressler,  etc. 

The  six  paragraphs  following  next  dwell  upon  these  topics. 

PARAGRAPH    XXXIII. 

MEASURING    THE    HEIGHT    OF    A    STANDING    TREE. 

The  height  of  a  tree  can  be  measured  by  comparing  its  shadow  with 
the  shadow  of  a  stick,  say  io  feet  long.  The  "Lumber  and  Log  Book" 
gives  another  old  method  (page  133)  of  height  measurement.  If  the 
observer  places  himself  in  such  a  way  that  a  small  pole  stands  between 
him  and  the  tree  at  a  distance  e,  and  if  he  marks  on  the  pole  two  points 
where  his  sight,  directed  towards  the  top  and  base  of  the  tree,  touches 
the  small  pole,  and  if  he  further  ascertains  the  distance  E  separating  him 
from  the  tree,  then  the  height  of  the  tree  H  equals 

E 

—  X   h 

e 

wherein  h  represents  the  number  of  feet  between  the  two  points  marked 
on  the  pole. 


Forest  Mensuration  23 

Instruments    (hypsometers)    for    height    measuring    are    sold    in   many     7* 
forms.     The  following  are  frequently  used :  Rudnicka's  instrument ;  Press->/ 
ler's  "Measuring  Jack ;"  Faustmann's  "Mirror  Hypsometer;"  Weise's  Tel- 
escope;  Koenig's  "Measuring  Board;"   Brandis'   "Clinometer;"  Klausner's       . 
instrument;    Christen's    "Non   plus    ultra?'  ~*Vv> -"""V 

Compare  Woodman's  Handbook,  pages  136  to  137,  for  staff  method; 
page  138  for  Faustmann's;  page  140  for  tangential  clinometer;  page  143 
for  mirror  clinometer. 

Christen's  stick  is  not  accurate  enough  for  the  measurement  of  trees 
over  100  feet  high.  It  does  not  require  the  measurement  of  distances.  Its 
form  is  improved  by  Pinchot. 


PARAGRAPH  XXXIV. 

FACTORS     INFLUENCING     THE    EXACTNESS     OF     HYPSOMETRICAL     OBSERVATIONS. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  if  the  distance  between  tree  and  observer 
equals  the  height  to  be  measured.  In  sighting  towards  the  spreading  top 
of  a  hardwood  tree,  the  observer  is  apt  to  overrate  the  height,  the  tip 
being  buried  in  the  spreading  crown.  The  line  of  sight  strikes  the  edge 
of  the  crown  instead  of  striking  the  apex  of  the  crown. 

Timber  cruisers  are  usually  satisfied  to  determine  the  number  of  logs 
obtainable  from  the  bole  instead  of  determining  the  length  of  the  bole. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  where  the  tree  furnishes  saw  logs  only,  the  total 
height  of  the  tree  is  a  less  reliable  indicator  of  the  total  contents  than 
the  length  of  the  merchantable  bole. 

Instruments  like  Faustmann's,  Koenig's  and  Pressler's  cannot  be  used 
in  windy  and  rainy  weather.  Dense  undergrowth  and  dense  cover  over- 
head render  exact  measurement  impossible. 

PARAGRAPH  XXXV. 

INDIRECT   MENSURATION   OF  DIAMETERS. 

The  following  instruments  are  used  to  measure  the  diameter  of  the  tree 
at  any  point  of  bole : 

a.  Winkler,  an  addition  to  Koenig's  measuring  board. 

b.  Klausner. 

c.  An  ordinary  transit. 

d.  Wimmenauer's  telescope. 

PARAGRAPH    XXXVI. 

pressler's  telescope. 

Pressler's  telescope  is  used  to  find  the  "guidepoint"  and  the  "rectified 
height,"  as  defined  in  Paragraph  XXVIII.,  3.  The  diameter  chest-high 
is  taken  between  the  nails  at  the  end  of  the  instrument.  Then  the  tele- 
scope is  pulled  out  to  a  length  double  the  original,  divided  by  the  cosin 


24  Forest  Mensuration 

of  the  angle  found  between  the  horizon  and  the  probable  sight  to  the 
"guidepoint"  (at  which  the  observer  expects  to  find  one-half  the  diameter 
chest-high).  Thus,  actually,  the  instrument  merely  examines  the  correct- 
ness of  an  original  estimate. 

The  Pressler  telescope  can  be  used  for  finding  the  merchantable  length 
of  any  bole.  Merely  place  a  stick,  equal  in  length  to  twice  the  minimum 
diameter  permissible  in  a  merchantable  log,  at  the  foot  of  the  tree,  catch 
it  between  the  nail  points  and  proceed  as  described. 

PARAGRAPH  XXXVII. 

AUXILIARIES    FOR   CALCULATION. 

Auxiliaries   for  calculation  are : 

i.  Sectional  area  tables  (Schlich,  Vol.  III.)  ;  engineering  books  like 
Haswell's;  Bulletin  20;  also  Green.) 

2.  Ideal  cylinder  tables    (Schlich  and  Bulletin  20). 

3.  Multiplication  tables   and  logarithm-tables. 

4.  Tables  showing  contents  of  logs  in  any  of  the  43  rules,  according 
to  length  and  diameter. 

PARAGRAPH  XXXVIII. 

TREE    VOLUME-TABLES. 

Tree  volume  tables  have  been  constructed  on  a  very  large  scale  for  the 
leading  species  in  the  old  country.  In  the  United  States,  the  Government 
is  now  beginning  to  make  such  tables.  The  tables  give  the  cubic,  lumber 
and  cord  wood  contents  of  trees,  according  to  species,  diameter  and  some- 
times according  to  total  height  and  merchantable  height  (number  of  logs). 

Bulletin  36  reprints  the  following  tree  volume  tables: 

A.    According  to  diameter  measure  merely. 

Page  92.     Adirondack  White   Pine,  volume  in  standards. 

Page  94.     Pennsylvania  Hemlock,  volume  in  feet,  b.   m.,   Scribner. 

Page  94.     Adirondack  Hemlock,  in  standards. 

Page  95.     Adirondack   Spruce   in   standards. 

Page  96.  Adirondack  Birch,  Beech,  Linden,  Sugar  Maple  in  Scribner, 
feet,   b.   m. 

Page  96.     Adirondack  Balsam,  in  standards. 

Page  97.     Adirondack  White  Cedar,  in  standards. 

Page  98.     Arkansas  Shortleaf  Pine,  in  feet,  b.  m.,  Doyle. 

Page  98.  Missouri  Ash,  Elm,  Maple,  Cypress,  Gum,  Oak,  Hickory, 
Poplar,  in  feet,  b.  m.,  Doyle. 

Page  99.  Western  Yellow  Pine,  in  feet,  b.  m.,  Doyle  (Black  Hills),  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  volume  of  first  and  second  growth. 

Page  99.  Yellow  Poplar  in  Pisgah  Forest  in  feet,  b.  m.,  Doyle,  distin- 
guishing between  good,  average  and  poor  conditions  of 
growth. 


Forest  Mensuration  25 

All  tables,  except  Yellow  Poplar  tables,  are  based  on  the  measurement 
of  a  large  number  of  trees.  The  Yellow  Poplar  tables  are  based  on  stem 
analyses  of  a  small  number  of  trees. 

B.     According  to  measurement  of  height  and  diameter  combined. 

Page    93.     Wisconsin  White  Pine   (height  expressed  by  the  number  of 

logs  obtainable  from  merchantable  bole)  in  feet,  b.  m.,  Doyle. 
Page  103.     Adirondack   Spruce  expressed  in   feet,  b.   m.,   Scribner,  the 

total  height  of  trees  being  measured. 
Page  104.     The  same  in  cubic  feet. 
Page  105.     The  same  in  cords  for  pulp  wood. 
Page  106.     New  Hampshire  Spruce  in  feet,  b.  m.,  in  New  Hampshire 

cubic  feet  sanctioned  by  law. 
Pages   108  and   III.     Adirondack  White   Pine  with  bark,  expressed  in 

cubic  feet. 
Page  no.     Adirondack  White   Pine  in  feet,  b.   m.,   Doyle. 

Monographic  investigation  into  the  growth  of  the  leading  American  spe- 
cies is  of  great  importance.  The  trees  of  virgin  forests  are  very  defective, 
however,  and  tree  tables  can  never  be  constructed  giving  the  contents  of 
defective  trees. 


SECTION  III.— VOLUME  OF  FORESTS. 
PARAGRAPH  XXXIX. 

SYNOPSIS    OF    METHODS    FOR   ASCERTAINING    THE    VOLUME    OF    FORESTS. 

The  methods  used  to  find  the  volumes  of  entire  forests,  of  forest  com- 
partments, tracts,  quarter  sections,  coves,  etc.,  are : 

1.  Estimating   (Par.  XL.). 

2.  Exact  calculation  after  measurements   (Par.  XLL,  f.  f.). 

3.  Combined  measuring  and  estimating    (Par.   IL.,   f.   f.). 

Obviously,  measuring  without  estimation  is  possible  only  in  forests  con- 
taining little  unsound  timber. 

PARAGRAPH   XL. 

ESTIMATION    OF    FOREST    VOLUME. 

In  primeval  woods,  where  a  few  assortments  only  are  salable  and  where 
stumpage  is  cheap,  the  estimation  of  stumpage  necessarily  takes  the  place 
of  the  measurement.  If  any  measurements  are  taken,  they  are  merely 
meant  to  back  the  estimation  of  the  cruiser.  The  more  defective  the  trees 
are,  the  more  preferable  is  judgment  and  local  long  experience  in  the  mill 
and  in  the  woods  on  the  side  of  the  cruiser  to  mere  measuring. 


26  Forest  Mensuration 

The  volume  of  a  wood  is  ascertained  by  cruisers'  estimates  in  the  fol- 
lowing ways : 

a.  By  estimating  the  number  of  trees  and  the  volume  of  the  average 

tree  with  due  allowance  for  defects. 

b.  By  counting  the  trees  and  estimating  the  volume  of  average  trees 

with  allowance  for  defects. 

c.  By  estimating  the  volume  of  each  tree  separately,  sounding  it  with 

an   axe,   when   necessary,   and  judging   its   soundness   from   all 
sides. 

The  above  methods  {a,  b,  c)  are  applied  either  to  sample  plots  or  to 
sample  strips  or  to  the  entire  area. 

A  blazing  hammer  is  often  used  to  prevent  duplication;  the  revolving 
numbering  hammer  might  be  used  in  case  of  scattering  trees,  so  as  to 
allow  of  control  of  the  estimates  by  the  owner,  his  forester  or  the  pros- 
pective purchaser  of  stumpage. 

In  irregular  forests— hardwood  forests  of  the  United  States— the  only 
safe  way  is  separate  estimating  of  each  individual  tree  after  careful  in- 
specting.    Incredible  errors  result  from  wholesale  and  rapid  estimates. 

In  the  case  of  even  aged  woods,  a  look  at  the  height  growth  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  age  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  forest's  volume.  Under 
very  poor  conditions  of  growth,  the  annual  timber  production  per  acre 
and  year  is  as  little  as  15  cubic  feet;  under  the  best  conditions  it  is  as 
much  as  250  cubic  feet  per  acre  and  year.  On  an  average  (on  absolute 
forest  soil),  50  cubic  feet  per  acre  and  year  may  be  considered  as  the 
production  of  healthy  and  densely  stocked  forests. 


PARAGRAPH  XLI. 

PRINCIPLES    UNDERLYING    THE    EXACT    MENSURATION    OF    FOREST    VOLUME. 

The  basis  of  any  exact  measurement  of  volume  is  formed  by  a  survey 
of  the  sectional  area,  combined  with  an  account  of  the  number  of  stems ; 
sectional  area  and  number  are  found  by  calipering  (valuation  survey). 
Whatever  rule  of  log  measurement  may  be  at  stake,  the  total  sectional 
area  of  the  forest  is  always  of  first  importance  for  a  survey  of  forest 
volume.  Next  in  importance  is  the  calipering  of  sample  trees,  followed 
by  an  exact  survey  of  their  volume.  The  ratio  r  existing  between  the 
volume  of  the  sample  trees  (expressed  in  any  unit  or  mixture  of  units) 
and  the  sectional  area  of  the  sample  trees  is  identical  with  the  form 
height  (compare  Par.  XXXII. ,  towards  end)  of  the  sample  trees.  The 
form  height  of  sample  trees  properly  selected  is  the  form  height  of  the 
forest.  The  sample  trees  are  usually  cut  and  worked  up  into  logs,  cord- 
wood,  tannin  wood,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  volume  survey. 

V  v         f.  h.  s. 

—  =  —  =  and         V  —  S.  f.  h 

b  S  S 


Forest  Mensuration 


27 


If  the  trees  of  the  forest  are  defective,  the  sample  trees  should  exhibit 
average   defects. 


PARAGRAPH    XLII. 

FIELD    WORK    FOR    EXACT    VALUATION    SURVEYS. 

The  valuation  survey  requires : 

1.  Calipering  of  all  trees;  the  diameter  is  taken  in  inches  or  in  multi- 
ples of  inches.  Each  species  and  each  height  class  or  age  class  are  or 
may  be  taken  separately. 

2.  Entering  the  takings  on  tally  sheets,  arranged  as  follows : 


Diameter. 

Spruce. 

Beech. 

Height  classes. 

Height  classes. 

I 

II 

I 

II 

10" 

11" 

12" 

13" 
etc. 

The  larger  the  trees  are,  the  bigger  is  the  permissible  interval  of 
calipering.  If  trees  average  two  feet  in  diameter,  an  interval  of  3  inches 
is  permissible,  provided  that  a  large  number  of  trees  are  calipered. 

It  is  a  strange  fact  that  the  diameter  measured  from  east  to  west  is 
larger  on  the  whole  than  the  diameter  from  north  to  south. 


PARAGRAPH    XLIII. 


BASAL    ASSUMPTIONS. 

The  only  assumption  made  in  calculating  the  volume  of  the  forest  after 
Paragraph  XLI.  is  that  the  form  height  of  the  sample  trees  equals  the 
form  height  of  the  forest.  No  other  estimate  or  assumption  is  being 
made.  This  premise  is  much  safer  than  the  assumption  that  the  volume 
of  the  forest  bears  the  same  ratio  to  the  volume  of  the  sample  trees 
which  the  number  of  trees  in  the  forest  bears  to  the  number  of  the  sample 
trees.  More  unsafe  is  the  assumption  that  the  volumes  of  forest  and 
sample  trees  bear  the  ratio  of  the  acreage  occupied  by  the  forest  on  the 
one  hand  and  by  the  sample  trees  on  the  other  hand. 


28 


Forest  Mensuration 


PARAGRAPH  XLIV. 

SELECTION     OF     SAMPLE     TREES. 

Sample  trees  are  selected  either  irregularly  or  after  a  regular  plan.  In 
the  latter  case,  it  is  best  to  distribute  them  equally  among  the  diameter 
classes  composing  the  forest  (Draudt-Urich  method  and  Robert  Hartig 
method),  instead  of  selecting  sample  trees  of  average  diameter. 

It  is  more  important  that  the  sample  trees  should  have  proper  average 
class-form  height  (and  average  defects)  than  that  they  should  have  exact 
average  class-diameters. 

PARAGRAPH   XLV. 

DRAUDT-URICH      METHOD. 

The  Draudt-Urich  method  is  in  common  use  abroad  for  measuring 
the  -forest.  The  trees  of  the  forest  are  divided  into  a  number  of  classes 
(usually  five).  Each  class  contains  an  equal  number  of  trees,  class  I 
containing  the  largest  and  class  5  the  smallest  trees.  In  each  class  an 
equal  number  of  sample  trees,  having  about  the  average  diameter  of  the 
class,  are  felled  and  worked  up  into  logs,  cordwood,  ties,  poles,  etc.  The 
form  height  of  all  sample  trees  is  obtained  as  the  quotient  of  their  volume 
(in  any  unit  or  mixture  of  units)  divided  by  their  sectional  area.  Mul- 
tiplying the  sectional  area  of  the  forest  with  this  form  height,  the  exact 
volume  of  the  entire  forest  and  its  composition  (logs,  poles,  cords,  etc.) 
are  given  by  one  operation. 

Sample  trees  of  the  average  diameter  of  a  class  are  found  by  dividing 
the  sectional  area  of  the  entire  class  by  the  number  of  trees  per  class.  It 
is  wrong  to  find  the  average  diameter  by  dividing  the  sum  total  of  the 
diameters  by  the  number  of  trees. 


Diameter 
Breast  High. 

Number 

of 
Trees. 

Diameter 
Classes 
of  Trees. 

Number 

of  Sample 

Trees. 

Average  Diam- 
eter of  Sample 
Trees. 

40" 
35" 
30" 

25"        j 
20" 

.,  j 

| 

310 

240 

506 

1226 

I 

n 

29" 

9 
1040 

1233 

II 

11 

17" 

1847 
435 

III 

11 

14" 

■o»        \ 

2282 

IV 

11 

10" 

2282 

V 

11 

10" 

</     Jjuy^u*  ^t^Lu^   /W  '^S. * 


Forest  Mensuration  29 

The  advantages  of  the  Draudt-Urich   method  are : 

1.  All  sample  trees  can  be  worked  up  in  a  bunch. 

2.  Not  only  the  entire  volume  but  as  well  the  different  grades  of  tim- 
ber, fuel,  ties,  etc.,  composing  the  volume  are  found  by  one  operation. 

A  large  number  of  sample  trees  are,  however,  required,  and,  since  the 
volumes  of  the  various  classes  are  unequal,  a  negative  mistake  made  in 
establishing  the  volume  of  one  class  is  not  apt  to  be  counter-balanced  by 
a  positive  mistake  made  in  finding  the  volume  of  another  class. 

PARAGRAPH    XLVI. 

ROBERT     HARTIG     METHOD. 

Robert  Hartig's  method  forms  tree  classes  containing  equal  sectional 
areas — not  equal  numbers  of  trees..  An  equal  number  of  sample  trees  is 
cut  in  each  class  and  worked  up  separately  for  each  class.  The  volume 
of  the  forest  is  also  obtained  separately  for  each  class.  Otherwise,  the 
manner  of  proceeding  is  identical  with  that  of  Paragraph  XLV. 

Preferable  it  would  seem  to  cut  in  each  class  a  number  of  sample  trees 
having,  in  the  aggregate,  the  same  sectional  area.  This  scheme,  how- 
ever, would  represent  the  big-diameter  class  by  an  absurdly  small  num- 
ber of  samples. 

PARAGRAPH    XLVII. 

AVERAGE   SAMPLE   TREE    METHOD. 

If  average  trees  of  the  entire  forest  are  taken  as  samples,  then  the 
volume  of  the  forest  is  obtained  with  smaller  accuracy. 

The  proportion  which  the  different  assortments  of  timber,  wood,  bark, 
etc.,  form  in  the  entire  output  is  not  clearly  shown  by  such  sampling. 

In  a  normal,  even-aged  wood  the  tree  of  average  cubic  volume  is  found 
by  deducting  40%  from  the  total  sectional  area,  beginning  with  the  de- 
duction at  the  biggest  end.  The  largest  tree  then  left  is,  or  happens  to 
be,  the  average  tree  of  the  wood. 

PARAGRAPH    XLVIII. 

EXACT    MENSURATION    WITHOUT    CUTTING    SAMPLE    TREES. 

Frequently  the  cutting  of  sample  trees  for  the  purpose  of  a  valuation 
survey  is  not  feasible.  The  volume  of  the  forest  in  cubic  feet — but  not 
the  assortments  composing  the  volume — may  then  be  ascertained  as  fol- 
lows : 

a.  Take  the  total  sectional  area  of  the  forest  according  to  diameters 
and  species  and,  if  necessary,  according  to  height  classes. 

b.  Ascertain  the  bole  volume  of  some  available  trees  with  the  help  of 
Pressler's  tube  or  by  indirect  measurement  of  heights  and  diameters. 


30  Forest  Mensuration 

c.  Proceed  as  indicated  in  the  last  three  paragraphs,  keeping  in  mind, 
however,  that  only  the  cubic  volume  of  the  boles  is  thus  obtainable.  The 
branch-wood-percentage  or  the  timber-percentage  of  the  bole  must  be 
estimated. 

The  Hartig  method  (Paragraph  XLVI.)  might  be  combined  with  the 
use  of  Pressler's  telescope,  and  the  bole  volume  of  a  wood  above  breast 
height  might  be  ascertained  as  2/3  of  the  total  sectional  area  of  the 
forest,  multiplied  by  the  arithmetical  mean  of  the  rectified  heights  of 
the  sample  trees  representing  the  various  diameter  classes. 
v  _  A  v  S  (rt  +  r2  +  r3  +  r4  4-  r5) 
3    X  5 

The  bole  volume  below  breast  height  in  cubic  feet  is  equal  to  the 
sectional  area  of  the  wood  times  4^2. 

PARAGRAPH  XLIX. 

COMBINED    MEASURING   AND   ESTIMATING. 

If  measuring  and  estimating  are  combined,  the  following  typical  meth- 
ods may  be   used  to  ascertain  the  volume  of  woods : 

1.  The  form   factor   method    (Paragraph   L.). 

2.  The  form  height  method    (Paragraph  LI.). 

3.  The  volume  table  method    (Paragraph  LIL). 

4.  The  yield  table  method    (Paragraph  LIIL). 

These  methods  might  be  used  in  connection  with  the  so-called  "dis- 
tance figure"   of  Paragraph  LIV. 

In  applying  these  methods,  one  or  the  other  of  the  three  factors  of 
volume  (sectional  area,  height  and  form  factor)  are  obtained  by  estima- 
tion. 

The  paragraphs  following  Paragraph  LVIII.  give  a  number  of  methods 
practically  used  and  also  based  on  combined  measuring  and  estimating. 

PARAGRAPH    L. 

FORM    FACTOR    METHOD. 

The  form  factor  method  ascertains  the  sectional  area  by  calipering, 
according  to  species,  and,  if  necessary,  according  to  height  classes.  The 
average  height  of  the  wood  (by  species,  classes)  is  obtained  by  actual 
hypsometric  measurement.  The  form  factor  is  read  from  local  form 
factor  tables. 

The  average  height  is  obtained — not  as  the  arithmetic  mean  of  a  num- 
ber of  heights  measured,  but  much  more — correctly  from  the  ratio  exist- 
ing between  the  sum  total  of  the  ideal  cylinders  and  the  sum  total  of 
the  sectional  areas  of  the  trees  hypsometrically  measured.  The  form 
factors  appearing  in  form  factor  tables  must  be  averages  obtained  by 
many  hundreds  of  local  measurements. 


Forest  Mensuration  31 

Mistakes  amounting  to  up  to  25%  in  the  sum  total  of  the  volume 
obtained  by  the  form  factor  method  are  not  impossible,  since  average 
form  factors  appearing  from  a  form  factor  table  are  often  at  variance 
with  the  actual   form   factor. 

Form  factor  tables  for  American  "second  growth"  are  still  lacking.  In 
primeval  woods  the  form  factor  method  seems  out  of  place. 


PARAGRAPH    LI. 

FORM    HEIGHT   METHOD. 

The  form  heights  of  merchantable  trees  are,  generally  speaking,  sub- 
ject to  only  small  variations.  Those,  e.  g.,  for  Adirondack  White  Pine 
scaling  from  18"  to  36"  in  diameter  breast-high  are  (for  standard  rule) 
close  to   1.25. 

Multiplying  the  sectional  area  of  a  White  Pine  woodlot  (say  100  square 
feet)  by  the  form  height  previously  obtained  through  official  measure- 
ments (like  those  by  T.  H.  Sherrard),  the  volume  of  the  woodlot — in 
the  present  example  about  125  standards — is  easily  obtained. 

Form  height  tables  based  on  feet  b.  m.,  Doyle,  are  not  as  simple  as 
those  based  on  the  standard  rules  and  cubic  foot  rules,  owing  to  the 
mathematical  inaccurary  of  Doyle's  rule,  which  causes  the  form  heights 
to  be  pre-eminently  dependent  on  the  diameters. 

Form  height  tables  should  be  constructed  for  the  leading  merchantable 
species  in  the  United  States.  Of  course,  such  tables  are  more  readily 
applicable  to  second  growth  than  to  first  growth. 

The  form  height  tables  should  exhibit  the  number  of  standards,  cords, 
ties,  etc.,  obtainable  per  square  foot  of  sectional  area  in  each  diameter 
class.  In  case  of  defective  trees,  proper  allowance  must  be  made  for 
defects — rather  a  hazardous  risk  in  primeval  hardwoods. 


PARAGRAPH   LI  I. 

VOLUME     TABLE      METHOD. 

In  Paragraph  XXXVIII.  a  number  of  volume  tables  have  been  enum- 
erated, from  which  the  volume  of  trees  of  given  species  and  diameter 
(and  height)    can  be  readily  read. 

A  valuation  survey  of  the  forest  (or  of  a  woodlot  or  of  a  sample  plot) 
yields  the  diameters  of  the  trees  stocking  thereon.  The  number  of 
trees  found  for  each  diameter  class  is  multiplied  by  the  contents  of  a 
tree  of  that  diameter  appearing  from  the  volume  table.  The  sum  total 
of  the  multiples  is  the  sum  total  of  the  volume  of  the  forest. 


(X^Jiiu^  *j-  c^^L^  c^^^J^^i   ^ 


i.r 


-  7=2- 


32 


Forest  Mensuration 
Sample. 


u 

g 

Yellow  Pine. 

Hickory. 

Oak. 

5 

No. 

Average      Total 

No. 

Average 

Total 

No. 

Average 

Total 

trees. 

volume. 

volume. 

trees. 

volume. 

volume. 

trees. 

volume. 

volume. 

12 

30 

60 

1 .800 

7 

140 

980 

14 

160 

I  .400 

15 

42 

120 

5.040 

9 

240 

2160 

5 

200 

I  .OOO 

18 

17 

300 

5.IOO 

iS 

370 

6600 

23 

350 

8.050 

21 

36 

520 

18.720 

5 

500 

2500 

22 

520 

II.440 

24 

33 

780 

25 ■ 740 

12 

660 

7920 

22 

730 

16.060 

27 

20 

1080 

21 .600 

6 

840 

5040 

7 

940 

6.580 

30 

10 

1420 

14. 200 

3 

1050 

3I50 

10 

1 1 50 

II.500 

33 
36 

j 

5 

5 

1400 
1800 

7.000 
9.000 

1 

2200 

2.  200 

Totals . 

96 . 200 

28.350 

72.030 

Grand  total 196.580'  B.  M. 


The  volumes  of  the  column  "Average  Volume"  are  taken  from  tables 
published  by  the  Bureau  of  Forestry. 


PARAGRAPH    LIII. 


YIELD    TABLE    METHOD. 


All  over  Europe  local  yield  tables  are  used  to  quickly  ascertain  the 
volume  of  pure,  sound,  even  aged  woods.  For  America,  such  yield  tables 
— normal  local  yield  tables — exist  only  in  the  white  pine  tables  given  in 
Pinchot  and  Graves'  pamphlet,  "The  White   Pine." 

The  method  of  construction  of  yield  tables  appears  from  Paragraph 
XCII.  and  following. 

Under  yield  tables  are  understood  "acre-volume-tables,"  whilst  under 
volume  tables  are   understood   "tree-yield-tables." 

Normal  yield  tables  specify  the  age  of  even  aged  and  pure  woods,  the 
height  of  such  woods  and  the  volume  (by  assortment)  of  such  woods, 
according  to  the  productiveness  of  the  soil.  An  indication  for  the  latter 
is  found  in  the  height  growth. 

Such  yield  tables  hold  good  only  for  woodlots  normally  stocked.  A 
woodlot  is  normally  stocked  "when  all  local  factors  of  wood  production 
have  pronounced  themselves  unhampered  in  the  annual  production  of 
fibre."  Normal  woods,  even  of  small  extent,  are  extremely  rare.  In  Ger- 
many the  average  wood  lacks  25%  of  being  normal.  Since  the  normal 
yield  tables  give  the  yield  for  normal  conditions  only,  a  deduction  must 
be  made  from  the  volume  indicated  by  the  yield  table  when  applied  to 
a  given  woodlot,  according  to  the  abnormality  of  the  same. 

Proceed  as  follows: 


Forest  Mensuration  33 

Ascertain  age  and  average  height  of  the  trees;  find  the  yield  table 
ich  gives  a  similar  height  for  the  same  age;  reduce  the  volume  indi- 

.ted  by  this  yield  table  and  for  this  age,  by  estimating  the  deficiency  of 
the  growing  stock. 

Obviously,  there  is  much  room  for  guessing,  since  neither  height  nor 
form  figure  nor  sectional  area  in  woodlots  abnormally  stocked  can  lay 
claim  to  normality. 

Schuberg,  denying  a  truism  otherwise  generally  acknowledged,  claims 
that  the  height  alone  does  not  indicate  the  productiveness  of  the  soil. 

At  present,  normal  yield  tables  are  of  little  use  in  American  fore-try. 


PARAGRAPH    LIV. 

DISTANCE     FIGURE. 

Under  "distance  figure,"  an  invention  of  EGcenig's,  is  understood  the 
quotient  a  formed  by  the  side  /  of  the  average  growing  space  of  a  tree 
(considered  as  a  square)   and  by  the  diameter  of  the  average  stem  d. 

1 
a   - 
d 

The  .v.  nee   from   tree  to  tree  and  the  average  diameter  of  a 

Dumber  oi  tre  ed  by  1  number  of  measurements  in  the  forest 

If  the  Mjuare  feet,  then  the  sectional  area  of  the 
forest  is 

7T  I' 

—  —  X        BQuare  f**«-t 
4         a* 

The   actual    I  the    fallacy   of    Kirnig's   assumptions.     The   ex- 

planation lies  in  the  fact  that  the  average  diameter  of  a  wood  is  not  the 
arithmetical  mean  of  the  diameters  composing  it.  Further,  the  growing 
space  of  a  tree   is  not  a  sq n 

The  actual  growinj  Ctly  ascertained  by  laying 

a  sample  strip  through  the  forest,  counting  at  the  same  time  the  trees 
within  the  strip.     The  sectional  area  of  t!  htainable,  however, 

without  greater  trouble  and  with  much  greater  accuracy,  from  the  pro- 
duct calipered  sectional  area  of  trees  in  the  sample  strip  times  area  of  the 
forest  over  area  of  the  sample  strip. 

On  an  acre  of  average  soil,  there  is  on  an  average  room  for  the  fol- 
lowing numbers  of  healthy  trees,  according  to  age: 

At  20  years  1.600  specimens. 

At  50  years     600  specimens. 

At  100  years     240  specinu 

At  150  years      150  specimens. 


34 


Forest  Mensuration 


PARAGRAPH    LV. 
algon's  universal  volume  tables. 

So-called  "universal  volume  tables"  have  been  constructed  by  H.  Algon, 
a  Frenchman.  For  a  description  of  these  tables  see  "Indian  Forester" 
of  July,    1902. 

The  volumes  given  for  each  diameter  of  trees,  whatever  the  species  be, 
are  presented  on  a  number  of  tables  as  follows: 


Volume  in  Cubic  Feet. 

Diameter. 

Tabic 

!  i.        Table  5. 

Table  10. 

Table  15. 

Table  20. 

6" 

2 

3- 

4- 

6. 

8. 

9" 

5 

8 

10 

16. 

18 

12" 

9 

15 

21 

27. 

33 

15" 

19 

28 

39 

50. 

61 

18" 

27 

39 

59 

69. 

84 

21" 

43 

60 

83 

109. 

128 

24" 

54 

78 

108 

138. 

168 

27" 

72 

107 

147 

188. 

228 

30" 

87 

129 

177 

228. 

276 

33" 

1 1 1 

163 

221 

288. 

349 

36" 

129 

189. 

258. 

333- 

405- 

The  tables  are  used  as  follows : 

1.  Caliper  the  entire  forest  according  to  diameters  and  species. 

2.  Measure  a  number  of  type  trees,  selected  at  random,  after  felling 
them. 

3.  Find  that  volume  table  amongst  the  20  tables  given  which  best  cor- 
responds with  the  diameters  and  volumes  of  the  type  trees.  Apply  the 
volume  table,  which  is  found  to  be  the  proper  one,  to  all  diameter  classes 
calipered   in   the  woods. 

Objections  to  the  method   are: 

a.  The  danger  of  mistakes  is  very  great.  In  an  absolutely  even  aged 
wood,  one  tree  of  15  inches  diameter  may  easily  show  50%  more  volume 
than  another  tree  of  the  same  diameter,  the  latter  being  more  tapering 
and  shorter. 

b.  In  an  uneven  aged  wood  the  tables  are  necessarily  wrong  because 
the  form  height  is  a  function  of  age  as  well  as  of  height  and  diameter. 

c.  The  method  does  not  give  any  idea  of  the  proportion  of  logs,  fuel, 
bark,  etc. 

Algon  calls  these  tables  "universal"  assuming  that  they  hold  good  for 
all  species  of  the  universe. 


Forest  Mensuration  35 

PARAGRAPH   LVI. 

schenck's  graphic  method. 

This  method,  as  well,  can  be  used  only  for  sound  woods.  No  calcu- 
lation  is   required.     The  procedure   is: 

1.  Caliper  the  whole  wood. 

2.  Cut  sample  or  type  trees  of  small,  big  and  average  diameters,  find 
the  contents  of  each  tree  separately,  together  with  the  composition  of 
contents  as  logs,   fuel  and  bark. 

3.  On  a  piece  of  cross  section  paper,  use  as  many  units  along  a  hori- 
zontal line  as  there  are  trees   (or  tens  or  hundreds  of  trees)  calipered. 

4.  Mark  the  unit  which  each  sample  tree,  according  to  its  diameter, 
would  occupy  if  the  biggest  tree  were  placed  to  the  right  and  the  smallest 
to  the  left  of  the  horizontal   line. 

5.  Enter  over  the  marked  units  the  volume  of  the  type  trees  (accord- 
ing to  the  composing  factors,  if  required)  in  square  units.  A  square  unit 
might  correspond  with  ten  feet  board  measure,  or  with  1/100  of  a  cord, 
etc. 

6.  Draw  a  line  joining  the  ends  of  the  columns,  adjusting  it  by  an 
average  curve. 

7.  Measure  the  space  (in  square  units)  between  the  curve  and  the 
horizontal  line  with  the  help  of  a  planimeter;  the  number  of  square  units 
giving  directly  the  number  of  feet  Doyle,  or  of  cords,  etc. 

If  there  are  several  assortments  of  volumes,  several  curves  must  be 
drawn.  This  method  allows  of  separating  the  volumes  of  trees  allotted 
to  the  several  diameter  classes.  Mathematical  errors  are,  practically, 
excluded. 

PARAGRAPH   LVII. 

FACTORS   GOVERNING  THE   SELECTION   OF  A   METHOD  OF  VALUATION   SURVEY. 

In  the  case  of  a  valuation  survey  ("stock  taking")  in  the  woods,  the 
following  points  must  be  considered: 

a.  The  degree  of  exactness  required,  which  depends  on  the  purpose 
at  stake  {c.  g.,  scientific  investigations,  or  preparation  for  logging,  or 
taxation). 

b.  The  regularity,  uniformity  and  soundness  of  the  growing  stock. 

c.  The  minimum  diameter  of  logs ;  assortments ;  marketability  of  spe- 
cies. 

d.  The  possibility  of  cutting  sample  trees. 

e.  The  expense  permissible. 

The  question  usually  arises  whether  the  entire  forest  or  sample  plots 
only  must  be  surveyed.  The  answer  depends  on  the  configuration  of  the 
ground,  uniformity  of  the  growing  stock  as  to  size,  age,  species  and 
quality  of  its  components;  further  on  the  value  of  stumpage,  on  the  accu- 
racy required,  on  the  available  time  and  on  the  available  funds. 


36  Forest  Mensuration 

The   following  METHODS  OF   VALUATION  SURVEYS  might  be 

distinguished: 

I.     Cutting  sample  trees. 

a.  Sample    trees    selected    for   about    five    diameter    classes,    each 

class  containing  about  one-fifth  of  the  number  of  trees  pres- 
ent  (Draudt-Urich  method). 

b.  Sample   trees    selected    for    about   five    diameter    classes,    each 

class  containing  about  one-fifth  of  the  sectional  area  of  all 
trees  present    (Robert  Hartig  method). 

c.  Sample  trees   selected  as  average-diameter-trees  of  the  entire 

forest   (Old  Bureau  method). 

d.  Sample  trees  selected  at  random — e.  g.,  from  dead  and  down 

trees    (C.    A.    S.    method— applied    in    the    Balsams;    Algon 
Universal  tables;   Graphic  method). 
c.     Stem  analysis,  together  with  investigations  as  to  thickness  of 
bark. 

II.     Without    cutting   sample    trees. 

a.  Measuring  height  and  diameter  and  estimating  form  figure  of 

sample  trees. 

b.  Measuring   rectified   heights    and   diameters. 

c.  Measuring  merely  diameters  and  estimating  form  heights. 

d.  Photographing  sample  trees,  having  a  scale — say  a  stick  6  feet 

long — on   the   picture. 

III.     With  the  help  of  volume  tables. 
IV.     With   the  help   of  yield   tables. 

PARAGRAPH    LVIII. 

FACTORS    INFLUENCING    THE    SELECTION    OF    SAMPLE    PLOTS. 

If  sample  plots  are  taken,  there  must  be  determined: 

a.  The  number,  situation  and  distribution  of  the  sample  plots. 

b.  The  absolute  and  relative  size  of  the  sample  plots.  The  Bureau  of 
Forestry  prescribes  sample  plots  equalling  from  i  to  4^2%  of  the  forest. 
The  "Forest  Reserve  Manual"  prescribes  5%  or  more. 

c.  The  form  of  the  sample  plots  and  the  manner  by  which  the  size  of 
the  sample  plot  is  ascertained. 

In  Europe  an  ordinary  workman  calipers,  on  an  average,  5,000  trees 
(in  maximo  12,000  trees)  per  day.  In  Pisgah  Forest  500  trees  is  a  good 
day's  work  for  one  estimator  and  one  helper. 


Forest  Mensuration  37 

PARAGRAPH    LIX. 

SIR   DIETRICH    BRANDIS'    METHOD. 

The  Brandis  method  is  indicated  where  the  object  at  stake  consists  in 
a  rapid  survey  of  the  stumpage  on  large  tracts,  like  the  vast  Teak  and 
Bamboo  forests  of  upper  Burmah. 

Traversing  existing  trails  of  known  length  on  horseback,  the  estimator 
records  the  diameter  of  each  tree  within  a  given  distance  (say  200  yards) 
on  either  side  of  the  trail. 

The  widths  of  the  strips  traversed  multiplied  by  the  length  of  the  trail 
yields  the  area  of  the  sample  plot.  The  number  of  the  trees  of  the 
various  diameters  found  on  the  sample  strip  appears  from  the  records. 


PARAGRAPH    LX. 

PINCHOT-GRAVES     METHOD     ADOPTED     ON     DR.     WEBB'S     ESTATE. 

i.  Sample  acres,  measuring  4  x  40  poles,  are  irregularly  laid  into 
swamps,  hardwood  slopes  and  spruce  slopes.  The  sum  total  of  the  sam- 
ple acres  is  3^4%  of  the  total  acreage. 

2.  The  length  of  a  sample  acre  is  actually  chained  off,  whilst  the  width 
is  ascertained  (two  poles  to  the  left  and  two  poles  to  the  right  of  the 
chain)    by  tape,  by  pacing  and  by  estimating. 

3.  The  sites  of  the  sample  acres  are  not  marked  on  maps. 

4.  All  trees  on  the  sample  acres  are  calipered;  a  number  of  heights 
are  taken  on  each  sample  acre ;  for  each  sample  acre  the  average  diam- 
eter, the  average  height  and  the  number  of  trees  are  ascertained. 

5.  From  these  averages  is  deduced,  for  all  sample  acres,  the  average 
diameter,  the  average  height  and  the  number  of  trees.  All  these  data, 
of  course,  must  be  given  for  the  various  species  separately. 

6.  From  volume  tables  previously  constructed  the  volume  of  the  trees 
having  average  height  and  average  diameter  is  obtained  and  is  multiplied 
by  the   average  number  of  trees. 

7.  This  multiplication  yields  the  volume  of  the  average  sample  acre. 
Objections  to  this  method  of  valuation  survey  are: 

a.  The   tree   of   average   diameter   has    neither   average   volume   nor 

average  height. 

b.  The  average  diameter  should  be  obtained  from  the  fraction  "total 

sectional  area  over  number  of  trees."  It  cannot  be  obtained 
correctly  from  the  fraction  "sum  total  of  diameters  over  num- 
ber of  trees."     Similar  objections  hold  good  for  average  height. 

c.  Guessing  at  the  width  of  a  strip,  in  dense  growth,  is  rather  risky. 


38  Forest  Mensuration 

Remark  :  Bulletin  36,  page  125,  states  that  volumes  are  now  computed 
by,  the  Bureau  either  by  averaging  the  volumes  found  for  the  sample 
acres,  thus  obtaining  the  volume  of  a  model  acre  as 

▼1  -t-v2  +  v3+ +  v° 

n 

(wherein  n  equals  the  number  of  sample  acres)  ;  or  by  summing  up  all 
trees  of  each  diameter  class,  by  dividing  each  sum  by  the  number  of  sam- 
ple acres,  and  by  thus  finding  for  a  model  acre  the  average  number  of 
trees  for  each  diameter  class.  In  both  cases  the  volumes  for  each  diam- 
eter class  are  read  from  volume  tables. 

Allowance  for  defects  is  made  according  to  local  experience,  all  trees 
being  calipered  as   if  they  were  sound. 


PARAGRAPH    LXI. 

THE     GRIDIRONING     METHOD. 

1.  Work  with  compass  (if  a  topographical  map  is  required,  also  with 
barometer  or  clinometer)  and  with  several  tapes  or  ropes.  These  ropes 
are  meant  to  denote  the  sides  of  a  strip;  within  the  strip  the  sectional 
areas  are  taken  with  calipers  or  Biltmore  sticks. 

2.  The  tapes  move  continuously  with  the  caliper  men,  and  there  is 
no  stopping.  The  compass  man  keeps  ahead  of  the  measuring  crew.  One 
of  the  outside  "tapers"  has  the  correct  length  desired  for  a  section.  His 
tape  must  be  run  straight.  The  inner  tapes  may  make  snake  lines.  The 
tally  man  uses  a  fresh  tally  sheet  for  each  section. 

3.  All  strips  lie  parallel  and  are  equidistant.  The  width  of  the  strips 
depends  on  the  density  of  growth,  smallest  diameter  calipered,  available 
help  and  accuracy  required. 

4.  The  distance  between  two  parallel  strips  depends  upon  accuracy  re- 
quired, width  of  strip  and  variety  of  configurations. 

5.  Each  strip  is  divided  into  sections  of  equal  length.  The  tally  sheet 
gives  for  each  section  the  diameters  (with  bark)  of  the  trees  in  that  sec- 
tion ;  further,  remarks  on  the  run  and  altitudes  of  ridges  and  creeks 
traversed,  on  roads,  settlements,  existing  surveyor's  marks,  forest  fires, 
forest  pasture,  previous  lumbering  and  regeneration.  The  number  of 
seedlings  in  a  section  might  be  approximately  given  under  the  same  head. 


Forest  Mensuration 


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40  Forest  Mensuration 

Advantages    of   the    gridironing   method    are: 

a.  A  topographical  map  is  obtained  at  a  slight  extra  expense.  The 
original  survey  is  controlled  and  the  area  of  the  tract  is  re-ascertained. 

b.  Cruisers  are  forced  to  traverse  all  sorts  of  country  and  are  not 
allowed    to   skip   swamps,   cliffs,    etc. 

c.  The  proportion  of  flats,  ridges,  slopes,  swamps,  farms,  or  farm 
soil,  pastures,  etc.,  is  found  at  the  same  time. 

d.  The  strips  may  be  used  as  permanent  statistical  sample  plots,  if 
they  start  from  definite  points  (corners)  and  run  in  definite  directions. 

e .  The  procession  of  the  cruisers  is  uninterrupted  by  stops ;  hence  no 
loss  of  time. 

For  a  picture  of  a  convenient  tally  sheet  holder  see  Graves'  Handbook, 
page    123. 

The  gridironing  method  has  been  adopted  by  the  working  plan  division 
in  a  somewhat  altered  form  as  follows  (Bulletin  36,  page  120)  : 

1.  Strips  are  always  one  chain  (66  feet)  wide.  A  section  invariably 
comprises   one   acre   equaling   1  x  10  chains. 

2.  The  measuring  tape  is  trailing  in  the  center  of  a  strip ;  two  caliper 
men  (proceeding  one  at  the  left,  the  other  at  the  right  hand  of  the  tape) 
caliper  a  belt  one-half  chain  wide,  estimating  the  width  at  either  side 
of  the  central   tape. 

3.  The  compass  man  or  tally  man  with  the  front  end  of  the  tape 
attached  to  his  belt  goes  ahead  and  stops  at  the  end  of  every  chain, 
allowing  the  calipers  to  catch  up. 

4.  Thus  there  are  ten  stops  for  every  acre;  after  10  chains  the  tally 
man  enters  general  notes. 

5.  Heights  may  be  measured  by  a  separate  crew. 

A  crew  of  four  men  calipers  in  merchantable  timber  20  to  40  acres 
per  day;  in  small  and  merchantable  timber  from  15  to  25  acres  per  day; 
in  longleaf  pine   up   to  65   acres  per  day. 

PARAGRAPH    LXII. 

FOREST     RESERVE     METHODS. 

Roth's   Forest   Reserve  Manual  gives   three  methods   of  valuation  sur- 
*'-*  vey,  No.    1   and  No.  2  being  sample-area-methods,  and   No.  3  an  entire- 
'   »     area-method. 

1.  Sample  circles  with  a  radius  of  20  yards,  the  circle  containing 
*4  acre;  the  radius  is  estimated,  or  paced  from  a  central  stick.  Two 
sub-methods   are   permitted,   namely: 

a.  Count  the  number  of  trees  of  merchantable  size;  estimate  the  aver- 
age tree  according  to  log  length,  taper  and  thickness  of  bark;  estimate 
the  percentage  of  defectiveness  (from  10%  to  40%  after  Manual,  page  49). 


* 


Forest  Mensuration  41 

b.  Caliper  the  trees  in  the  circle  into  two-inch  classes;  estimate  the 
average  tree  for  each  class  and  allow  for  defects  as  before. 

In  both  cases  a  map  must  show  the  site  of  the  sample  circles.  The 
circle  method  is  not  allowed  in  scattering  timber.  At  least  5%  of  the 
entire  area  must  be  sample-circled. 

2.  Sample  strips.  Strips  should  be  four  rods  wide,  should  run  across 
ridges,  should  be  shown  on  a  map.     Otherwise  proceed  as  under  I. 

3.  The  "forty"  method  is  used  on  surveyed  land.  It  is  an  entire-area 
method  applied  to  40  acres.  The  sides  of  a  "forty"  are  80  x  80  rods, 
equal  to  440  x  440  yards.     Prescriptions : 

a.  Traverse  each  "forty"  on  lines  about  100  yards  apart,  thus  crossing 
4   times. 

b.  Halt  at  every  100  yards  and  estimate  the  trees  within  a  square  of 
100  yards   surrounding  the  stopping  place. 

c.  If  possible,  have  a  compass  man  control  the  length  and  the  direc- 
tion of  your  runs. 

PARAGRAPH    LXIII. 

SAMPLE    SQUARES. 

Sample  squares  containing  about  one  acre  are  used  in  Maine  and  in 
Northern  New  York.  The  side  of  a  sample  square  is  14  rods.  A  cruiser, 
from  the  center  of  the  square,  under  the  density  of  the  growth  existing 
in  Maine  and  New  York,  can  overlook  a  circle  of  7  poles  radius  sur- 
rounding him.  Hence,  as  a  matter  of  fact — or  rather  of  theory — he  skips 
the  corners  of  the  square,  counting  only  the  trees  in  a  circle  which  has 
the  side  of  the  square  for  its  diameter.  The  square  contains  196  square 
rods,  whereas  the  circle  of  7  poles  radius  contains  155  square  rods.  The 
cruiser  estimates  the  contents  of  all  trees  within  the  "square"  from  his 
central  standpoint. 

PARAGRAPH    LXIV. 

PISGAH     FOREST      METHOD     OF      1896. 

i.  The  diameters  of  all  trees  promising  to  yield  a  log  are  measured 
in  diameter  classes  of  y2  foot  interval  by  a  crew  of  4  to  5  helpers  armed 
with   Biltmore  sticks. 

The  diameters  are  measured  (or  often  estimated  if  beyond  reach)  at 
the  point  above  which  the  tree  is  supposed  to  be  sound. 

2.  Each  tree  measured  is  marked  by  a  blaze.  The  foreman  enters  on 
a  tally  sheet  the  species  and  the  diameters  called  out  by  the  helpers.  A 
special  tally  sheet  is  used  for  each  cove. 

3.  The  average  contents  of  the  diameter  classes  are  estimated  with  the 
help  of  sample  trees  selected  for  each  species  and  each  diameter — a  very 
uncertain  estimate  owing  to  the   unsoundness   of  the  trees. 


42  Forest  Mensuration 

4.     Each    cove   is   numbered   or   lettered    to    correspond    with    the   tally 
sheet  on  a  tree  standing  at  the  outlet  of  the  cove. 


PARAGRAPH    LXV. 

PISGAH    FOREST     METHOD    FOR    STUMPAGE    SALE,     BARK     SALE    AND    LUMBERING 
OPERATIONS. 

i.  Each  tree  is  approached  individually,  its  diameter  measured  and  its 
defects,  especially  its  hollowness,  examined  by  "sounding."  The  diam- 
eter measure  and  the  estimated  volume  are  entered  on  a  tally  sheet  oppo- 
site the  number  of  the  tree,  which  is  inserted  in  the  stump  of  the  tree 
by  a  stroke  of  the  "revolving  numbering  hammer." 

2.  One  cruiser  and  one  helper  tally  400  trees  per  day. 

3.  The  method  allows  of  ready  control  by  the  owner,  the  forester  and 
the  buyer.  It  is  adapted  to  hardwood  forests  in  a  rough  mountainous 
country  where  the  merchantable  trees  per  acre  are  few ;  and  where  no 
tree  is,  practically,  free  from  defects.  (Compare  Graves'  Bulletin  No. 
36,  page   115). 

PARAGRAPH  LXVI. 

HENRY  GANNETT'S    METHOD,   ADOPTED  FOR   THE   TWELFTH   CENSUS. 

i.  Base  the  estimate  on  the  cruising  reports  obtainable  from  the  local 
lumber  companies  and  railroad  companies. 

2.  Control  the  applicability  of  the  estimates  to  huge  tracts  by  travers- 
ing them  and  by  overlooking  them  from  a  mountain  top. 

Mr.  Gannett  expects  that  mistakes  made  in  one  county  will  be  offset 
by  those  made  in  another. 

.PARAGRAPH    LXVII. 

A    "FORTY"    METHOD    USED    IN     MICHIGAN. 

1.  A  "forty"  (a  square  of  80  x  80  poles)  is  subdivided  into  10  rectan- 
gles of  4  acres   each,   measuring   16  x  40   rods. 

2.  The  cruisers  estimates  when  entering  a  rectangle.  He  counts  the 
number  of  trees  on  every  4  acres  and  multiplies  the  number  by  the  size 
of  the  average  tree. 

3.  For  each  "forty"  the  cruiser  records  in  a  memorandum  the  factors 
influencing  the  logging  operations  or  the  timber  values,  notably  the 
swamps,  ridges,  forest  fires,  degree  of  defectiveness,  facilities  of  trans- 
portation. 

A  central  line  traversing  the  "forty"  in  a  north  and  south  direction  is 
sometimes  kept  by  a  compassman  assisting  the  cruiser.  The  outer  lines 
of  the  "forty"  are  plain  from  the  official  survey  marks. 


Forest  Mensuration  43 

A  number  of  variations  of  this  method  exist,  according  to  the  custom 
of  local  cruisers  and  according  to  the  predilections  of  the  lumbermen, 
largely  governed  by  the  value  of  stumpage.  Compare  Graves'  Bulletin  36, 
page    116. 


PARAGRAPH  LXVIII. 

DR.     FERNOW'S     "FORTY"     METHOD    USED    AT    AXTON. 

i.  Each  "forty"  is  subdivided  into  16  squares  of  2z/i  acres  each,  the 
sides   of   a    square    being   20  x  20   poles. 

2.  The  head  estimator,  stepping  from  the  corner  of  the  square  10 
poles  east  (or  west)  and  10  poles  north  (or  south)  places  himself  in 
the  center  of  the  square. 

3.  Helpers  (students)  are  sent  out,  four  in  number,  towards  the  north- 
east, northwest,  southeast  and  southwest,  each  helper  reporting  the  diam- 
eter and  species  of  the  trees  found  in  that  one-quarter  of  the  2^2  acres 
which  is  allotted  to  him. 

4.  The  "forties"  are  carefully  surveyed  and  surrounded  by  carefully 
trimmed  lines.     The  outlines  of  the  2^  acre  sections  are  merely  paced. 


CHAPTER  II.— AGE 

PARAGRAPH    LXIX. 

AGE    OF    TREES    CUT    DOWN. 

The  age  of  trees  cut  down  is  found  by  counting  the  annual  rings  on 
a  cross  section  (preferably  an  oblique  cut)  made  as  low  above  the  ground 
as  possible.  Allowance  must  be  made  for  the  "stump  years,"  by  which 
is  understood  the  number  of  years  required  by  the  top  bud  of  the  seed- 
ling, after  sprouting,  to  reach  the  stump  height  ("cutting  height,"  after 
Circular  445). 

Ring-counting  in  the  case  of  even-porous  hardwoods  requires  the  use 
of  a  lens  and  of  some  coloring  liquid  (aniline  and  ferro-chloride)  on  a 
disc  planed  with  a  knife,  a  chisel  or  a  hollow  planer. 

The  difference  of  the  ring-numbers  on  the  stump  and  the  ring-num- 
bers at  any  place  higher  up  indicates  the  number  of  years  used  by  the 
top  bud  of  the  tree  to  traverse  the  intervening  distance.  Endogenous 
trees   do  not  form  any  rings. 

False  rings  are  formed  under  the  influence  of  late  frost,  early  frost, 
drought,  fire  and  insect  pests.     They  do  not  run  all  around  the  tree. 


V, 


44  Forest  Mensuration 

As  long  as  the  tree  lives,  it  must  annually  form  a  ring  of  growth  (or 
rather  an  additional  coat,  the  sleeves  of  which  cover  the  branches),  the 
outside  of  which  becomes  a  layer  of  bark,  the  inside  of  which  is  a  layer 
of  wood.  In  tropical  countries  this  rule  does  not  hold  good  provided 
that   there   is   no   change   of   season. 

The  formation  of  rings  in  the  branches  is  regular.  Branch-rings  are, 
however,  eccentric  and  elliptical.  The  formation  of  rings  in  the  roots 
is  said  to  be  irregular,  not  representing  the  age  of  the  root,  possibly  be- 
cause there  is  no  or  little  change  of  seasons  in  the  soil. 


PARAGRAPH    LXX. 

AGE    OF    STANDING    TREES. 

The  age  of  standing  trees  can  be  estimated  only  when  regular  annual 
whorls  of  branches  can  be  counted. 

The  records  of  seed  years  and  the  history  of  the  forest  kept  by  many 
forest  administrations  usually  give  an  idea  of  the  age  of  the  trees. 


PARAGRAPH  LXXI. 

AGE   OF    A    FOREST. 

The  age  of  a  forest  is  the  average  age  of  the  trees  composing  it. 

In  the  case  of  a  thicket  suppressed  for  a  long  time  by  the  superstructure 
of  a  leaf  canopy  overhead,  a  so-called  "economic  age"  is  frequently  sub- 
stituted for  the  actual  age.  In  the  case  of  Adirondack  spruce,  for  ex- 
ample, a  diameter  of  i  inch  in  the  center  of  the  trunk  had  better  be 
counted,  as,  say,  15  years,  although  it  may  contain  as  many  as  60  rings. 

The  mean  age  of  an  uneven-aged  wood  is  defined  as  follows : 

1.  That  number  of  years  which  an  even-aged  wood  would  require  on 
the  same  soil,  in  order  to  produce  the  same  volume  as  is  now  at  hand. 

2.  That  number  of  years  which  an  even-aged  wood  would  require  in 
order  to  produce  at  the  time  of  maturity  the  same  volume  which  the 
uneven-aged  wood  is  likely  to  produce. 

The  latter  definition  is  scientifically  more  correct.  Unless  it  is  adopted, 
an  uneven-aged  wood  may  get  over  20  years  older  in  20  years,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  trees  dying  in  the  meantime  are  mostly  minors  in  age. 


Forest  Mensuration  45 

CHAPTER  III.— INCREMENT 

SECTION  I.— INCREMENT  OF  A  TREE. 
PARAGRAPH    LXXII. 

THE     KINDS     OF     INCREMENT. 

The  following  kinds  of  increment  must  be  distinguished: 

a.  Increment  of  height,  diameter,  sectional  area  and  volume. 

b.  Current  annual  increment,  current  periodic  increment  and  total  in- 
crement. 

c.  Average  annual  increment,  average  periodic  increment  and  average 
increment  at  the  age  of  maturity. 

d.  Increment  of  the  past  and  increment  of  the  future. 

e.  Absolute  increment  and  relative  increment. 

The  increment  of  stems  cut  down  is  found  by  counting  and  measuring 
the   annual    rings   on   several   cross    sections. 

The  term  "stem"  or  "tree  analysis"  designates  an  investigation  into  the 
past  height  growth,  diameter  growth  and  volume  growth  of  a  tree. 

Circular  445  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry  defines  the  term  "increment," 
somewhat  narrowly,  as  follows :  "The  volume  of  wood  produced  by  the 
growth  in  height  and  diameter  of  a  tree  or  of  a  stand." 

For  definition  of  the  term  "tree  analysis,"  see  Circular  445  of  Bureau 
of  Forestry. 

This   circular   distinguishes   between : 

1.  Stump-analysis,    being    a    tree    analysis    which    includes    measure- 

ments of  the  diameter  growth   at  given  periods  on  the  stump 
only,  no  matter  what  other  measurements  it  may  comprise; 

2.  Section-analysis,   being   a    tree   analysis    which   includes    measure- 

ments   of   the    diameter    growth    at    given    periods    upon    more 
than  one  section  of  a  tree ; 

3.  Partial   tree    (stump   or   section)    analysis,   wherein   the   measure- 

ment of  the  diameter  growth  at  given  periods  covers  a  portion 
only   of   the   total    diameter   growth. 

PARAGRAPH    LXXIII. 

HEIGHT    INCREMENT. 

The  height  increment,  from  the  silvicultural  standpoint,  is  of  interest 
to  the  forester  dealing  with  mixed   woods. 

The  difference  between  the  number  of  rings  found  on  two  separate  cross 
sections  through  the  bole  indicates  the  number  of  years  which  the  tree 


46 


Forest  Mensuration 


has  required  to  grow  through  the  distance  lying  between  these  two  sec- 
tions. By  counting  the  number  of  rings  at  several  cross  sections,  one  of 
which  is  made  as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible,  the  current  and  the 
average  height  growth  (increment)  may  be  obtained  by  arithmetical  or 
by  graphical   interpolation. 

A  dense  cover  favors  height  increment.  In  rare  instances,  however, 
the  stand  of  saplings  or  poles  is  so  close  that  the  height  increment  of 
the  individual  suffers  from  lack  of  food. 


/ 


PARAGRAPH    LXXIV. 


THE     CURRENT     HEIGHT     INCREMENT. 


In  the  high  forest  the  current  annual  height  increment  reaches  a 
maximum  at  an  early  age;  passing  this  maximum,  it  sinks  more  or  less 
rapidly.  The  culmination  of  the  current  annual  height  increment  occurs 
the  much  earlier  and  its  slackening  after  said  culmination  goes  on  at  a 
more  rapid  rate  if 

1.  the  species  is   fast  growing  and  light  demanding; 

2.  the  tree  observed  belongs  to  the  dominant  class ; 

3.  the  soil  is  good. 

For  yellow  pine  the  culmination  of  the  current  annual  height  incre- 
ment occurs  amongst  dominant  saplings  between  the  10th  and  15th  years ; 
for  spruce  at  about  the  20th  year ;  for  beech  and  fir  between  the  25th 
and  30th  years.  Suppressed  trees  show  the  maximum  of  current  height 
growth  much  later  than  dominant  trees. 

As  a  general  rule  for  all  species,  in  case  of  dominant  trees,  the  longest 
shoot  is  made  10  to  15  feet  above  ground.  Slow  growing  species,  shade 
bearers  and  trees  stocking  on  poor  soil  reach  that  level  at  a  later  date 
than  trees  and  species  growing  under  reversed  conditions. 

In  the  case  of  coppice  forest,  the  maximum  of  the  current  height 
growth  lies  in  the  first  three  years  of  the  life  of  the  shoot.  For  oak 
coppice,  the  following  table  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  height  growth : 

Growth  in  Feet. 


Age  in  years 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

13' 

23' 

30' 

37< 

43' 

1.3' 

1 .0' 

0.7' 

O.65' 

O.63' 

1/ 


PARAGRAPH    LXXV. 


THE     AVERAGE     HEIGHT     INCREMENT. 


The  average  annual  height  increment  culminates  later  than  the  current 
annual  height  increment,  and,  after  the  culmination,  it  decreases  at  a  less 


Forest  Mensuration  47 

rapid  rate  than  the  current  annual  height  increment.  The  average  annual 
height  increment  culminates  at  the  very  age  at  which  it  is  equal  to  the 
current  annual  height  increment. 

As  long  as  the  average  increment  increases  the  current  increment  is 
larger  than  the  average.  The  average  increment  still  rises  during  a  period 
of  decrease  of  current  increment. 

These  laws  hold  good  not  only  for  height  growth,  but  also  for  the 
growth  of  diameter,  sectional  area  and  volume.  They  are  based  merely 
on  mathematical  principles  and  are,  for  that  reason,  independent  of  spe- 
cies,  climate  and  soil. 

If  "a"  denotes  the  current  annual  increment,  and  if  "d"  denotes  the 
average  annual  increment,  whilst  the  indices  1,  2,  3,  etc.  (up  to  n),  indi- 
cate the  year  of  increment,  then  the  following  five  equations  hold  good : 

n  X  dn  =  a,  +  a2  +  a3    +  an 

(n  +  1)  dm- 1  =  a,    f  a2  +  a3 an  +  an  +1 

(n  +  1)  dB  +  i  —  n  X  dn+  aB+  1 

n  X  dn  +  1  =-  n  X  dn  +  an  +  1  —  dn  +  1 
n  (dn  +  1  —  dn  )  =  an  +  1  —  dn  +  l 


PARAGRAPH    LXXVI. 

RELATIVE    INCREMENT    OF    THE    HEIGHT. 

The  percentage  of  height  increment  forms,  from  the  start  on,  an  irreg- 
ularly descending  progression. 

If  the  height  is  h  at  the  beginning  of  a  period  of  n  years  of  observa- 
tion and  H  at  the  end  of  that  period,  then 

h  X  1.  op"  equals  H 
and 

p  equals  100.J—  —  100 

Pressler  substitutes  for  this  formula  in  case  of  short  periods  of  observa- 
tion   the    following : 

200         H  —  h 

This  formula  is  derived  as  follows :  Imagine  that  we  are  in  the  midst 
of    the    period    of    n    years.     At    that    time,    the    increment    is    apt    to    be 

— — -,  whilst  the  height  at  that  time  is  apt  to  be       ~^~     ;  hence,  for  that  mid- 

n  2 

die  year,  the  equation  is : 

p  H  — h  2 

X 


100  n  H  +h 


r      «^     6S-"  v       _ 


**Z'A«*\   ^r^^^J^^ 


4  *A 

48  Forest  Mensnrltitn  *ZS*^  ^> 

PARAGRAPH  LXXVII. 


/ 


•IAMETER    INCREMENT. 


The  current  diameter  increment  is  obtained  by  counting  and  measuring 
the  rings  on  a  disk  through  the  tree.  It  is  generally  best  to  count  from 
the  bark  towards  the  center,  aling  tw#  radii  standing  perpendicular  to 
each   other. 

The  general  laws  of  diameter  growth  are  identical  with  those  of  height 
growth  relative  to  culmination,  decrease  and  increase  of  absolute  (Par- 
agraph LXXV.)  as  well  as  of  relative  (Paragraph  LXXVI.)  increment. 

If  we  exclude  the  butt-piece  below  chest-height,  the  annual  rings  along 
the  tree  bole  measured  at  various  elevations  above  ground  show  a  grad- 
ual increase  of  width  with  elevation,  provided  that  the  leaf  canopy  of 
the  forest  is  complete  and  uninterrupted — e.  g.,  the  width  of  the  ring  50 
feet  from  the  ground,  formed  in  1903,  is  greater  than  the  width  of  the 
ring  formed  20  feet  above  ground  in  the  same  year. 

For  trees  standing  in  open  crown-density,  the  width  of  the  ring  de- 
creases with  the  elevation  above  the  ground,  especially  within  the  crown 
itself. 

A  tree  standing  in  a  thin  crown-density  may  show  an  even  width  of 
ring  all  over  the  tree  bole. 

For  very  old  trees  in  closed  stand  it  is  sometimes  found  that  the  diam- 
eter, say  40  feet  above  ground,  is  larger  than  the  diameter,  say,  20  feet 
above  ground. 

The  rings  on  a  disk  are  not  actually  circles;  they  more  closely  ap- 
proach the  form  of  eccentric  ellipses   (see  Paragraph  XIII.). 


J 


PARAGRAPH    LXXVlII. 


SECTIONAL    AREA     INCREMENT. 


The  increment  of  the  sectional  area  is  obtained  from  the  increment  of 
the  diameters.  Where  greater  exactness  is  required,  and  especially  in 
case  of  irregular  rings,  the  planimeter  or  the  weight  of  a  piece  of  paper 
having  the  form  of  the  sectional  area  may  be  used  for  measuring  to  good 
advantage    (Paragraph   XIII.). 

The  increment  of  the  sectional  area  at  chest  height  depends  on  the 
crown  density  overhead ;  further,  on  the  quality  of  the  soil.  At  chest 
height  the  culmination  of  the  current  annual  sectional  area  increment 
takes  place,  in  the  case  of  dominant  trees,  fast  growing  species  and  com- 
plete cover  overhead,  between  the  years  40  and  70. 

The  culmination  of  the  current  annual  sectional  area  increment  occurs 
always  later  than  the  culmination  of  the  current  height  and  diameter  in- 
crement.    After  culmination  it  remains  uniform  for  a  long  time. 

The  absolute  increment  of  a  sectional  area  higher  up  on  the  bole,  com- 
pared with  the  absolute  increment  at  chest  height,  is  found  to  be  equal 
to  it  in  the  case  of  dominant  trees ;  larger  in  the  case  of  suppressed  trees ; 
and  smaller  in  the  case  of  isolated  trees. 


V. 


~*-+-^C~m 


Foresl/hlensiti-ation  (    /  4$ 


Pressler  establishes  as  the  "law  of  bole  formation"  the  following  rule : 
"The  absolute  increment  of  the  sectional  area  at  any  point  of  a  b»le  is 
directly  proportioned  to  the  leaf  surface  above  that  point." 

This  rule  is,  on  the  whole,  correct.  An  unexpected  swelling,  however, 
is  often  found  at  9/16  of  the  height  of  the  tree.  Within  the  crown  of 
the  tree,  the  decrease  of  sectional  area  increment  is  rapid. 


PARAGRAPH    LXXIX. 

RELATIVE    INCREMENT    OF    DIAMETER    AND    OF    SECTIONAL    AREA. 

The  increment  percentage  at  any  point  of  the  bole,  like  all  increment 
percentages,  forms  a  constantly  but  irregularly  descending  progression. 

At  any  point  of  the  bole  the  increment  percentage  of  the  sectional  area 
is  the  double  of  the  increment  percentage  of  the  diameter. 

Schneider  gives  a  handy  formula  for  the  sectional  area  increment  per- 
centage, viz. : 

400 

P  equals   

nd 

wherein  d  represents  the  diameter  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  ob- 
servation, and  wherein  n  indicates  the  number  of  rings  per  inch  at  the 
time  of  observation. 

The  percentage  of  the  sectional  area  increment  increase  along  the  bole 
with  increasing  height  of  the  disk  measured,  excepting,  however,  possibly, 
the  case  of  very  isolated  trees. 

The  average  sectional  area  increment  percentage  of  the  bole  is  found  at 
a  point  a  little  below  one-half  of  the  total  height,  namely,  at  about  0.45 
of  the  total  height  from  ground. 


PARAGRAPH  LXXX. 

VOLUME      INCREMENT. 

The  (current  and  future)  volume  increment  of  standing  trees  is  of 
great  interest  to  forest  financiers ;  it  can  be  estimated  only,  and  cannot 
be    measured    exactly. 

The  volume  increment  of  trees  cut  down  may  be  ascertained  as  follows : 

1.  By  the  sectional  method,  or  by  "section  analysis"  (Paragraph 
LXXXL). 

2.  From  the  increment  of  sectional  area  chest  high,  height  increment 
and  form  figures   (Paragraph  LXXXIV.). 

3.  From  the  increment  of  sectional  area  in  the  midst  of  bole  (Para- 
graph LXXXV.). 

4.  On  the  basis  of  the  average  annual  increment  (Paragraph 
LXXXVIL,   last  4  lines). 

5 


5« 


Forest  Mensuration 


PARAGRAPH    LXXXI. 


SECTION    ANALYSIS. 


The  section-method  is  a  complete  tree  analysis  by  sections.  The  entire 
bole  is  divided  into  a  number  of  sections,  preferably  of  even  length,  at 
both  ends,  or,  better,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  periodical  increment  of 
the  sectional  area  is  ascertained   (compare   Paragraph  XL). 

In  the  latter  case,  multiplying  such  sectional  areas  (in  square  feet) 
as  belong  to  the  same  age  of  the  tree  by  the  length  (in  feet)  of  the  sec- 
tions, the  volumes  (in  cubic  feet)  of  the  different  sections  at  given  ages 
are  obtained. 

The  "top  pieces,"  however,  must  be  figured  out  separately,  their  length 
differing  from  the  even  length  of  the  sections.  These  top  pieces  are 
usually  considered  as  cones,  and  their  volumes  are  ascertained  as  one-third 
height  times  basal  area  of  top  piece.  The  basal  area  of  the  top  piece  is 
identical  with  the  upper  area  of  the  uppermost  full  section  of  a  given  age. 


Example  for  Huber-Sections  Ten  Feet  Long. 


Total  height 

25  feet. 

40  feet. 

67  feet. 

20  years. 

40  years. 

60  years. 

Sectional  area  of  Section  i 

0.34  sq.  ft. 

0.78  sq.  ft. 

1.23  sq.  ft. 

Sectional  area  of  Section  2 

0.15  sq.  ft. 

0.45  sq.  ft. 

0.87  sq.  ft. 

0.25  sq.  ft. 

0.  64  sq.  ft. 

0.03  sq.  ft. 

0.53  sq.  ft. 

0.25  sq.  ft. 

0.04  sq.  ft. 

Summary  of  sectional  areas 

0.49  sq.  ft. 

1. 51  sq.  ft. 

3.56  sq.  ft. 

Summary  sectional  areas  x  10 

4.90  cu.  ft. 

15.10  cu.  ft. 

35.60  cu.  ft. 

0.05  cu.  ft. 

0.09  cu.  ft. 

0.08  cu.  ft. 

4.95  cu.  ft. 

15.19  cu.  ft. 

35.68  cu.  ft. 

The  volume  of  the  top  pieces  forms  in  the  older  age  columns  an  insig- 
nificant part  of  the  total  volume. 

If  the  logs  as  cut  in  the  woods  are  used  as  sections,  then  each  section 
has  a  separate  length  and  its  volume  must  be  separately  ascertained  for 
every   decade  of  age  of  tree. 

Remark  :  It  is  wise  to  first  ascertain  the  full  age  of  the  tree,  allowing 
for  stump  years.  It  is  further  wise  to  throw  off  that  number  of  years 
which  exceeds  full  decades — c.  g.,  in  case  of  a  tree  117  years  old,  7  years. 


Forest  Mensuration  51 

At  the  stump  the  rings  had  best  be  counted  from  the  inside  out,  allowing 
for  stump  years.  Instance:  Age  of  tree,  117;  stump  years,  4  years;  count- 
ing on  the  stump,  from  the  inside,  6  rings  establishes  the  ring  formed  in 
the  year  10.  Continuing,  the  rings  of  the  years  20,  30,  40,  50,  etc.,  up 
to  year  no,  are  pencil  marked.     The  outside  seven  rings  are  thrown  off. 

At  all  other  disk-sections,  count  and  measure  from  the  outside  in,  after 
discarding  the  7  years  exceeding  full  decades  of  tree  life. 

PARAGRAPH    LXXXII. 
noerdlinger's    paper   weight    method. 

The  total  length  of  the  tree  is  divided  into  8  Huber  sections,  and  cuts 
are  made  in  the  midst  of  these  sections,  at  the  height  of  1/16,  3/16,  5/16, 
7/16  and  up  to  15/16  of  the  bole.  On  each  cross  section  the  radii  are 
measured,  not  with  the  rule,  but  with  dividers. 

On  a  piece  of  paper  folded  4  times  and  thus  divided  into  8  sectors  the 
measurements  are  entered  with  the  help  of  the  dividers,  one  sector  being 
allotted  to  the  first  cross  section,  the  next  sector  to  the  next  cross  sec- 
tion, etc.  Multiplying  the  total  weight  of  the  zone  indicating,  say,  the 
year  70,  by  height  of  the  tree  and  dividing  the  product  by  the  weight  of 
a  square  foot  of  paper,  the  volume  of  the  tree  when  70  years  old  is 
directly  obtained  in  cubic  feet.  Similarly  the  zones  corresponding  with 
the  year  50,  60,  etc.,  are  cut  out,  weighed  and  multiplied. 

If  the  volume  increment  percentage  p  alone  is  to  be  obtained,  then  it 
is  enough  to  divide,  say,  the  "weight"  of  the  year  70  by  the  weight  of 
the  year  60,  and  the  10th  root  of  the  quotient  will  equal  i.op. 

PARAGRAPH   LXXXIII. 
schenxk's  graphic  tree  analysis. 
Graphic  tree  analysis  offers  the  following  advantages : 

1.  Mistakes  are  impossible,  being  at  once  noticeable  on  the  diagram 
paper. 

2.  The  volume  in  feet  Doyle  can  be  readily  obtained  for  any  stated 
minimum    diameter. 

3.  The  graphical  sketch  is  adaptable  to  any  of  the  43  scales  in  use  in 
the  United  States,  as  well  as  to  the  metric  system. 

4.  The  thickness  of  heart  wood  and  sap  wood  and  bark  readily  appears. 

5.  It  is  immaterial  whether  measurements  are  taken  in  meters  or  in 
feet,  the  graphical  sketch  readily  allowing  of  transfers  into  other  units. 

6.  Height  growth  and  diameter  growth  appear  at  the  same  time,  and 
from  the  same  entries. 

7.  The  length  of  the  sections  taken  need  not  be  uniform. 

The  method  of  proceeding  is  as  follows :  On  millimeter  paper  a  system 
of  co-ordinates  is  established ;  heights  are  entered  as  ordinates,  diameters 


52 


Forest  Mensuration 


or  radii  as  abscissas.  The  scale  for  the  height  entries  should  be  much 
smaller  than  that  of  the  diameter  entries. 

Diameter  points,  at  the  different  section-heights,  corresponding  to  a 
given  decade  of  years  are  joined  (beginning  at  the  outside),  by  which 
procedure  the  outline  of  the  tree  at  that  decade  is  established. 

Th  top  cones  are  obtained  by  prolonging  such  outlines  arbitrarily  until 
they  intersect  with  the  height-axis. 

The  merchantable  bole  for  each  decade  is  dissected,  on  the  diagram, 
into  logs  the  length  and  diameter  of  which  are  measured  on  the  diagram. 


PARAGRAPH   LXXXIV. 

wagener's  method  and  stump  analysis. 

Wagener  recommends  a  partial  stem  analysis  for  cases  in  which  a 
knowledge  of  the  absolute  increment,  not  a  knowledge  of  the  absolute 
tree  volume,  is  required.  Tree  volume  is  sectional  area  chest  high  times 
height  of  tree  times  form  factor. 

Wagener  analyses : 

a.  the  height  growth  by  counting  the  rings  at  various  altitudes  along 
the   bole; 

b.  the  growth  of  the  sectional  area  at  chest  height  by  measurement  in 
decades  in  the  usual  way. 

Wagener  then  estimates  the  form  factor  according  to  form  factor  tables. 

In  the  latter  proposition,  obviously,  lies  the  danger  of  mistakes.  Since, 
however,  increment  is  a  difference  of  volumes,  merely  the  difference  of 
mistakes — a  comparatively  small  item — enters  into  the  problem. 


Age  in  years 

60 

80 

100 

120 

14- 

17- 

19. 

21 . 

Sectional  area  b.  h 

0.25 

o.35 

0.50 

0.71 

Height  in  feet 

75- 

85. 

93- 

105. 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

0.50 

9-4 

13- 

23- 

36. 

Increment  in  cubic  feet 

3- 

5              ic 

).              1 

3- 

The  "stump  analysis"  (compare  Paragraph  LXXII.)  introduced  by 
the  Bureau  of  Forestry  rests  on  premises  similar  to  those  proffered  by 
Wagener. 

If  the  form  height  for  the  stump-diameters  (or  the  number  of  feet 
b.  m.  per  square  foot  of  stump  area  for  given  stump  diameters)  is  known, 
the  rate  of  volume  increment  can  be  quickly  ascertained  by  mere  stump 
analysis. 


Forest  Mensuration  53 

It  is,  however,  a  well  known  fact  that  the  diameter  growth  at  the 
stump — especially  at  a  low  stump — is  particularly  unreliable  as  an  index 
of  volume  growth,  owing  to  the  exaggerating  influence  on  stump  growth 
exercised  by  light,  by  water,  by  depth  of  soil  and  by  superficial  roots. 

Stump  analysis  as  a  means  to  bring  a  volume  in  reference  to  a  sec- 
tional area  at  the  stump  is  permissible  only  as  a  necessary  evil.     ' 

PARAGRAPH    LXXXV. 
pressler's    method. 

Frequently  the  task  before  the  forester  is  merely  that  of  ascertaining 
the  increase  of  bole  volume  during  the  last  10  or  20  years.  Then  after 
Pressler,  one  single  investigation  into  the  growth  of  the  sectional  area  is 
sufficient  when  made  with  the  help  of  the  accretion  borer  in  the  midst  of 
the  "decapitated"  bole.  The  volume  increment  in  cubic  feet  equals  the 
sectional  area  increment  in  question  multiplied  by  the  height  of  the 
tree. 

The  bole  is  decapitated  by  that  number  of  top  shoots  which  have  been 
formed  during  the  period  of  observation.  This  operation  corresponds 
very  well  with  the  usual  practice  of  judging  the  bole  increment  per- 
centage from  the  sectional  area  increment  ascertained  at  0.45  of  height 
of  tree. 

Pressler  measures  the  sectional  area  at  the  end  of  the  period  of  observa- 
tion too  large,  measuring  it  at  too  low  a  point.  He  multiplies  this  sec- 
tional area,  however,  by  too  small  a  height — namely,  the  decapitated 
height;  thus  a  mistake  made  in  the  positive  sense  is  apt  to  be  eliminated 
by  a  mistake  made  in  the  negative  sense. 

The  axe  can  be  used  to  better  advantage  frequently  than  the  accretion 
borer. 


PARAGRAPH   LXXXVI. 
breymann's  method. 
Breymann  gives  the  following  formula : 
1.     For  the  current  annual  volume  increment  T: 

8 


(44) 


wherein  "S"  and  "X"  denote   the  annual  increase  of   diameter  "d"   and 
length  "1"  respectively. 

2.     For  the  corresponding  increment  percentage  P : 

p  =  ioo(2-+T) 

It  appears  that  for  trees  of  old  age  and  hence  of  little  height  growth 
the  increment  percentage  is  merely  dependent  on  the  diameter  increase. 


54 


Forest  Mensuration 


Breymann,   however,   neglects : 

1.  The  change  of  form  figure,  during  the  period  of  observation; 

2.  A  number  of  small  factors  which  ought  to  be  embraced  in  the 
formula. 

For  stopping  height  growth  or  for  \  =  0  ,  the  term  given  for  P  can 
be  easily  reduced  to  the  term  given  by  Schneider  for  the  sectional  area 
increment   percentage. 


PARAGRAPH    LXXXVII. 

FACTORS    INFLUENCING    THE    CUBIC   VOLUME   INCREMENT. 

The  culmination  of  the  current  annual  volume  increment  takes  place  at 
a  later  year  than  the  culmination  of  the  sectional  area  increment  at  breast 
height.  Naturally  so,  because  with  increasing  age  of  a  tree,  its  root  sys- 
tem as  well  as  the  branch  system,  the  feeders  of  the  body,  show  contin- 
uous increase. 

Big  and  long  branches,  of  course,  require  a  great  deal  of  wood  fibre 
to  increase  and  maintain  their  own  strength,  like  levers  increased  in 
length.  Hence,  from  a  certain  size  of  branch  on,  all  wood  fibre  produced 
by  the  branch  is  used  up  within  the  branch  itself,  for  its  own  purposes, 
instead  of  being  added  as  increment  to  the  merchantable  bole. 

After  Dr.  Metzger,  the  crown  of  a  tree  yields  the  maximum  of  bole 
increment  if  its  crown  diameter  is,  and  if  the  number  of  trees  per  acrf 
are: 


Quality  of  soil. 

Diameter  of  crown,  in  feet. 

No.  of  trees  per  acre. 

Very  good. 

16.5 

203 

Good 

14-7 

256 

Medium 

12.7 

343 

Poor 

9-3 

640 

Very  poor 

8-3 

807 

From  the  theoretical  standpoint  it  seems  wise,  consequently,  to  force 
the  lower  branches  of  a  tree  to  die,  with  the  help  of  proper  tension  and 
friction  within  the  leaf  canopy,  when  they  exceed  a  length  of  8.25,  7.35, 
6-35.  465  and  4.15  feet  respectively  (the  halves  of  the  diameters). 

Metzger's  investigations  are  interesting,  but  his  conclusions  seem  to  be 
too  sweeping. 

P.  P.  Pel  ton  recommends  the  lopping  of  branches  in  order  to  shorten 
the  length  of  the  branch-levers. 

The   average   annual   volume   increment   of   dominant   and    sound    trees 


Forest  JMensuration 


V? 


culminates  at  a  very  high  age  only,  if  ever,  owing  to  the  late  culmina- 
tion of  the  current  annual   average  increment. 

The  volume  increment  percentage  forms — as  in  all  cases  of  increment — 
a  steadily  but  irregularly  decreasing  progression.  This  percentage  is  in- 
variably equal  to  or  higher  than  the  sectional  area  increment  percentage 
at  chest  height. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  volume  increment  percentage  amounts  to  from 
I  to  1.75  times  the  sectional  area  (at  chest  height)  increment  percentage, 
or,  as  Pressler  gives  it,  to  from  2  to  3^  times  the  diameter  (at  chest 
height)   increment  percentage. 


Height  Growth. 

Crown  covers  part  of  bole 

Seemingly  nil. 

Medium. 

Good. 

Excellent. 

\  or  more. 
Jtoi 

Less  than  \. 

2-33 
2.50 
2.67 

2.67 
2.83 
3.00 

3.00 
3-17 
3-33 

317 
3-33 

Since  the  average  volume  increment  of  a  tree  is  equal  or  closely  equal 
to  the  current  annual  increment  at  a  high  age  only,  it  is  usually  not 
permissible  to  substitute  the  average  increment,  which  is  easily  ascer- 
tained, for  the  current  annual  increment. 


PARAGRAPH    LXXXVIII. 


VOLUME-INCREMENT    PERCENTAGE   OF    STANDING    TREES. 

In  the  case  of  standing  trees  the  volume  increment  percentage  cannot 
be  measured,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  ascertaining  a  change  of  form 
height. 

The  Pressler  data  given  in  the  preceding  paragraph  allow  of  estimating 
the  volume  increment  percentage  of  standing  trees  on  the  basis  of  a 
diameter-increase,  measured  at  breast  height. 

The  Pressler  "accretion  borer"  is  used  for  the  purpose,  or  an  axe. 

Stoetzer,  Director  of  the  Forest  Academy  at  Eisenach,  modifies  the 
Schneider  formula  for  sectional  area  percentage,  writing  it 

C 
P  =  n7 

wherein  n  indicates  number  of  years  (rings)  required  to  form  one  inch; 
d  represents  the  diameter  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  investigation, 
whilst  C  (the  so-called  "constant  factor  of  increment,"  which  is  not  a 
constant  factor  at  all)  must  be  ascertained  for  a  given  species,  soil,  diam- 
eter, age  and  position  by  actual  tests  on  felled  trees. 

In  old  dense  beech  woods  C  is,  e.  g.,  540.  After  a  seed  cutting  in  the 
same  woods  during  the  final  stage  of  regeneration  C  is  only  450  (observa- 
tion by  Dr.   Wimmenauer). 


56  Forest  Mensuration 

Trees  growing  as  cones  would  grow,  have  C  equal  to  600;  trees  grow- 
ing as  Apollonian  paraboloids  would  grow,  have  C  equal  to  800;  after 
Stoetzer,  C  might  amount  to  as  much  as  930,  in  case  of  suppressed  trees. 
The  minimum  possible   (in  sound  trees)    for  C  is  460. 

The  Pressler  values  given  in  the  table  of  the  preceding  paragraph 
closely  correspond  with  the  constant  factors  of  increment  ascertained 
after  Stoetzer.  In  the  case  of  the  Pressler  table  (at  end  of  Paragraph 
LXXXVII.)  we  find,  for  medium  height  growth  and  very  small  crown, 
a  factor  3.00  by  which  the  diameter  increment  percentage  is  to  be  multi- 
plied. This  factor  3.00  corresponds  with  600  for  a  constant  factor  of  in- 
crement. 

If  the  diameter  in  the  midst  of  the  bole  is  l/2  of  the  diameter  at  the 
end,  then  the  tree,  it  seems,  is  conical,  and  an  increment  factor  of  600 
might  be  assumed.  If  the  sectional  area  in  the  midst  of  the  bole  equals 
y2  the  sectional  area  at  the  end,  then  the  tree  is  a  paraboloid,  and  the 
increment  factor  seems  apt  to  be  800. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  a  tree  forming  a  paraboloid 
grows  as  a  paraboloid  only,  if  its  percentage  of  height  growth  is  equal  to 
its  percentage  of  growth  of  sectional  area — a  rare  case  in  merchantable 
trees. 

Similarly,  a  tree  growing  as  a  cone  must  have  the  height  increment 
percentage  equal   to   its   diameter  increment  percentage. 

If  n  and  v  represent  the  number  of  rings  per  inch  added  to  original 
diameters  d  and  8  at  chest  height  and  at  0.45  of  the  height  of  the  tree 
respectively,  then  the  "constant  factor  of  increment  C"  is  found  as  follows : 

400         C 

p  (volume)  —        "  =  — - 

vo       nd 

nd 

C  =  400 

v8 


PARAGRAPH    LXXXIX. 

INTERDEPENDENCE    BETWEEN    CUBIC    INCREMENT    AND    INCREMENT 
IN     FEET    B.     M.     DOYLE. 

Doyle's  rule  under-estimates  the  contents  of  small  logs  and  over-esti- 
mates  those   of  big  logs. 

Consequently,  the  growth  of  a  tree  bole  in  feet  b.  m.  Doyle  is  (for 
small  trees  yielding  logs  under  28"  diameter)  relatively  faster  than  the 
growth  of  a  tree  bole  expressed  in  cubic  feet.  The  figures  of  Column  D 
denote,  in  the  following  table,  this  excess  rate  of  growth : 


Forest  Mensuration 


57 


A 

5 

C 

D 

No.  of  ft.  b.  m.  per 

Differences  of  con- 

"Extraordinary" 

Diameter  of  logs 

one  cu.  ft.  of  tim- 

secutive  figures   in 

percentage  of  incre- 

without bark. 

ber  estimated 

Column  B. 

ment  Doyle  co-in- 

after  Doyle. 

ciding  with 
1"  growth. 

12" 

509 

8.1 

0.41 

13" 

5  50 

o.35 

6 

4 

14" 

5-85 

o.33 

5 

7 

15" 

6.18 

0.26 

4 

2 

16" 

6.44 

0.27 

4 

3 

17" 

6.71 

0.22 

3 

3 

18" 

6-93 

0.14 

2 

1 

19" 

7.07 

0.26 

3 

2 

20" 

7-33 

0.18 

2 

5 

21" 

7-5i 

0.16 

2 

2 

22" 

7.67 

0.15 

2 

0 

23" 

7.82 

0.13 

1 

7 

24" 

7-95 

0. 14 

1 

8 

25" 

8.09 

0. 11 

1 

4 

26" 

8.20 

0. 12 

1 

5 

27" 

8-33 

0.09 

1 

1 

28" 

8.41 

0. 11 

1 

1 

29" 

8.52 

0.08 

1 

0 

30" 

8.60 

For  the  standard  rules,  the  increment  percentage  of  a  tree  can  be  ascer- 
tained by  cubic  measure  as  well  as  by  standard  measure. 

If  n  years  are  required  to  form  one  additional  inch  of  diameter,  then 
the   extraordinary   percentage   of   Doyle-increments    amounts    annually   to 

n  . 

V  1.0  D,  wherein  D  represents  the  values  of  Column  D  in  the  foregoing 
table. 

By  this  factor  -j/l.OD,  the  cubic  volume  increment  percentage  of  a 
bole  may  be  converted,  ceteris  paribus,  into  Doyle  increment  percentage, 
provided  that 


58  Forest  Mensuration 

1.  The  cubic  increment  percentage  of  the  total  bole  coincides  with  the 
cubic  increment  percentage  of  the  merchantable  bole; 

2.  The  merchantable  bole  does  not  increase  in  length  during  the  period 
of    observation. 


PARAGRAPH    XC. 

CONSTRUCTION     OF     VOLUME     TABLES. 

Volume  tables  are  "tree  yield  tables"  from  which  the  volume  of  a  tree 
of  given  species,  given  age,  given  diameter  breast  high  or  stump  high, 
given  height,  given  merchantable  bole,  given  position  (suppressed,  dom- 
inant, etc.,  or  isolated,  crowded,  etc.),  given  locality  and  so  on  can  be 
readily  read.  The  units  of  volume  are  cubic  feet,  board  feet,  standards, 
cords,  etc.,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  case. 

Obviously,  volume  tables  give,  or  should  give,  the  volumes  of  average 
trees;  they  may  give,  in  addition,  the  maximum  and  minimum  volume 
possible  in  a  tree  of  stated  description. 

Volume  tables  are  constructed  either  on  the  basis  of  hundreds  (thou- 
sands) of  measurements  taken  from  trees  actually  felled  in  the  woods 
(possibly  also  sawn  at  a  saw  mill,  to  ascertain  the  grades)  or  on  the 
basis  of  a  smaller  number  of  complete  section  analyses. 

The  rapidity  of  volume  growth  of  a  species  and  the  development  of  its 
form  height  depend  on  many  local  factors — notably  on  climate,  soil,  sylvi- 
cultural  systems  at  hand,  influence  of  fires,  fungi,  insects,  etc. 

Owing  to  the  multitude  of  local  factors  influencing  the  volumes  and 
the  changes  of  volumes,  local  volume  tables  alone  are  entitled  to  a  place 
in  exact  mensuration. 

Volume  tables  for  second  growth  are  more  reliable  than  volume  tables 
for  first  growth. 

Circular  445  of  Bureau  of  Forestry  defines  volume  table  as  "a  tabular 
statement  of  the  volume  of  trees  in  board  feet  or  other  units  upon  the 
basis  of  their  diameter  breast  high,  their  diameter  breast  high  and  height, 
their  age,  or  their  age  and  height." 

The  method  of  construction  of  volume  tables  is  either  mathematical  or 
graphical. 

1.     Mathematical  method. 

The  volumes  ascertained  for  trees  of  a  given  diameter  (breast  high  or 
stump  high  with  or  without  bark),  a  given  merchantable  length  or  total 
length,  a  given  age  or  a  given  quality  or  locality  are  added  up. 

The  sum  total  of  these  volumes  divided  by  the  number  of  trees  forming 
it  yields  the  average  volume  of  the  tree  of  stated  description. 

These  averages  are  shown,  for  the  various  diameters,  lengths,  ages  and 
localities,  in  tabular  form. 

The  volumes  corresponding  with  such  diameters,  lengths,  ages  and  lo- 
calities, for  which  sample  trees  were  not  cut  and  measured,  are  found  by 
arithmetic  interpolation. 


Forest  Mensuration  59 

Finally,  the  differences  in  volume  shown  by  average  trees  of  similar 
description  (*.  e.,  differing  but  slightly  in  diameter,  length,  etc.)  are 
formed  and  rounded  off  in  a  manner  causing  the  volumes  to  show  a  more 
steady  mathematic  progression. 

2.     Graphic  method. 

The  volume  of  each  tree  measured  is  entered  as  the  abscissa  on  a 
diagram-system  of  co-ordinates,  whilst  the  diameters  of  the  trees  (or  the 
age,  etc.)  are  registered  on  the  ordinate  axis.  Similarity  of  length  is  in- 
dicated by  color  of  mark  representing  the  tree ;  similarity  of  locality  is 
indicated  by  the  form  of  the  mark  (square,  triangle,  cross,  circle,  etc.). 

Corresponding  marks  are  then  joined  by  chains  (having  square,  cir- 
cular, triangular  links)   of  the  proper  color. 

Finally,  average  curves  as  well  as  maximum  and  minimum  curves 
are  drawn  for  the  various  colors  and  forms  of  marks. 

Maximum  and  minimum  curves  should  not  represent  the  very  best 
and  the  very  worst  possibilities;  they  should  represent  the  average  of 
very  good  and   very  bad   trees. 

The  graphic  method  is  more  reliable,  because  less  depending  on  mere 
figures,  than  the  mathematical  method.  Both  methods  are  frequently 
combined. 

A  number  of  complete  tree  analyses  furnishes  more  reliable  results  than 
a  large  number  of  mere  volume  measurements  because  it  yields  more 
reliable  curves  (guide-curves)  of  development  for  one  and  the  same  lo- 
cality, and  because  it  prevents  the  forester  from  drawing  curves  of  growth 
at  random. 

If  the  sample  trees  (or  sample  logs)  are  sawn  up  at  a  saw  mill  where 
the  lumber  is  properly  graded  according  to  the  inspection  rules  prevailing 
for  the  species  in  question,  the  volume  tables  may  also  give  the  actual 
average  output  of  specified  trees  in  lumber  of  the  various  grades. 


SECTION  II.— INCREMENT  OF  A  WOOD. 
PARAGRAPH    XCI. 

INCREMENT  OF  FORESTS. 

The  volume  increment  of  the  virgin  forest  is  on  the  whole  nill. 

In  America  the  value  increment  of  a  primeval  forest  is  based  more  on 
a  price  increment  of  stumpage  than  on  a  volume  increment  of  trees.  The 
volume  increment,  in  addition,  can  scarcely  be  ascertained  with  sufficient 
accuracy  for  a  given  piece  of  forest  at  a  reasonable  expense. 

In  second  growth  forests,  on  the  other  hand,  say  in  Virginia,  an  abso- 
lute knowledge  of  the  productiveness  of  the  forest  renders  forestal  invest- 
ments safer  in  the  eyes  of  the  owner ;  and  the  safety  of  the  investment  it  is 
which  alone  can  tempt  the  capitalist  to  invest  in  forestry.     A  knowledge  of 


60  Forest  Mensuration 

the  increment  in  second  growth  woodlands  can  be  obtained  from  tabulated 
statements  ("yield  tables")  showing  the  rate  of  growth  for  woodlands  of 
a  given  species  in  a  given  locality.  Under  normal  yield  tables  are  under- 
stood such  tables  which  give  the  rate  of  growth  for  even-eged,  pure,  nor- 
mally stocked,  well  thinned  woodlots  for  given  localities  (compare  Para- 
graph  LIII.   and   XCIV..). 

Such  normal  yield  tables  are  constructed  abroad  for  beech,  pine,  spruce, 
fir  and  oak.  In  this  country  they  exist  only  in  Pinchot's  and  Graves' 
yield  tables  for  white  pine.  In  America,  pure  even-aged  woods  are  found 
in  rare  cases  only  (taeda,  echinata,  rigida,  jack  and  longleaf  pines,  tama- 
rack, coppicewood). 

In  the  construction  of  normal  yield  tables  the  following  points  require 
consideration : 

1.  The  different  methods  of  construction   (Paragraph  XCIL). 

2.  The  combination,  interpolation,  adjustment  and  correction  of  the 
results    (Paragraph  XCIIL). 

3.  The  contents  and  use  of  yield  tables   (Paragraph  XCIV.). 


PARAGRAPH   XCIL 

METHODS    OF    CONSTRUCTION    OF    NORMAL    YIELD    TABLES. 

Normal  yield  tables  may  be  based  on : 

A.  Repeated  survey  of  some  typical  woodlots  during  their  entire  life- 
time. 

B.  Repeated  survey  of  different  woods  standing  on  an  equal  quality 
of  soil,  during  a  period  of  years  equal  at  least  to  the  longest  difference  in 
age  found  amongst  them. 

C.  One-time,  simultaneous  survey  of  a  very  large  number  of  woods  of 
different  ages  standing  on  different  qualities  of  soil.  Missing  links  are 
here  obtained  by  graphic  or  mathematical  interpolation  (Paragraph 
XCIIL). 

If  tables  are  constructed  by  repeated  survey  of  several  woods  (B),  it 
is  often  found  that  the  links  cross  one  another  for  unexplainable  reasons. 


PARAGRAPH    XCIIL 

GATHERING    DATA    FOR    NORMAL    YIELD    TABLES. 

In  order  to  see  whether  or  not  two  woods,  in  the  case  C  of  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph,  belong  to  the  same  chain  of  growth,  two  methods  are 
in  use : 

a.  The  horn  or  curve  method,  after  Baur. 

b.  The  stem  analysis  method. 


Forest  Mensuration  61 


Remarks  on  a. 


The  contents  and  age  of  all  woods  (normal)  surveyed  are  plotted  in  a 
diagram,  the  age  forming  the  abscissa  and  the  volume  the  ordinate  of  the 
system. 

Curves  are  then  drawn  outlining  the  maxima  and  minima  of  growth 
observed. 

The  horn-shaped  space  between  these  curves  is  divided  into  a  number 
of  sectors  equal  to  the  number  of  yield  classes  to  be  distinguished.  The 
middle  line  of  each  sector  illustrates  the  productiveness  of  its  class. 

The  average  height  growth  is  obtained  in  a  similar  way,  the  height  data 
forming  the  ordinates  in  a  system  of  co-ordinates. 

Baur  finds  that  the  allotment  of  a  given  plot  to  a  volume-sector  corre- 
sponds with  its  allotment  to  a  height  sector.  In  other  words,  the  height 
is,  after  Baur,  an  absolutely  reliable  indicator  of  the  quality  of  the  soil, 
or,  what  is  the  same,  of  the  yield  class. 

The  growth  of  sectional  area,  height  and  volume  being  known,  the 
development  of  the  form  factors  for  the  various  sectors  is  readily  ob- 
tained from  the  fraction 

sXh 

Remarks  on  b: 

An  analysis  of  the  average  stems  in  lots  surveyed  would  not  throw 
any  light  on  their  connection  as  members  of  one  and  the  same  chain 
of  observation.  After  Robert  Hartig,  the  200  strongest  trees  are  analyzed. 
After  Wagener,  the  ideal  cylinders  merely  of  these  200  strongest  stems 
are  analyzed  by  ascertaining  their  height  growth  and  their  diameter 
growth  at  breast  height.  Weise  and  Schwappach  are  satisfied  with  an 
analysis  of  the  heights  merely  of  the  200  best  stems. 

The  selection  of  sample  plots  is  not  easy,  even  in  second  growth  raised 
under  forestal  care.  A  valuation  survey  establishes  for  each  plot  the 
number  of  stems  and  the  sectional  area  for  each  diameter  class  of  stems 
(usually  divided  into  5  classes)  ;  further,  the  average  age  and  the  average 
height  of  the  plot.  The  volume  is  then  figured  out,  usually,  according 
to  the   Draudt-Urich   method. 

The  experiment  stations  maintained  by  the  European  Governments 
control  the  growth  of  a  large  number  of  experimental  plots,  which  should 
not  be  smaller  than  Yz  acre  each. 

The  sample  plots  are  corner  marked,  and,  more  recently,  the  individual 
trees  contained  therein  are  numbered  consecutively.  Surveys  of  these 
plots  are  made  every  five  years.  The  point  of  measurement  is  indicated  by 
a  chalk  line. 

In  America  normal  sample  plots  have  not  been  established  as  yet  by 
the  Bureau  of  Forestry  in  second  growth.  The  sample  plots  at  Biltmore 
do   not   represent   a   normal   second   growth. 


62  Forest  Mensuration 

PARAGRAPH    XCIV. 

NORMAL   YIELD   TABLES,   THEIR    PURPOSES    AND   CONTENTS    ABROAD. 

Normal  yield  tables  are  especially  used  for  the  following  purposes: 

1.  To  ascertain  the  quality  of  the  soil   (e.  g.,  for  taxation). 

2.  To  ascertain  the  volume  of  the  growing  stock. 

3.  To  ascertain  future  yields  of  the   forest. 

4.  To  solve  problems  of  forest  finance,  especially  those  of  forest  ma- 
turity   (length  of  rotation). 

German   normal   yield   tables  have  the   following  contents : 

A.  Tables  for  the  main  forest — the  secondary  forest  comprising  such 

trees  on  the  same  lot  as  are  about  to  be  removed  by  way  of  thin- 
ning: 

(1)  Age,  graded  at  five  year  intervals. 

(2)  Number  of  trees. 

(3)  Sectional  area  at  chest  height,  inclusive  of  bark. 

(4)  Average  diameter. 

(5)  Average  height  and  height  increment. 

(6)  Volume  in  cubic  measure  arranged  according  to  assortments 

as  logs,  fuel,  bark,  etc. 

(7)  Periodical   and   average  annual   volume   increment. 

(8)  Increment  percentage. 

(9)  Form  factor. 

(10)     Normal   growing   stock. 

B.  Tables  for  the  secondary  forest,  giving  merely  its  volume,  which, 
as  stated,  is  to  be  removed  by  way  of  thinning. 

Circular  445  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestry  defines  "future  yield  tables"  as 
follows :  "A  tabular  statement  of  the  amount  of  wrood  which,  after  a 
given  period,  will  be  contained  in  given  trees  upon  a  given  area  expressed 
in  board   feet  or  some  other  unit." 


PARAGRAPH    XCV. 

RETROSPECTIVE    YIELD    TABLES. 

In  "retrospective"  yield  tables  an  attempt  is  made  to  rebuild  the  grow- 
ing stock  as  it  was  before  lumbering  from  the  stumps  found  on  the 
ground  and  from  stem  analyses  of  the  trees  now  standing.  Prerequisite 
is  a  knowledge  of  the  year  in  which  lumbering  took  place  and  of  the 
conditions    of   growth   since   prevailing. 

Method   of   proceeding: 

1.  Make  stem  analyses  and  construct  tree  volume  tables,  showing  the 
probable  contents  of  trees  for  stumps  of  a  given  diameter  and  for  given 
diameters  b.  h. 


Forest  Mensuration  63 

2.  On  land  cut  over  n  years  ago,  find  by  valuation  survey  and  stem 
analyses : 

a.  The  present  volume  "F." 

b.  The  volume  "y"  of  the  trees  now  standing  as  it  was  "n"  years  ago 
with  the  help  of  tree  volume  tables. 

c.  From  the  stumps  the  volume  "x"  of  the  trees  logged  "n"  years  ago. 

3.  A  product  of  "F"  units  (with  an  undergrowth  not  fit  for  logging) 
has  been  derived  in  "n"  years  from  an  original  stand  aggregating  "y" 
plus   "x"   units   of  volume. 

4.  Grouping  hundreds  of  sample  plots  together,  yield  tables  for  local 
use  are  obtained.  Misleading  is,  of  course,  the  multiplicity  of  conditions 
(mixture  of  species,  soils,  original  stands,  pasture  and  fire)    surrounding 

,  a  second  growth   which   check  the   applicability  and   the  combination   of 
the  tables   found. 

The  tables  are  way  signs,  not  ways,  toward  a  true  knowledge  of  the 
productiveness  of  cut-over  woodlands. 


PARAGRAPH  XCVI. 

YIELD   TABLES    OF   THE    BUREAU    OF   FORESTRY. 

Bureau  yield  tables  are  meant  to  show  the  growth  on  cut-over  land 
occurring  within  the  next  10,  20  or  30  years,  if  a  tract  is  logged  to  a 
10",  12"  or  14"  (or  any  other)  limit.  Bureau  yield  tables  are  based  on 
tree  volume  tables  and  on  an  account  of  the  numbers  of  tree  individuals 
found  in  the  various  age  classes  of  forest,  viz.,  diameter  classes  of  trees. 

The  influence  of  the  different  qualities  of  soil  on  tree  growth  is  not 
given,  only  one  average  volume  table  being  constructed.  The  volume 
tables  show  the  number  of  years  which  a  tree  requires  to  increase  its 
diameter  b.  h.  by  one  inch.  The  volume  tables  record,  in  addition,  the 
volume  increase  corresponding  with  such  diameter  increase.  Applying 
these  findings  to  the  stumpage  presumably  left  after  logging,  the  volume 
can  be  ascertained  which  is  expected  to  be  on  hand  10,  20  or  30  years 
later.  The  volume  growth  is  forecasted,  as  if  it  were  taking  place  under 
primeval  conditions. 

The  Bureau  neglects  entirely  the  death  rate  of  trees,  due  to  natural 
causes  and  especially  high  amongst  seedlings  and  saplings,  or  else  due 
to  the  logging  operations  themselves.  The  results  forecasted  in  this  way 
must  be  invariably  too  high. 

Pinchot's  Spruce  Tables  (The  Adirondack  Spruce,  p.  77)  are  based  on 
similar  premises : 

a.  Construct  volume  tables  by  stem  analysis  (stump-analysis)  on  land 
cut  over  for  a  second  time,  thus  showing  rate  of  growth  for  trees  left 
standing  at  the  first  cut. 

b.  Construct  tables,  by  actual  measurements  in  the  woods,  giving  the 


64 


Forest  Mensuration 


number  of  trees  of  the  various  diameters,  composing  a  stumpage  of  from 
1,000  to   12,000  feet  board  measure. 

c.  Predict  the  number  of  trees  and  their  exact  diameters  to  be  found 
10,  20  or  30  years  after  logging,  according  to  severity  of  logging  (diam- 
eter limit). 

d.  With  the  help  of  the  volume  tables,  give  the  contents  of  these  trees. 

In  these  tables  as  well,  the  death  rate  amongst  trees  is  disregarded.  For 
normal  death  rate,  compare  Pinchot's  "White  Pine,"  p.  80,  ff ;  also  remarks 
at  end  of  Paragraph  LIV. 


PARAGRAPH    XCVII. 


THE    INCREMENT    OF    A    W00DL0T. 


The  current  as  well  as  the  annual  average  increment  of  normal,  even- 
aged  woods  culminates  at  a  much  earlier  date  than  the  increment  of  the 
trees  composing  such  woods.  The  explanation  lies  in  the  death  rate  of 
the  trees. 

Under  a  close  crown  density  in  even-aged,  normal  woods,  the  stronger 
half  of  the  trees  yield,  from  the  pole  stage  on,  practically  all  the  incre- 
ment, the  weaker  half  of  the  trees  being  almost  inactive. 

The  better  the  quality  of  the  soil,  the  earlier  occurs  the  culmination  of 
the  increment;  consequently,  on  good  soil,  shorter  rotations  are  apt  to  be 
advisable   than   on   poor    soil. 

Light  demanding  (intolerant)  species  show  an  earlier  culmination  than 
shade  bearers    (tolerant)    species. 

For  white  pine  woods,  after  Pinchot,  the  years  of  increment  culmina- 
tion are  as  follows : 


Culmination 

For  entire  volume  with 
bark  in  cu.  ft. 

For  volume  Doyle  in 
ft.  b.  m. 

of 

I. 

II. 

III. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

Current  inert 

Average  inert .  .  . 

40th 
60th 

50th 
Soth 

60th  yr. 
1  ooth  yr. 

70th 
i35th 

70th 
1 60th 

110th  yr. 
210th  yr. 

I  denotes  best;  II  denotes  medium,  and  III  denotes  poorest  quality  of 
soil. 

The    increment    of    a    woodlot,    whether    normal    or    abnormal,    can    be 
obtained : 

a.  With  the  help  of  yield  tables. 

b.  By  special   investigations   made  into  the  rate  of  growth  of  sample 
trees    (Paragraph  XCVIII.). 


Forest  Mensuration  65 

c.  With  the  help  of  the  average  annual  increment  of  the  woodlot  (Par- 
agraph XCIX.). 

The  increment  of  a  past  period  is  never  exactly  equal  to  that  of  a 
future  period,  unless  the  age  of  the  woods  is  close  to  that  year  at  which 
the  increment  culminates.  The  increment  percentage  during  a  past  period 
is  always  larger  than  the  increment  percentage  during  a  coming  period 
(aside  of  temporary  increase  due  to  light-increment). 

The  general  laws  (Paragraph  LXXV.)  relative  to  the  culmination, 
increase  and  decrease  of  increment  hold  good  for  the  volume  increment 
of  woodlots  as  well  as  for  that  of  trees. 


PARAGRAPH   XCVIII. 

ASCERTAINING    THE    INCREMENT    OF    WOODLOTS    BY    SAMPLE    TREES. 

The  current  annual  volume  increment  and  the  volume  increment  per- 
centage of  a  wood,  from  which  its  maturity  largely  depends,  can  be  cor- 
rectly found  only  by  a  valuation  survey,  combined  with  an  investigation 
into  the  present  rate  of  growth  exhibited  by  a  number  of  sample  trees. 

Borggreve  recommends  to  gauge  the  increment  of  the  sample  trees  by 
the  Schneider  increment  percentage.     This  is  usually  insufficient. 

The  correct  volume  increment  percentage  p  of  a  woodlot  is  obtained 
from  the  volume  increment  percentage  pi,  P2,  p3,  P4  and  p5  of  the  class  sam- 
ple trees — which  represent  class-volumes  vi,  vg,  v3,  v4  and  v5 — as 

=   vi   Pi  +y{P8  +  v3  P3  -I-  v<  Vi  +  V5  p5 

Vl     +  V2    +    V3    +    V4    +    V5 

Where  the  form  heights  of  the  classes  differ  slightly  only,  the  sectional 
areas  of  the  classes  may  be  substituted  for  the  volumes  of  the  classes. 

Again,  where  classes  of  equal  sectional  area  are  formed  (after  Robert 
Hartig),  there  the  volume  increment  per  cent,  of  the  woodlot  equals  the 
arithmetic  mean  of  the  volume  increment  percentages  of  the  sample 
trees,  so  that 

Pi  +  P2  +  Ps  -4-  P4  +  Ps 


PARAGRAPH    XCIX. 

CURRENT    INCREMENT    ASCERTAINED    FROM     AVERAGE    INCREMENT. 

Within  certain  limits,  a  short  time  previous  and  a  short  time  after  the 
culmination  of  the  average  annual  increment,  the  annual  average  incre- 
ment equals  the  current  increment  and  can  be  used  in  its  place  as  a  basis 
for  yield  calculation.  European  Governments  frequently  prescribe  this 
modus  operandi  for  yield  forecasts  in  working  plans. 


66  Forest  Mensuration 


CHAPTER  IV.— LUMBER 

PARAGRAPH     C. 

UNITS    OF    LUMBER    MEASUREMENT. 

For  rough  lumber  one  inch  thick,  or  thicker,  the  unit  of  measure,  known 
as  one  foot  board  measure,  is  a  square  foot  of  lumber  one  inch  thick. 
This  unit  is  the  i/i2th  part  of  a  cubic  foot. 

For  rough  lumber  thinner  than  one  inch,  the  unit  of  measure,  also 
known  as  one  foot  board  measure,  is  the  superficial  square  foot,  and  the 
thickness  of  the  lumber  is  here  entirely  disregarded. 

All  dressed  stock  is  measured  and  described  as  if  it  were  the  full  size 
of  the  rough  lumber  necessarily  used  in  its  manufacture.  "Inch  flooring," 
e.  g.,  is  actually  13/16  inch  thick;  and  "Y%  inch  ceiling"  is  actually  5/16 
inch   thick. 

Standard  thicknesses  are: 

fiJi  fj  I.   !,    J4>   lj,2,2|,  3X4". 

Standard  lengths  are: 
in  hardwoods  6  to  16  feet; 
in  softwoods  10  to  24  feet. 
In  both  cases,  lengths  in  even  feet  (not  in  odd  feet)  are  required. 
A  shortness  of  1"  or  2"  in  the  length  of  hardwood  boards  is  disregarded. 
Standard  defects  are : 

I.  In  hardwoods:  one  sound  knot  of  \\"  diameter; 
one  inch  of  bright  sap  ; 

one  split,  its  length  in  inches  equalling  the  contents  of 
the  board  in  feet  b.m. 
II.  In  softwoods:  sound  knots,  viz.: 

(a)  pin-knots  of  not  over  \"  diameter; 

(b)  standard  knots  of  not  over  \\"  diameter  ; 

(c)  large  knots  of  over  \\"  diameter; 
pitchpockets,  viz. : 

(a)  small  pitchpockets  \"  wide; 

(b)  standard  pitchpockets  up  to  §"  wide  and  up  to  3' 

long; 

pitchstreaks,  viz. : 

(a)  small  pitchstreaks  not  wider  than  x\  the  width  and 

not  longer  than  \  the  length  of  board ; 

(b)  standard  pitchstreaks  with  dimensions  up  to  twice 

as  large  as  given  under  (a); 
sap,  viz. : 

(a)  bright  sap; 

(b)  blued  sap; 


splits,  wane,  scant  width,  tongues,  less  than  &"  long. 


Forest  Mensuration  67 

The  point  at  which  a  defect  is  located  greatly  influences  its  effect  on 
the  grade  of  the  lumber. 

The  two  faces,  the  two  edges  and  the  two  ends  of  a  board  must  be 
parallel.  In  case  of  unevenness,  the  thinnest  thickness,  the  narrowest 
width  and  the  shortest  length   are   measured. 

Lumber  is  measured  with  the  help  of  a  lumber  rule  (Lufkin  rule)  which 
yields  for  inch  boards  of  given  lengths  and  given  width  the  correspond- 
ing contents  in  feet  b.  m. 

In  measuring  the  widths,  fractions  of  an  inch  are  neglected  in  rough 
lumber. 


PARAGRAPH    CI. 

INSPECTION    RULES    AND    NOMENCLATURE. 

The  lumber  inspection  prevailing  in  a  given  market  is  governed  by 
local  custom  or  by  agreement  within  the  body  of  local  associations  of 
lumbermen. 

The  tendency  of  all  inspection  rules  is  directed  toward  a  gradual  lower- 
ing of  rigidity. 

The  wholesaler's  inspection  is  generally  stiffer  than  that  of  the  manu- 
facturer. Diversity  of  rules  is  a  sadly  demoralizing  element  in  lumber 
circles. 

Lumber  sawn  for  special  purposes  (e.  g.,  wagon  bolsters)  must  be  in- 
spected with  a  view  to  its  adaptability  for  such  special  purpose. 

A.     Hardwood.     The  grade  of  a  board  depends  on 

1.  Its    width    and    length; 

2.  Its  standard  defects ; 

3.  The  percentage   of  clear  stock  contained   therein ; 

4.  The  number  of  cuttings  yielding  such  clear  stock. 

The  following  table  shows  average  specifications  prevailing  for  the 
various  grades  of  hardwood  lumber  in  the  U.  S.  markets. 

The  defects  specified  invariably  indicate  the  coarsest  stock  admissible 
in  a  given  grade. 


68 


Forest  Mensuration 


Hardwood 

Lumber  Specifications. 

Designation 

Minimum 

Actual 

Allows  of 

of 

Grade. 

Len'h 

Wi'th 

Length 

Width 

No.  of 

Rate 

Con'd  in 

feet. 

inch- 

feet. 

inches. 

standard 

of  clear 

c't'ngsnot 

es. 

defects. 

stock. 

more  than 

Firsts 

IO 

8 

io  &  over 

8&9 

none 

6 

io  &  over 

io  &  over 

one 

Seconds 

8 

8 

8 

8&9 

none 

>> 

j>-> 

8 

io  &  over 

one 

IO 

6 

io  &  over 

6&7 

none 

o 

s 

io  &  over 

8&9 

one 

o 

io  &  over 

IO  &  II 

two 

2 

rt 

io  &  over 

1 2  &  over 

three 

eu 

No.  i  Com... 

6 

6 

6 

6  to  8 

none 

all 

j 

6 

9  &  over 

one 

all 

I 

8 

4 

8 

4 

none 

all 

I 

8 

5 

one 

all 

I 

8&  io 

6  &  over 

* 

2 

12  to  16 

6  &  over 

§ 

3 

No.  2  Com... 

6 

3 

6  to  io 
12  to  16 

i 
J 

- 

4 

No.  3  Com... 

4 

3 

1 

B.  Softwoods.  Softwood  lumber  is  inspected  from  its  best  side 
Under  "edgegrain"  is  understood  lumber  the  face  of  which  forms  an  angle 
of  less  than  45  degrees  with  the  plain  of  the  medullary  rays  contained  in 
the  board.  All  other  lumber  is  termed  "flat  grain"  or  "slash  grain,"  also 
"bastard  grain." 


I.  Finishing  Lumber,  1"  to  2"  thick,  dressed  one  or  two  sides. 

1.  First  and  second  clear, 

up  to  8"  wide ;  absolutely  clear  ; 
10"  wide;  one  small  defect  permitted; 

12"  and  over  wide;  J  of  stock  may  have  one  standard  knot  or 
its  equivalent. 

2.  Third  clear, 

allows  of  twice  as  many  defects. 

II.  Floorifig,  1"  thick  and  3"  or  4"  or  6"  wide  before  dressing;  either 
with  hollow  back  or  with  solid  back ; 

1.  A,  B  and  C  flat  grain  flooring;  wherein  "A"  is  clear  and  "B"  al- 

lows of  one  or  two  standard  defects  ; 

2.  A,  B  and  C  edgegrain  flooring;  with  the  same  allowance; 

3.  No.  1  and  No.  2  fence  flooring. 


Forest  Mensuratio7i  69 

III.  Ceiling,  f,  £  and  |  inch  thick;  3,  or  4,  or  6  inches  wide. 

1.  "A"  ceiling  and  "B"  ceiling,  with  small  defects  only ; 

2.  No.  1  and  No.  2  common  ceiling,  with  one  and  two  standard  de- 

fects, or  their  equivalent. 

IV.  Drop  Siding,  which  is  either  "shiplapped"  or  "tongued  and  grooved;" 

it  is  |"  thick  and  i\  or  5J  inches  wide.     Grades  A,  B  and  No.  1 
common. 

V.  Bevel  Siding,  which  scales  Ty  at  the  thin  edge  and  \"  at  the  thick 
edge,  resawn  from  stock  dressed  to  \\"  x  5^".     Grades  as  under  IV. 

VI.  Partition,  measuring  §"  x  3J"  or  f"  x  5^".     Grades  as  under  IV. 

VII.  Common  Boards,  graded  as  No.  1,  No.  2  and  No.  3  common  boards, 
8",  10"  or  12"  wide,  dressed  one  or  two  sides,  or  rough. 

VIII.  Fencing,  graded  as  No.  1,  No.  2  and  No.  3  fencing,  3",  4"  or  6"  wide. 
The  grade  "No.  3"  includes  defective  lumber  with  knot-holes,  red 
rot,  very  wormy  patches,  etc.,  on  J  of  the  length  of  the  board. 
Fencing  is  either  dressed  or  rough. 


CHAPTER  V.— STUMPAGE  VALUES 

PARAGRAPH  CII. 

STUMPAGE  VALUES. 

Forestry  is  a  business ;  the  forest  largely  represents  its  business  invest- 
ment; its  purpose  is  the  raising  of  money,  of  dividends. 

Thus  it  is  with  investments  and  the  dividends  therefrom  that  the  fores- 
ter is  concerned ;  and  it  is  the  task  of  "forest  finance"  and  "forest  manage- 
ment" to  ascertain  the  factors  and  to  regulate  the  components  of  such 
investments. 

Forest  mensuration,  as  a  subsidiary  to  forest  management,  may  well 
devote  a  chapter  to  the  measurement  of  the  stumpage  value  of  trees. 

Stumpage  value  is  the  price  which  a  tree  brings  or  should  bring  if  it 
were  sold  on  the  stump. 

The  stumpage-value  of  a  tree  depends  on  the  value  of  the  lumber  con- 
tained therein  and  obtained  therefrom,  deducting  the  total  expense  of 
lumber  production  (logging,  milling,  shipping,  incidentals.) 

Since  the  value  of  lumber  fluctuates,  as  well  as  the  cost  of  production, 
stumpage  values  are  subject  to  continuous  variation.  The  tendency  of 
stumpage  prices,  all  over  the  world,  is  a  tendency  to  rise — especially  so 
in  countries  of  rapid  development,  rapid  increase  of  population  and  in- 
adequate provisions   for  re-growth. 


yo  Forest  Mensuration 

The  cost  of  production  is  composed  about  as  follows : 

i.     Expense   of   logging   and   log   transportation,    varying   locally   be- 
tween $2  and  $5  per  1,000'  b.  m. 

2.  Expense  of  milling,  varying  between  $1.50  and  $5  per  1,000'  b.  m. 

3.  Expense    of    freightage    of    lumber    to    the    consuming    market, 

amounting  per  1,000'  b.  m.  to  $1.50  for  very  short  hauls ;  to 
$12  for  a  haul  from  Atlanta  to  Boston;  to  $21  for  a  haul  across 
the  continent  from  Portland   (Oregon)   to  New  England. 

Freight  rates  have,  in  the  long  run,  a  decided  downward  tendency. 
Still,  with  a  majority  of  the  lumber  produced  in  the  U.  S.,  the  item 
"freight''   forms  the  chief  expense  of  production. 

For  Pisgah  Forest  a  reduction  of  freight  rates  equalling  1  cent  per  100 
lbs.  involves  a  net  gain  for  the  owner  of  approximately  $60,000.  In  this 
possibility  lies  one  of  the  strongest  arguments  for  conservative  lumbering. 

An  increase  of  the  price  of  lumber  from  $20  to  $21  at  the  place  of  con- 
sumption endears  the  lumber  to  the  consumer  by  5% ;  the  owner  of  the 
forest  now  valuing  his  stumpage  at  $5  will  eventually  experience  this  in- 
crease as  a  20%  increase  of  stumpage  values. 

The  only  factors  of  stumpage-values,  which  the  owner  himself — unaided 
by  the  development  of  the  country — may  influence,  consist  in  the  expense 
of  logging  and  log  freighting,  and  in  the  expense  of  milling,  the  former 
largely  depending  on  the  quality  of  available  means  of  transportation,  the 
latter  governed  by  the  quality  of  the  sawmill. 

In  ascertaining  the  stumpage-value  of  a  tree  the  forester  considers : 

a.  The  cost  per  1,000'  b.  m.  of  logging  it,  of  milling  it  and  of  freight- 

ing its  timber; 

b.  The  volume  of  timber  contained  in  the  tree,  by  grades; 

c.  The  value  of  such  lumber,  by  grades. 

If  a  tree  contains 
45%  of  lumber  worth  $31  per  1,000'  b.  m. 

It  is  necessary  to  find  Stoetzer's  constant  factor  of  increment  or  to 
ascertain  the  relative  increment  of  the  sectional  areas  of  the  sample  trees 
at   0.45    of   their    heights. 

35%  of  lumber  worth  $21  per  1,000'  b.  m. 

15%  of  lumber  worth  $16  per  1,000'  b.  m. 

5%  of  lumber  worth    $8  per  1,000'  b.  m. 

then  the  lumber  value  of  the  tree,  per  1,000'  b.  m.,  is 

45  X  31  +  35  x   21  +  15  x   16  4-  5  X  8 

=  $24.10 

100 

Deducting  from  this  figure  the  expense  of  logging,  milling  and  freight- 
ing, the  actual  stumpage-value,  per  1,000'  b.  m.,  is  derived. 

The  actual  prices  paid  for  stumpage  in  the  U.  S.  fall  deeply  below  the 
figures  which  a  test-calculation  is  apt  to  yield. 


Forest  Mensuration 


7i 


This  discrepancy  may  be  explained,  above  all,  by 

Ignorance   of  owners   of  stumpage; 
Agents'  and  dealers'  profits ; 
Incidental  expenses  overlooked. 

Stumpage-values  show  a  rapid  decrease  with  the  increase  of  the  dis- 
tance separating  the  tree  from  the  nearest  railroad  or  stream. 

The  grades  of  lumber  and  their  proportion  obtainable  from  logs  of 
given  species,  diameter  and  soundness  (including  presence  and  location 
of  defects)  can  be  ascertained  only  by  test-sawing  in  the  mill. 

This  has  been  done  in  1896  for  yellow  poplar  at  Biltmore  (bandsaw 
mill).  The  stumpage-values  then  ascertained  are  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing table: 

Market  Value  of  Poplar  Stumpage  in  Western  North  Carolina,  Per 
Tree,  in  Cents. 


-0  ! 

Under  good 
conditions. 

Under  average 
conditions. 

Under  poor 
conditions. 

rt  s 

.    CO 

Logging  and  Milling 
expenses   being  per 
1000  feet  B.  M. 

Logging  and  Milling 

B  I 

Q.S 

Logging  anil 

Milling 
ng  per 

>> 

5 

.2  "5 
Q.S 

1000  feet  B.  M. 

1000  feet  B. 

O.H 

s9 

Sio 

Sn 

$9 

$10  |  $11 

s9 

Sio 

SlI 

100 

Nega- 
tive. 

Nega- 
tive. 

Nega- 
tive. 

Nega- 
tive. 

Nega- 
tive. 

Nega- 
tive. 

Nega- 
tive. 

Nega- 
tive. 

Nega- 
tive. 

120 

18.8 

8 

.< 

.. 

« 

« 

« 

« 

« 

.. 

140 

21.3 

40 

25 

" 

18.2 

4 

" 

'« 

" 

" 

' 

160 

1  So 

23-5 
25-7 

105 

265 

72 
170 

2 
98 

20.4 
22.4 

22 
67 

5 
35 

„ 

" 

,, 

, 

200 
220 

27.7 
29.6 

445 
620 

465 

23O 
350 

24  -3 
26.0 

160 
287 

103 
200 

30 

109 

18.5 
20.0 

7 

' 

240I 
260 

280 

27-5 

430 

330 
460 

2IO 
330 

21.3 
22. 1 

27 
60 

3 
25 

45 

\ 

300 

320 

JO 

Footnote  :  Dots  below  a  column  of  figures  indicate  higher  values,  not 
specifically  ascertained. 

The  values  above  the  columns  of  figures  are  all  negative  and  were  not 
ascertained  specifically  either. 


It  is  to  be  hoped  that  similar  tests  will  be  made  for  our  leading  species 
on  a  large  scale  by  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  or  by  the  various  associations 
of  lumber  manufacturers.  Conservative  forestry  as  a  business  badly  re- 
quires data  allowing  to  estimate  the  actual  value  of  logs,  and  hence  of 
trees,  if  the  uncertainty  of  financial  results  now  checking  the  progress  of 
conservative  forestry  in  America  is  to  be  definitely  reduced. 


FOREST  FINANCE 


/  f  to 


C^S 


y 


Guide  to  Lectures 
Delivered  at  the  Biltmore  Forest  School 

By  C.  A.  SCHENCK,  Ph.  D. 

FORESTER  TO  THE  BILTMORE  ESTATE 


i~ 


/ 


1909 


THE  INLAND  PRESS 
ASHEVILLE.  N.  C. 


7? 

/»/* 

rn> 

A 

A           & 

A 

ho 

>iS* 

i.oi7 

1,  of 

1,0* 

,0 


;2kT 


Biltmore,  N.  C,  January  1,  1909. 


In  usum  Delphini: 

The  Biltmore  lectures  on  Forest  Finance  appear  in  print  since  it  is  nec- 
essary to  place  in  the  hands  of  the  Biltmore  students  some  basal  findings  con- 
cerning the  financial  side  of  forestry,  which  findings  it  is  not  easy  for  them 
to  obtain  elsewhere. 

In  America,  forest  finance  is  and  will  be  the  most  important  branch  of 
forestry;  the  very  difficulty  of  the  financial  problems  involved  in  American 
forestry  is  enticing;  and  I  am  interested,  personally,  more  deeply  in  the  scien- 
tific and  practical  development  of  forest  finance  than  in  that  of  any  other 
branch  of  American  forestry. 

Special  students  desirous  to  attend  the  Biltmore  lectures  on  forest  finance, 
and  otherwise  excluded  from  the  Biltmore  School,  will  be  welcomed  at  Bilt- 
more hereafter. 

This  arrangement  is  made  for  the  reason  that  the  lecturer  is  anxious  to 
study  forest  finance  through  and  with  the  students — the  regulars  as  well  as 
the  specials. 

Co-operation  between  teacher  and  pupil  is  essential  to  the  development 
of  American  forest  finance. 

The  interest  tables  attached  to  this  book  are  obtained,  by  extraction  and 
addition,  from  those  published  by  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company  of 
New  York. 

C.  A.  SCHENCK. 


(l .  6  I 


^       & 


'/>  -  / 


FOREST  FINANCE 


SYNOPSIS  OF  PARAGRAPHS 

Par.  I.  Introduction; 

Par.  II.  Mathematical  principles  of  finance; 

Par.  III.  Increasing  or  decreasing  prices; 

Par.  IV.  Receipts  and  expenses  in  forestry; 

Par.  V.  Taxes; 

Par.  VI.  Protective  expenses; 

Par.  VII.  Capital  and  money; 

Par.  VIII.  Interest; 

Par.  IX.  Expectation  values; 

Par.  X.  Sale  values; 

Par.  XI.  Gauging  the  merits  of  an  investment; 

Par.  XII.  Maturity  of  trees. 


FOREST  FINANCE 


PARAGRAPH  I.— INTRODUCTION. 

I.  Definition. 

Forest  Finance  deals  with  forestry  as  an  investment. 

Treated  as  a  branch  of  science  in  European  literature,  it  consists  of  two 
parts: 

First  Part:  Forest  Valuation  which  ascertains  the  values  of  forest  in- 
vestments and  the  values  of  their  components. 

Second  Part:  Forest  Statics  which  compares  the  investments  with  the 
returns  obtained. 

Forestry,  from  the  standpoint  of  a  commonweal  (federation,  state,  county, 
town,  city)  deals,  to  a  large  extent,  in  abstract  or  ideal  values, — values  which 
are  not  expressible  easily  in  dollars  and  cents.  It  neglects,  usually,  financial 
considerations  entirely  or  partially. 

With  the  private  owner  of  forests,  the  financial  outcome  of  his  invest- 
ments is  the  first  and  last  consideration.  The  private  owner  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  supply  this  country  with  forest  products  unless  forestry  is  as  remun- 
erative an  investment  as  agriculture  is  found  to  be,  or  as  manufacture  is  sup- 
posed to  be, — industries  which  supply  this  country  with  food  products  and 
with  manufactured  products. 

The  mathematical  principles  involved  in  Forest  Finance  are  identical  with 
those  confronting  the  bankers,  the  insurance  companies, — in  fact,  confronting 
all  business  men  and  all  business  enterprises  that  look  ahead  into  the  future. 

Forest  statistics,  deficient  unfortunately  in  the  United  States  (as  in  any 
other  country  of  rapid  development),  are  important  as  a  basis  for  financial 
calculations. 

Forestal  forecasts  in  the  countries  famous  for  conservative  forestry  are 
made  easily  and  with  a  high  degree  of  certainty. 

In  Canada,  in  Russia,  and  generally  in  the  United  States,  such  is  not 
the  case. 

II.  History. 

Forest  Finance  is  one  of  the  most  modern  branches  of  forestry.  Abroad, 
it  was  unknown,  or  unheeded  by  the  practitioners,  previous  to  Max  Pressler 
(about  1860).  Pressler's  theories  were  developed  and  enlarged  upon  by  Gus- 
tav  Heyer. 

Dr.  Wm.  Schlich's,  and  Prof.  Charles  Wimmenauer's  writings  are  entirely 
in  line  with  Heyer's  teachings. 

Financial  considerations  were  despised  generally  by  European  foresters 
until  recently.  The  government  of  Saxony  was  first  to  adopt  financial  suc- 
cess as  the  goal  of  its  forest  policy. 


AO  3 


uJi. 


u  FOABSf  FJIMBO? 

III.     Literature. 

The  only  book  on  forest  finance  written  in  English  is  Schlich's  Vol.  IIJ, 
Part  II. 

The  interest  tables  of  the  various  insurance  companies  may  be  used  to 
solve  forestal  equations,  in  preference  to  tables  of  logarithms. 

PARAGRAPH  II.— MATHEMATICAL  PRINCIPLES 
OF  FINANCE. 

The  ratio  existing  between  principal  invested  (V)  and  amount  obtained 
(N),  or  the  ratio  between  "pre-value"  and  "aft-value"  of  an  investment  is- 
expressed  by  the  following  equations  [in  which  (p)  represents  the  rate  of  in- 
terest and  (n)  the  number  of  years  covered  by  the  investments] : — 

N    =  VXl.  OpD  (A) 

N 

-yv= N  (B) 

~  1.  Opff 

H 

1.  Opn   =  (C) 

V 
By  payments  (a)  regularly  occurring  at  given  intervals  of  time  a  "geom- 
etrical progression"  is  formed  after  the  pattern 
a  +  ar  +  ar2  4-  ar3  +  ar4  +  ar(n  - 1) 
The  summary  of  this  geometrical  progression  is 
r°—  1 

a (D) 

r  —  1 
If  the  last  term  of  the  progression  is  expressed  as  "1"'  (with  the  view  to 
the  elimination  of  "n"),  the  summary  is 
r  1  —  a 


r  —  1 

rl"  might  be  designated  as  "the  term  beyond  the  last",  or  as  the  term 
"before  which  the  progression  stops". 

Similarly,  the  sum  total  of  periodical  payments  (R)  due  at  intervals  of 
(m)  years,  for  the  first  time  due  after  fa}  years  and  altogether  (n)  times  is, 
considered  as  a  pre-value, 

1.  Opmtt—  1         1.  Opm~a 

R  X (E) 

1.  Opm  —  1  1.  Opmn 

On  the  other  hand,  for  the  aft-value  of  such  periodical  payments  (R), 
the  sum  total  is 

1.  Opnm  —  1  ^itjAf 

*£^-r*Mr  (F) 

In  the  case  of  an  annuity,  (m)  and  (a)  are  equal  to  1.  Consequently, 
the  summary  of  such  annuities  considered  as  a  pre-value  is 


1.  Opn  —  1 
R 

1.  OpnX0.  Op 

The  aft-value  of  such  annuities 

is 

1.  Opn  —  1 

FOREST  FINANCE  7 

(G) 

(H) 


0.  Op 

The  aft-value  of  single  payments,  annuities  and  periodical  payments  at 
the  end  of  an  indefinite  period  is  itself  indefinite     (  OO  )• 

The  pre-value  of  a  single  payment  due  after  an  indefinite  period  of  years 
is  equal  to  zero. 

The  pre-value  (V)  of  annuities  or  periodical  payments  running  for  an 
indefinite  number  of  years  is,  however,  something  very  definite,  namely,  dis- 
counted backwards  to  the  present  day,  in  the  case  of  an  annuity: 
R 

v  °  inr  (I) 

0.  Op 
or 

P  R 

100  V 

It  appears  at  a  glance  that  this  pre-value  (V)  derived  from  never-failing 
annuities — is  merely  the  capital  from  which  a  perpetual  revenue  of  p%  is 
expected.  Unknowingly,  the  investor  usually  figures  at  indefinitely  long  per- 
iods of  never  failing  returns  when  capitalizing  such  returns  at  a  given  rate 
of  interest.  It  is  only  too  well  known,  however,  that  all  investments,  except- 
ing pure  real  estate  investments,  have  a  merely  temporary  lease  of  life.  As 
an  illustration,  we  might  mind  the  fact,  that  the  majority  of  all  insurance 
policies  are  surrendered, — the  insured  being  unable  to  pay  his  dues  when  he 
meets  with  financial  reverses :  Business  investments,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
seem  to  end  unluckily  for  the  investor. 

The  pre-value  (V)  of  periodical  payments  (R)  hereafter  due  at  the  end 
of  every    'mth"  year  until  infinity  is 
R 
V   =  (J) 

1.  Opm  —  1 

The  influence  on  present  values  exercised  by  payments  (receipts  or  ex- 
penses), expected  after  100  and  more  years,  is  very  small. 

For  the  financial  prospects  of  an  enterprise,  the  current  expenses  and 
receipts  of  the  first  (n)  years  are 

(1.  opn  —  1) 
times  as  influential  as  the  current  expenses  and  receipts  of  any  and  all  years 
following  after  the  nth  year. 

The  above  factor  of  influence,  viz.     (1.  opn  —  1),  equals  10  within 
50  years,  in  case  of  5%  investments; 
63  years,  in  case  of  4%  investments; 
83  years,  in  case  of  3%  investments. 


8  FOREST  FINANCE 

"PROVIDED  THAT  THE  RATE  OF  INTEREST  IS  HIGH,  THE  HAP- 
PENINGS OF  A  MORE  DISTANT  FUTURE  ARE  IMMATERIAL  TO  THE 
INVESTOR." 

The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  preceding  formulae,  wherein: — 

p  equals  rate  of  interest. 

n        "     number  of  payments. 

m       "    duration  of  periodical  intervals  between  two  payments. 

a         "    years  after  which  a  periodical  rental  is  due  for  the  first  time. 

R       "    rentals  or  payment. 

V       "    pre-value. 

N        "    aft-value. 


At  the  end  (aft-value) 

At  the  beginning  (pre-value) 

A  sum  of  money 
equals 

V  x  l.Op" 

N 
1.0pn 

Summary 

Periodical 
Payments 

R(1.0pnm— 1) 
1.0pm— 1 

R(1.0pnm— l)1.0pm-a 
(l.Op™— l)1.0pnm 

Temporary  " 
Rentals 

Annual 
Payments 

Rd.Opn— 1) 
O.Op 

Rd.Opn— 1) 
O.Op  x  1.0pn 

r  Periodical 

CO 

R  x  1.0pm-« 

of 

Perpetual 
Rentals 

1.0pm_  1 

Annual 
i»  payment* 

OC 

R 

O.Op 

No  capitalist  and  no  forester  is  forced  to  adopt  a  financial  formula  or 
equation  when  determining  the  merits  of  an  investment.  THE  EQUATION 
MERELY  ILLUSTRATES  A  LOGICAL  MANNER  OF  FINANCIAL  THINK- 
ING, WHICH  IS  GENERALLY  ADOPTED  BY  THE  INSURANCE  COMPAN- 
IES, BANKERS,  AND  FAR-SIGHTED  BUSINESS  MEN. 

PARAGRAPH  III.— INCREASING  OR  DECREASING  PRICES. 

Stumpage  prices  are  rising  in  America, — possibly  at  the  rate  at  which 
the  population  increases,  possibly  faster, — promising  to  reach  the  present 
European  level  within  a  few  decades  of  years.  Consequently,  stumpage  now 
worth  "S"  dollars  per  thousand  feet  will  be  worth  at  "x%"  rise,  after  "n" 
years,  SXl.  Oxn. 

The  present  value  of  such  stumpage,  to  be  harvested  after  "n"  years,  is 
discounted  backwards  at  "y"  per  cent,  and  amounts  to 
SXl.  Oxn 


1.  Oyn 


FOREST  FINANCE 

In  place  of  this  term,   it  is  permissible  to  write: 
S 


1.  0(y  -  x)° 
provided  that  "x"  and  "y"  do  not  exceed,  say,  8%  and  provided  that  the  per- 
iod of  calculation  does  not  exceed  100  years. 

Mathematically,  the  substitution  is  incorrect;  for  practical  purposes, 
however,  it  is  permissible  within  certain  limits. 

If     x  equals  4.7% 

and  y      "      3% 

and  n      "      100  years, 
the  mistake  made  by  the  "short  cut"  equals  5.2%. 
The  mistake  increases: 

(1)  With  the  increase  of  the  price  percentage  (x)  and  discount  per- 
centage (y). 

(2)  With  increasing  discrepancy  between  price  percentage  (x)  and  dis- 
count percentage  (y) ; 

(3)  With  the  increasing  number  of  years  (n). 

Generally,  the  mistake  does  not  exceed  5%.     An  advantage  of  the  "short 
cut"  is  the  larger  scope  it  offers  to  financial  imagination  or  to  differences  of 
opinion  relative  to  the  rise  of  stumpage  prices  or  relative  to  the  proper  rate 
S  SXl.  05n 

of  discount.     Thus,   might  be  interpreted  as     or  as 

1.  03n  1.  08n 

SXl.  04°  SXl.  03» 

or  as 

1.  07n  1.  06n 

"THE  BASAL  RATE  OF  INTEREST  IN  AN  EQUATION  MAY  NOT  REP- 
RESENT THE  DIVIDEND  WHICH  THE  OWNER  EXPECTS  TO  DERIVE 
FROM  HIS  INVESTMENTS." 

In  the  cases  just  given,  the  investor  will  realize  8%  if  stumpage  prices 
rise  at  5% ;  7%,  if  they  rise  at  4% ;  6%,  if  they  rise  at  3% ;  or  only  3%,  if  the 
stumpage  prices  do  not  rise  at  all. 

If  the  prices  are  increasing  at  the  SAME  rate  at  which  the  values  are 
discounted  backward,  the  summary  of  the  pre-values  is  (for  annuities  as  well 
as  for  intermittent  rentals),  nXR. 

l.opm 
mth  year: 


2mtb  year:     R 


l.opm 
1.  op2m 


1.  op 


2m 


Summary    =  nXR. 
Obviously,  the  summary  of  prevalues,  in  this  case,  is  GO   for  indefinite 
rentals.     It  is  unreasonable  to  suppose,  that  prices  will  ALWAYS  rise  and 
continue  to  rise. 


10  FOREST  FINANCE 

The  growth  of  trees  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents  is  composed  of  the 
following  factors: 

A. — Increase  of  volume,  due  to  the  annual  formation  of  a  new  ring  or, 
better,  of  a  new  coat  all  over  the  old  body. 

B. — Increase  of  value,  the  larger  diameter  fetching  a  higher  price  per 
thousand  feet  board  measure  than  the  smaller  diameter  (difference 
in  value  of  different  sized  logs  at  the  same  time). 

C. — Increase  of  price  (difference  in  price  of  the  same  sized  logs  at  dif- 
ferent times),  due  to  an  increase  of  population,  to  increased  logging 
facilities  and  to  waning  supplies. 

The  forester  speaks  of  the  volume  increment,  the  value  increment  and 
the  price  increment  of  a  tree;  and  of  the  volume  increment  percentage  "&%", 
the  value  increment  percentage  "b%",  and  the  price  increment  percentage 
"c%"  of  a  tree  or  of  a  forest. 

Thus,  a  tree  now  worth  "S"  dollars  is  worth  after  "n"  years  SXl.Oa11 
Xl.ObnXl.Ocn;  which  term  is  almost  equal  to  SXl.O  (a+b+c)n. 

In  the  case  of  young  and  sound  timber  all  percentages  can  be  assumed 
to  range  between  1%  and  4%. 

In  the  case  of  primeval  timber  of  large  diameter,  volume  and  value  in- 
crement is  insignificantly  small.  On  the  other  hand,  primeval  timber  is  getting 
scarce  so  rapidly  (walnut,  cherry,  white  pine,  yellow  poplar,  white  oak)  that 
a  large  price  increment  percentage  can  be  depended  upon. 

Learn  to  differentiate  between  the  merits  of  investments  in  first  growth 
and  of  investments  in  second  growth  !1 

An  interesting  case  of  a  declining  VALUE  increment  may  be  found  in 
hickory  poles  at  a  time  at  which  they  begin  to  form  heartwood;  or  in  poplar 
poles  at  a  similar  time,  when  they  begin  to  be  less  fit  for  match  stock  or  for  fibre. 

An  interesting  case  of  declining  PRICE  increment  (aside  of  panics,  aban- 
doned use  of  given  woods,  replacement  of  one  species  by  another,  change  of 
tariff,  export  prohibition,  Panama  canal)  may  be  found  in  small  trees  left  by 
conservative  lumbering.  These  trees  had  a  better  value  BEFORE  than  AFTER 
the  breaking  up  of  the  means  of  transportation. 

PARAGRAPH  IV.— RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENSES 
IN  FORESTRY. 

I. — The  revenue  in  forestry  may  consist  of: — 

A. — Yields  derived  from  sale  or  lease  of  forest  pasture;  from  hunting 

privileges;  from  water  privileges  (power  or  reservoir);  from  mines, 

quarries,  peat  bogs,  etc.;  from  turpentine  and  maple  sugar  orchards; 

from  tan  bark,  cork,  mosses,  grasses,  pharmaceutical  herbs,  litter, 

nuts,  seeds  and  so  on. 
B. — Increasing  volume  of  growing  stock;   increasing  value  of  growing 

stock  and  of  soil  without  any  lumbering  (so-called  latent  yields). 
C— Usually,  during  and  after  the  installation  period,  yields  obtained  from 

sale  of  wood  products,  notably, 


FOREST  FINANCE  11 

(a)  Stumpage  (French  system) ; 

(b)  Log  yards  (German  system) ; 

(c)  Manufactured  products  like  lumber,  staves,  shingles,  telephone 
posts,  ties,  blocks  for  carriages,  pulp  wood,  tannin,  fence  posts, 
etc.  (American  system). 

II. — Timber  yields  are  ascertained  by : — 

A. — Cruising  or  valuation  surveys. 

B. — Yield  tables  (applicable  only  to  even  aged  and  pure  forests,  fairly 
well  stocked). 

C. — Volume  tables  (applicable  only  to  sound  trees). 

D. — The  increment  percentage. 

In  the  United  States,  reliable  statistics  relative  to  the  growth  of  the  foresta 
— especially  of  second  growth — and  of  the  trees  are  badly  lacking. 

III. — Present  timber  values. 

The  present  values  of  timber  (stumpage  values)  depend,  for  a  given  species, 
on  the  expense  now  required  for  its  utilization, — notably  on  the  charges  for 
transportation  which  are  governed  by: 

A. — Distance  from  the  market. 

B. — Availability  of  water,  ice,  snow,  railroads  and  public  roads  as  means 
of  transportation. 

C. — Volume  of  stumpage  per  acre  and  volume  on  the  entire  tract. 

D. — Quality  of  the  logs  (percentage  of  firsts  and  seconds,  common,  cull, 
mill  cull,  etc.). 

E. — Climatic  conditions  (malarial  climates,  long  and  cold  winters,  short 
logging  seasons). 

F. — Specific  gravity  of  timber. 

In  the  far  backwoods,  stumpage  even   of  the  best  trees  frequently  has  a 
negative  value.     Near  the  market,  even  utterly  poor  trees  assume  a  positive 
value. 
IV.— Future  Timber  Values. 

The  study  of  future  timber  values  is  of  paramount  importance  with  the 
forestal  investor.  Similarly,  the  capitalist  is  interested  in  the  advancing  value 
of  real  estate,  the  coming  dividends  of  railroad  stock,  etc. 

He  must  consider 

A. — For  a  country :  The  probability  of  a  general  change  of  timber  prices 
due  to: 

a.  Competition  of  metals  and  stone  (building  stone). 

b.  Waning  virgin  supplies. 

c.  Importations  from  Canada,  the  tropics  and  Europe. 

d.  Increasing  population. 

e.  Coming  prosperity  or  coming  depression  of  all  industries. 

f.  New  uses  of  timber,  especially  in  the  spinning  and  weaving  in- 
dustries, in  the  food  industries,  in  the  production  of  alcohol. 

g.  Wages  rising  or  dropping, 
h.     Gold  standard. 

i.      Automobile  traction. 


12  FOREST  FINANCE 

B. — For  a  species:     The  possibility  of  price  alterations  in  favor  of  or  to 
the  detriment  of  a  species  locally  prevailing  (chestnut  in  Pisgah  For- 
est; spruce  in  the  Adirondacks;  cottonwood  in  Arkansas;  remember 
laws  causing    the    price   of    wood-alcohol  to  drop  from  67c  to  39c 
per  gallon  in  1907.) 
C. — For  a  locality:     The  chances  for  improved  access  to  a  special  market 
by  improved  railroads,   improved  navigation   (Panama  canal),  and 
improved  public  roads;  the  chances  for  the  opening  of  new  local 
markets,  or  for  enlarged  foreign  markets. 
Opinions  relative  to  future  developments  necessarily   differ  in  forestry 
as  well  as  in  agriculture,  railroading  and  industrial  establishments.     On  ex- 
change, such  fluctuations  and  such  diversity  of  opinion  are  particularly  pro- 
nounced. 

V. — The  expenses  in  forestry  are : 

A. — Ordinary  or  running  expenses,  viz., 

1.  Outlay  for  logging  and  milling; 

2.  Administrative  expenses; 

3.  Taxes; 

4.  Protective  expenses; 

5.  Maintenance  of  boundaries  and  land  marks; 

6.  Natural  or  artificial  reforestation  (this  expense  equals,  in  Ger- 
many, from  10% — 20%  of  the  net  stumpage  values  annually 
disposed  of); 

7.  Forest  pedagogy; 

8.  Up-keep  of  investments,  notably  of  the  means  of  transportation 

(this  expense  equals,  in  Germany,  from  6%  to  15%  of  the  net 

stumpage  values  annually  disposed  of). 
Many  of  these  ordinary  running  expenses  must  be  considered,  during  the 
installation  period,  as  extraordinary  investments. 
B. — Extraordinary  Investments. 

1.  Soil  and,  usually,  trees. 

2.  Permanent  means  of  transportation. 

3.  Wood  working  establishments. 

4.  Buildings,  farms,  pastures,  ochards. 

5.  Surveys  and  working  plans. 

6.  Fire  lanes. 

7.  Fences  for  pastures,  game,  etc. 

8.  Afforestation. 

All  over  the  world,  but  especially  so  in  the  United  States,  the  capital  now 
invested  in  a  forest  is  not  that  which  promises  to  yield  the  highest  rate  of  int- 
erest for  the  next  period  of  years.  The  principal  investment  requires  addi- 
tions here  and  reductions  there.  The  time  at  which  alterations  should  be 
made  depends  upon  local  factors  as  well  as  upon  personal  opinion. 

The  components  of  the  final  investment  in  conservative  forestry  are  those 
enumerated  under  B. — Naturally,  there  is  no  need  for  all  of  them  to  be  at 
hand  in  every  case.     The  share  which  each  component  takes  or  should  take 


FOREST  FINANCE  13 

in  the  aggregate  investment,  again  depends  upon  local  conditions  and  upon 
personal  opinions. 

Forest  investments,  in  this  connection,  do  not  play  any  exceptional  part. 
In  agriculture,  e.  g.,  the  final  investments  are  composed  of  soil,  improvements, 
roads,  clearings,  live  stock,  machinery,  buildings,  etc.  Likewise,  mining  in- 
vestments do  not  consist  of  mineral  soil  merely;  but,  in  addition  to  soil,  of 
machinery,  buildings,  railroads,  shafts,  etc. 

A  forest  must  be  considered  "normal"  when  the  investment  which  it  rep- 
resents has  reached,  for  the  time  being,  in  the  owner's  opinion,  the  highest 
stage  of  relative  remunerativeness,  with  all  of  its  (the  investment's), 
components  balancing  in  proper  equilibrium.  Naturally,  the  owner  alone 
can  decide  whether  this  stage  is  actually  reached  or  not. 

PARAGRAPH  V.— TAXES. 

In  America  taxes  usually  depend  upon  the  market  value  of  a  taxable 
object  and  amount,  in  the  wooded  states,  to  about  1%  ad  valorem  of  the  same. 
If  the  market  value  "V"  of  a  given  forest  grows  at  the  annual  rate  of  "x%" 
during  "n"  years,  the  taxes  (theoretically  at  least)  increase  likewise  at  the 
rate  of  "x%".  They  accumulate  at  the  rate  of  "p%"  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  amount,  at  the  year  "n",  to  the  sum  total 

V  1.0xn  —  1.0pn 

X Xl.Ox  (M) 

100         1.0x  —  l.Op 

Case  I:  x    equals    p 

Then  the  aft-value  of  every  single  tax  payment  equals, 

V 

(1.0xn) 

100 

The  summary  of  the  aft-values  equals 

n   5 fl.Oxn 

(100    ) 

or  n%  of  the  forest  aft-value  (which  is  VXl.Oxn). 
Thus,  if  "n"  equals  25,  the  taxes  consume  }i  of  the  aft-value;  if  "n" 

equals  100,  the  taxes  consume  the  entire  aft-value. 
Case  II:  x  is  smaller  than  p 

Then  1.0xn  is  much  smaller  than  1.0pn;  the  summary  is  much  larger  than 

V 

(1.0xn)  or  much  larger  than 


100 

n 

the  part  of  the  forest  aft-value. 

100 

Thus,  if  "n"  equals  25,  the  taxes  consume  more  than  \i  of  the  aft-value; 
and  if  "n"  equals  100,  the  taxes  consume  more  than  the  entire  aft- 
value. 


14  FOREST  FINANCE 

Case  m :  x    is  larger  than    p 

n 

Here  the  taxes  consume  less  than  the  part  of  the  aft-value,  e.  g., 

100 

if  "n"  equals  25,  the  taxes  consume  less  than  }4  of  the  aft-value; 
and  if  "n"  equals  100,  the  taxes  consume  less  than  the  entire  aft-value. 
Deductions  from  the  above: — 

RULE  I. 

Destructive  forestry  is  indicated  where  a  long  number  of  years  is  expected 
to  elapse  before  a  second  cut  can  be  obtained;  where  taxation  ad  valorem  is 
high;  where  the  value  of  the  forest  grows  slowly  (x  being  smaller  than  p). 

RULE  n. 

The  forester,  bent  on  forest  conservation,  must  endeavor  to  shorten  the 
period  of  waiting  between  cuts  by  leaving  sufficient  stumpage  and  sufficient 
means  of  transportation  to  allow  of  frequent  cuttings  within  the  same  forest. 

RULE  in. 

The  damaging  effect  of  taxation  depends  pre-eminently  on  the  period  of 
waiting;  the  rate  of  interest  being  more  irrelevant,  "x"  being  usually  equal 
to  or  close  to  "p".  After  the  wholesale  removal  of  the  primeval  forest,  the 
period  of  waiting  is  excessively  long.  The  forester's  activity  should  be  called 
upon  before  and  not  after  the  first  inroads  of  the  axe  into  the  primeval  woods. 

PARAGRAPH  VI.— PROTECTIVE  EXPENSES. 

The  influence  exercised  on  the  prospects  of  conservative  lumbering  by 
expenses  for  forest  protection  is  analogous  to  the  influence  of  taxes.  The 
decision  whether  and  what  protection  should  be  given  to  a  forest,  solely  rests 
with  the  owner. 

The  following  may  illustrate  the  influence  of  the  protective  expenses  on 
a  forest  conservatively  managed: 
FIRST.     An  unprotected  forest,  "V",  may  yield  an  annual  net  surplus  revenue 

"R"  as  long  as  it  escapes  fires  and  theft. 

R                y 
equals  or     100R  equals  yV 

V  100 

SECOND.  Sacrificing  annually  "D"  dollars  for  protection,  the  owner  retains 
a  revenue,  "R  —  D",  and  the  interest  percentage  "y"  is  reduced  to  "z" 
per  cent.,  whilst  "V"  remains  much  unchanged  as  long  as  no  fire  happens 
to  occur. 

R  —  D  z 

V  100 


FOREST  FINANCE 


15 


THIRD. 


Hence 


and 

D           y  —  z 

R              y 

If 

D     equals  s%  of  R 
Rs    equals     100D 
s          y  —  z 

then 
and 

100 


(N) 


(0) 


FIFTH. 

For  "y"  ranging  from  2%  to  8%  and  for  "s"  ranging  from  5%  to  30%, 
the  percentage  of  net  revenue  "z"  is  reduced  as  appears  in  the  table  following:— 


s  equals 

5% 

10% 

15% 

20% 

25% 

30% 

y  equals       2 

... 

18 

1.7 

16 

15 

14 

y      "        3 

2  85 

2  7 

2  55 

2  4 

2  25 

2.1 

y      "        4 

3  8 

3   6 

3  4 

3  2 

3  0 

2.8 

y               5 

4  75 

4.5 

4  25 

4  0 

3  75 

3  5 

y      "        6 

6  7 

5  4 

5  1 

4   8 

4  5 

4.2 

y      "        7 

6  65 

6  3 

5  95 

5   6 

5  25 

4.9 

y      "        8 

" 

7.2 

... 

... 

6  0 

6.6 

IrLthe  case  of  a  forest  which  does  not  yield  an  annual  surplus  revenue, 
the  influence  of  the  protective  expenses  is  somewhat  different  from  the  above, 
as  is  illustrated  by  the  following  considerations: — 

FIRST.     Such  a  forest  "V"  grows  in  "n"  years  at  "x%"  to  a  value  of  V(1.0xn) 
wherein  "V"  equals  the  sale  value. 

SECOND.     The  same  forest  "V"  protected  at  an  annual  expense  of  "w"% 
shows  a  net  aft-value,  omitting  the  influence  of  taxes,  etc. 
\  1.0pn  —  1 


V(1.0xn)  —  V 


(P) 


100       (      O.Op 
where  "p"  equals  the  per  cent,  of  capitalization  selected  by  the  owner. 

THIRD.     The  sacrifice  brought  by  the  owner  for  protection's  sake  is: 
w 
V  (1.0pn  —  1)  (Q) 


16 


FOREST  FINANCE 


FOURTH.     If  the  ratio equals  y±,  then  the  sacrifice 

P 
V 

equals     (1.0pn  —  1) 

4 

w 

If  the  ratio     equals  1/10,  then  the  sacrifice  equals 

P 
V 

(1.0pn  —  1) 

10 

Absolutely  taken,  the  sacrifice  greatly  increases  with  the  length  of  the 
period  of  waiting.     Relatively  considered,  the  sacrifice  does  not  increase  nec- 
essarily, 
p    equals    4%  x    equals     5% 


n 

1.04*1-1 

Sacrifice 
w     1 

7*T 

Sacrifice 
w       1 

p      10 

1.05n 

to  find  z 
w       1 

7~7 

w       1 
p  ~10 

l.Oz" 

z 

1.0zn 

z 

10  yr. 

.48 

12V 

05V 

1  63 

1  51 

4.0 

1  58 

4.75 

20" 

1   19 

30V 

12V 

2   65          2  35 

4  3 

2  53 

4.75 

SO" 

2  24 

66V 

22V 

4  32          3  72 

4  5 

4  10 

4  8 

!  40" 

3.80 

95V 

38V 

7.04          6  09 

4  6 

6.66 

4.8 

50" 

6.11 

1.63V 

61V 

11  47 

9  94 

4  7 

10  86 

4.85 

The 
produced 
value, 
y  equals 


figures  in  the  last  and  third  last  columns  give  the  rate  of  interest 
in  a  forest  protected  at  an  annual  expenditure  of  w%  of  its  original 

the  rate  of  interest  produced  in  the  unprotected  forest  as  long  as 

all  goes  well, 
per  cent,  of  revenue  sacrificed  for  protection, 
the  original  sale  of  the  forest. 

number  of  years  that  elapse  before  the  forest  is  cut. 
rate  at  which  the  forest  grows  in  value,  if  fires  are  barred, 
rate  of  interest  expected  by  the  owner. 
per  cent,  of  the  original  value  spent  annually  for  protection, 
rate  of  interest  produced  in  the  protected  forest. 


PARAGRAPH  VII.— CAPITAL  AND  MONEY. 

A. — Any  object  or  thing  having  earning  power  is  a  capital.  By  "earning 
power"  is  understood  the  power  to  furnish  commodities  coveted  by  man. 

B. — "Money"  is  not  "capital";  it  is  merely  the  "legalized  measure  of  values", 
and  hence  frequently  the  measure  of  "capital".     Different  countries  legal- 


FOREST  FINANCE  17 

ize  or  use  different  units  of  measure,  and  within  the  same  country,  time 

causes  the  unit  to  vary  (cattle  in  the  United  States;  platinum  in  Russia; 

silver  in  some  of  the  Latin  countries;  glass  pearls  with  the  Indians;  ccurie 

shells  with  the  Siamese). 

Money,  in  other  words,  is  nothing  but  a  unit  of  measuring,  having  func- 
tions like  those  of  the  yard,  the  bushel,  the  pound  (all  being  subject  to  fluc- 
tuations) to  wit,  the  functions  of  measuring. 
C. — AU  production  originates  with  nature,  and  all  capital  consists,  in  part,  of 

natural  creations  or  natural  objects,  namely: 

1.  Natural  gifts  (soil  and  soil  products) ; 

2.  Natural  forces  (wind,  water,  fire,  gravity,  electricity,  heat,  rainfall). 
D. — Accumulated  human  labor  forms,  usually,  a  part  of  a  capital  actually 

producing  (field,  wind  mills  or  water  mills). 
E. — Merely  natural  capitals  to  which  no  human  labor  (accumulated)  is  at- 
tached, are  usually  unproductive;  although  their  earning  power  might  be 
at  hand  (most  of  our  waterfalls;  the  prairies  a  century  ago). 
Mines  and  fields,  without  the  addition  of  accumulated  labor,  cannot  prove 
their  earning  power.     The  forest  and  the  pasture — under  certain  conditions 
at  least  and  for  limited  periods — may  create  new  commodities  without  requir- 
ing labor  to  be  previously  performed. 

F. — As  long  as  the  population  increases,  the  individual's  share  in  the  "gifts" 
and  in  the  "forces"  of  nature — especially  in  the  gifts— DECREASES  and 
the  units  of  such  gifts  and  forces  increase  in  value. 
On  the  other  hand,  capital  consisting  largely  of  accumulated  human  labor 
depreciates  under  the  same  circumstances. 

The  more  a  capital  consists  of— f^^ade} —components,    the   better 

are  its  chances  to  gradually —  j  TJ^  >  — in  (exchange)  value. 

Rule  a.  As  long  as  capital,  labor,  population  and  money  in  circulation  re- 
main the  same,  values  remain  the  same. 

Rule  b.  If  capital  alone  decreases  (population,  labor  and  money  stagnating) 
less  products  are  available  and  $1.00  can  buy  less  products  or  less 
capital  than  heretofore.  (This  rule  holds  good,  especially,  in  the 
case  of  the  necessities  of  life.) 

Rule  c.  If  population  alone  grows  (capital  and  money  stagnating),  $1.00 
can  buy  less  natural  products  or  capital  than  heretofore  and  can 
buy  more  man-made  capital  or  products  than  heretofore  (since 
labor  is  cheapened). 

Rule  d.      If  money  alone  increases  (population  and  capital  stagnating),  $1.00 
can  buy  less  products,  labor  or  capital  than  heretofore. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  population  and  circulating  money  are  on  the  increase 

in  the  United  States,  whilst    capital  consisting  of  natural  gifts  is  decreasing 

and  whilst  capital  consisting  of  natural  forces  remains  the  same. 

H. — All  economic  factors  combine  as  a  consequence  to  continuously  lessen 
the  purchasing  power  of  the  dollar  in  the  United  States.     The  legalized 


18  FOREST  FINANCE 

measure  of  value  getting  shorter  in  its  effect,  the  number  of  units  of  value 

(or  dollars)  equalling  a  capital  or  a  product  increase  necessarily. 
I.— Gold. 

The  world's  production  of  gold  (the  money  of  the  leading  nations)  has 
increased  and  continues  to  increase  at  an  alarming  rate.  This  increase  has 
had  the  tendency,  unavoidably,  of  cheapening  gold,  or  of  reducing  its  power 
to  purchase  other  goods. 

If  man  were  actually  to  realize  the  enormous  increase  of  the  production 
of  gold,  the  decline  of  its  purchasing  power  would  be  more  patent — it  would 
become  acute. 

A  commodity  (gold  is  a  commodity  like  silver  or  iron  or  wheat,  after  all) 
drops  in  value  at  a  time  when  it  is  known  (or  supposed)  to  be  produced  in  excess 
of  the  demand; — not  at  a  time  when  it  actually  happens  to  be  excessively 
produced. 

In  the  case  of  gold,  in  the  author's  opinion,  mankind  has  not  begun  to 
realize  the  enormous  increase  of  the  supply;  and  it  is  far  from  anticipating  a 
still  more  gigantic  increase  of  the  supply  in  the  near  future  at  a  time  when 
new  technical  and  chemical  methods  of  "gold  making"  come  into  play. 

A  demoralizing  "slump"  in  our  entire  monetary  system  is  unavoidable  as 
soon  as  gold  can  be  produced  at  a  greatly  reduced  expense  of  labor.  The 
knowledge  of  a  slight  over-production  causes  the  price  of  cereals  and  cotton 
and  lumber  to  decline  perceptibly;  similarly,  the  knowledge  of  a  slight  excess 
production  of  gold  must  cause  its  depreciation. 

In  the  past  decades,  this  depreciation  has  been  prevented  by  a  number  of 
countries  rapidly  adopting  the  gold  standard  and  accumulating  gold  in  their 
treasuries. 

In  the  future,  this  depreciation  must  be  marked.  If  the  purchasing  power 
of  gold  decreases  at  the  rate  of  2%  per  annum  (and  the  author  anticipates  a 
more  rapid  decline),  the  consequences  will  be: 

a.  for  the  possessor  of  bonds,  mortgages,  life  insurance  policies,  etc., 

a  heavy  loss  of  capital  as  well  as  of  interests. 

b.  for  a    "country  of   bondholders",   and  therefore  pre-eminently  for 

European  countries,  heavy  losses; 

c.  for  "countries  of  stockholders",  and  countries  rich  in  pastures  and 

forests  and  farms,  a  decided  superiority  over  others  not  so  blessed. 

A  man  owning  4%  bonds  rated  at  par  will  do  well — if  he  desires  to  remain 
equally  wealthy — to  consume  not  over  J  2  of  the  interests  obtained  and  to  re- 
invest the  other  J ■£  with  a  view  to  counterbalancing  the  tendency  of  gold  to 
depreciate. 

Conclusions. 

A  man  owning  $100,000  cash  in  1908  is  less  wealthy  than  the  man 
owning  the  same  amount  in  1898. 

A  man  who  has  let  out,  in  1898,  $100,000  and  who  has  consumed  in  the 
meantime  all  interest  derived  therefrom,  is  getting  less  wealthy.  He  should 
have  saved  a  portion  of  the  interest  actually  obtained  adding  it  to  the  original 
$100,000. 


FOREST  FINANCE  19 

On  the  other  hand,  a  man  letting  out,  in  1898,  10,000  acres  of  land  and 
retaining  them  in  1908  in  equal  productiveness,  is  absolutely  as  wealthy  now 
as  before;  relatively  wealthier  than  before,  although  he  was  allowed  to  con- 
sume all  interest  or  revenue  obtained  from  the  lease. 

PARAGRAPH  VIII.— INTEREST. 

I. — Definitions. 

A. — Interest  (gross)  is  the  price  paid  for  the  use  of  capital. 

B. — As  freight  is  the  price  of  "site-difference",  so  is  interest  the  price 

of  "time-difference". 
C. — Net  interest  is  the  difference  of  a  capital's  "earning  power"  at  the 
beginning  and  at  the  end  of  a  season  plus  the  value  of  the  product 
in  the  meantime  produced  by  capital  and  not  by  labor. 

D. Interest  may  mean  either  the  net  or  the  gross  product  of  capital, 

i.  e.,  of  any  object  having  earning  power. 
E. — The  price  of  the  use   of   labor   equals  the  value  (of   product,  or  of 
capital)  which  the  employer  hopes  to  create  thereby. 

The  price  of  the  use  of   capital  equals  the  value  (of  product, 
or  of  new  capital)  which  the  employer  hopes  to  create  thereby. 

p. interest  is  the  product  of  capital;  its  price  is  the  price  of  the  product  1 

In  loans  of  capital,  it  is  usual  to  loan  the  "measure  of  capital"  (gold) 
and  to  turn  over  to  the  owner  thereof  the  "measure  of  the  product" 
(gold.) 
The  borrower  may  use  a  loan  to  pay  WAGES  and  in  that  case  he  ACT- 
UALLY borrows  LABOR,  reconverting  "ACCUMULATED"  labor  into  "RUN- 
NING" labor. 
II. — Gross  Interest  on  Money  Loans. 

This  is  the  product  of  capital  employed  in  another  man's  production. 
It  consists  of  the  following  parts: — 

a.  The  true,  net,  actual,  clear  yield  of  capital  "(fa)". 

b.  "Risk  quota",  or  remuneration  for  risk  taken,  or  capital  secretly 

repaid,  or  capital  apt  to  be  consumed  in  the  course  of  the  pro- 
duction. This  quota  is  meant  to  rebuild  that  much  of  the  origina 
capital  as  is  liable  to  incidental  destruction  "(fb)". 

c.  Remuneration  for  labor,  financial  sagacity  and  discomforts  requiredl 
from  the  owner  in  harvesting  the  yield  of  capital  "(fc)". 

d.  Quota  which  must  be  saved  and  added  to  the  original  in  order  to 

allow  the  owner  to  remain  equally  wealthy  whilst  the  purchasing 
power  of  money  declines  "(fd)". 
The  investing  capitalist  invariably  over-estimates  the  true  or  net  yields 
of  his  investment  (fa)  and  proceeds  to  consume  (fb)  and  (fd). 

Few  families  remain  equally  "wealthy"  in  the  long  run  excepting  those 
owning  entailed  real  estate. 

in.— Interest  on  merely  natural  investments  (farms)  consists  of  "(fa)"  and 
of  "(fc)".  The  risk  "(fb)"  is  little  since  the  soil,  at  least,  is  safe. 
There  is  no  "(fd)". 


20  FOREST  FINANCE 

IV. — Interest  on  capital  consisting  of  accumulated  labor  has  a  very  large 
"(1fb)".       This  is  proven  by  the  following: — 

1.  It  can  be  outranked  and  reduced  in  value  by  other  and  better  labor- 
accumulations  (e.  g.,  sulphite  fiber  process  superseding  soda  fiber 
process;  Southern  cotton  factories  outranking  Northern  cotton  fac- 
tories; steamships  superseding  sailing  craft). 

2.  The  real  necessities  of  life  are  more  a  soil  product  than  a  labor  pro- 

duct. In  the  case  of  unnecessary  articles,  fashions  and  inventions 
cause  continuous  fluctuations  of  the  remunerativeness  of  the  in- 
vestments producing  such  unnecessary  articles. 

3.  If  a  production,  basing  largely  on  accumulated  labor,  is  found  to  be 
remunerative,  it  is  at  once  overdone;  and  competition  kills  the  yields 
(e.  g.,  bicycle  manufacturing). 

4.  Labor-made  capital  (machinery)  is  usually  consumed  in  the  course 
of  the  production. 

V. — It  may  be  said  that  no  man  who  wishes  to  be  on  the  safe  side,  on  an  aver- 
age, should  annually  consume  over  2%  on  his  investment;  or  that  no  man 
should  rate  the  true  earning  power  of  his  investment  at  a  figure  exceed- 
ing 2%. 

The  financial  genius,  of  course,  can  do  better  and  can  credit  himself  with 
a  large  "(rc)";  he  foresees  the  development  of  the  future  correctly;  at  an 
outlay  of  $1,000,  for  instance,  he  creates  or  acquires  a  capital  producing 
$100  of  true  net  "(<»",  which  is  worth  $5,000.  Thus,  he  owns  five  times 
as  much  as  before  at  the  end  of  the  production. 

Theoretically,  the  genius  obtains  wealth  by  buying  productive  capital 
actually  under-rated  by  the  majority  of  the  owners,  and  by  selling  productive 
capital  actually  over-rated  by  others.  The  blunderers  foresee  the  coming 
events  wrongly;  they  sell  on  a  rising  market,  and  they  buy  on  a  falling  market. 
During  the  year,  the  investors  change  their  opinion  frequently,  relative 
to  the  outlook  of  the  future;  hence  continuous  fluctuations  on  exchange.  The 
ratings  placed  by  two  men  on  the  same  investment  coincide  in  rare  cases  only; 
hence  few  transactions  on  exchange,  a  trade  being  made  only  when  two  men 
happen  to  agree. 

VI. — Additional  factors  influencing  the  rate  of  interest: — 

1.  Unhandy  credit  systems; 

2.  Partial  or  slow  courts; 

3.  Danger  of  foolish  legislation; 

4.  Amount  of  indestructible  assets. 

The  factors  1,  2  and  3  increase,  and  the  factor  4  decreases  the  rate  of 
interest. 

The  rate  of  interest  charged  for  loans  and  bonds  increases  whenever  the 
industries  prosper.  The  available  money  is  then  withdrawn  from  loans  and 
put  into  industrial  engagements. 

VII. — Limits  of  Interest. 

1.  The  lowest  limit  is  the  figure  at  which  the  owner  prefers  to  hide  or 
consume  his  belongings. 


FOREST  FINANCE  21 

2.  The  upper  limit  is  the  actual  effect  of  the  investment  for  which  means 
and  bounds  do  not  exist.  If  the  investment  cannot  be  duplicated 
(Standard  Oil),  the  rate  of  interest  becomes  a  personal  matter  being 
governed  by  the  capitalization  which  the  owners  choose  to  adopt. 

VHJ. — The  net  or  true  interest 

1.  has  the  tendency  of  equalization 

A.  in  loans,  because  interest  is  merely  the  price  of  such  loans  re- 
sembling the  price  of  any  other  commodity; 

B.  in  investments,  because  universally  remunerative  investments 
are  soon  over-crowded  by  competition  where  duplication  is  pos- 
sible. Where  this  is  not  possible,  there  abnormal  revenue  is  at 
once  capitalized,  the  new  capital  value  being  added  to  the  ori- 
ginal ("watered  investments"); 

2.  has  the  tendency  of  sinking  because  the  wealth  of  the  nations  is 

rising  at  a  faster  rate  than  the  chances  at  remunerative  employment 
of  wealth. 

IX.— Justification  of  Interest. 

1.  The  Church,  since  325  A.  D.,  has  condemned  interest  after  Luke 

VI :  35.     In  the  early  Christian  era,  loans  for  consumption  only  were 
known,  not  loans  for  production. 

2.  After  Adam  Smith,  the  capitalist  would  not  care  to  take  any  risk, 
temporarily  parting  with  the  full  control  of  his  property,  if  he  did 
not  see  any  inducements. 

3.  After  Senior,  interests  are  payments  due  to  the  owner  for  abstaining 
from  the  immediate  consumption  of  his  property. 

4.  After  Marx  and  La  Salle,  interest  is  cut-off  from  the  wages  properly 

belonging  to  the  wage  earner. 

5.  Merely  natural  capitals   (deer,   buffalo,  trees,   grass  lands)   produce 

annually.     Thus,  interest  on  capital  is  natural,— is  part  of  the  econ- 
omy of  nature. 

X.— Rate  of  Interest  in  Forestry. 
1.     Conservative  Forestry. 

a.  There  is  no  '-(lib)"   or  "(W   to    be  deducted  from  the  gross 

rate  of  interest,  since  there  is  no  risk  and  no  influence  on  the 
investment  due  to  the  declining  purchasing  power  of  money. 

b.  The  rate  of  interest  compares  favorably  with  agricultural  interest 

because  the  products  of  the  forest  can  be  stored  free  of  cost, 
and  are  exposed  but  little  to  drought,  inundation,  boU  weevil, 
etc.     If  the  products  are  killed  by  storm,  fire  and  insects, 
forestry  can  bring  them  to  the  market,  usually,  at  a  scarcely 
reduced  price  (see  American  Lumberman,  September  19,  1908). 
The  rate  of  true  interest  in  conservative  forestry  is  about  2}4%  (in  Sax- 
ony, on  an  average  for  the  year  1905,  2  Vl0%5    see  Thar.  Forst  Jahrbuch, 
1907,  1st  issue.)  and  compares  very  favorably  with  4%  on  bonds  and  6%  on 
industrial  investments. 


22  FOREST  FINANCE 

2.     Destructive  Forestry. 

The  net  revenue  cannot  be  separated  easily  from  the  capital  gradually 
withdrawn  from  the  forest.  If  only  soil  (S)  remains  after  complete  exhaus- 
tion, within  (n)  years,  of  a  forest  of  the  original  value  (Q)  whilst  surplus  re- 
ceipts, Ri,  R2,  R3,  etc.,  are  obtained  during  the  (n)  years  of  destructive  lum- 
bering, then  the  rate  of  interest,  (x),  is  illustrated  by  the  following  equation: — 
QXl.Oxn=Ri  (1.0xn_1)+Ra  (1.0xn-2)+R3   (1.0xn~3)  +     .     .     .     Rn   +  S. 

XI. — Saxon  Statistics  show: — 

1.        That  the  State  forests  have  paid,  since  1816,  2%  net  on  the  annual 
average. 
2.     That  the  money  value  of  the  forest,  since  1816,  has  risen  by  3%  on 
the  annual  average,  a  rise  largely  due  to  the  declining  purchasing 
power  of  gold  and  partly  due  to  improvements  and  additional  in- 
vestments. 
XII. — The  decision  in  the  problem  confronting  the  owner:     "Shall  I  practice 
conservative  forestry  or  destructive  forestry?"  must  be  based  on  the  true 
rate  of  net  interest  obtainable  from  the  one  and  from  the  other.     It  re- 
mains for  the  forester  to  demonstrate  the  difference  between  net  interest 
and  gross  interest. 

The  chances  for  conservatism  in  forestry  to  be  superior  to  radicalism 
are,  on  the  whole,  extremely  good  and  especially  so  in  the  United  States,  since 

1.  The   American  lumber  market   is   almost   continuously  overstocked 

beyond  its  digestive  capacity.  The  virgin  supplies  are  being  ex- 
hausted, and  are  apt  to  be  entirely  exhausted  by  1960.  In  the  mean- 
time the  stumpage  prices  of  all  good  timber  must  increase  steadily. 

2.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  now  wealthy  lumbermen  have  made 
their  wealth  by  buying  stumpage  when  and  where  it  was  under- 
valued and  by  holding  it  for  a  number  of  years.  Fortunes  have 
never  been  made  by  any  particular  skill  in  lumbering,  milling  or 
sale  of  lumber. 

Strange  as  it  may  sound:     Inactivity  has  paid  better  in  the  case  of  in- 
vestments in  American  forestry  than  hard  work  spent  in  lumbering  and  milling. 
There  is  no  reason  to  anticipate  that  the  future  will  materially  differ 
from  the  past. 

XIII. — Interpretation  of  the  rate  of  interest  on  which  a  calculation  is  based : 
X 

1)        The  sum  may  mean 

l.opn 

a)  that  the  calculator  expects  with  a  faith  in  his  forecasts  expressed 
by  p%  receipts  or  expenses  (X)  to  occur  (n)  years  from  date 
of  calculation,  or 

b)  that  the  calculator  expects,  with  a  faith  in  his  forecasts  approx- 
imated by  (p  +  y),  receipts  or  expenses 

X 

or        XXl.oy11 

l.oyn 
to  occur  n  years  from  date  of  calculation. 


FOREST  FINANCE  28 

This  possibility  of  interpretation  allows  of  the  expression  of  widely  dif- 
ferent forecasts  by  a  mere  change  of  the  rate  of  interest  underlying  the  cal- 
culation. The  basal  rate  underlying  an  equation  does  not  or  need  not  design- 
ate the  actual  dividend  expected  by  the  calculator.  It  is  the  mathematical 
outcome  of  his  fears  and  his  hopes,  of  gloomy  and  of  rosy  anticipations. 

PARAGRAPH  IX.— EXPECTATION  VALUE. 

The  actual  value  of  any  object  to  its  owner,  or  to  anybody  else  (cow, 
house,  railroad  bonds,  mining  stock)  equals  the  pre-value  of  the  expected  ser- 
vices or  yields,  diminished  by  the  pre-value  of  the  expected  expense  required 
to  obtain  such  services  or  yields.  Obviously,  the  rate  of  discount  is  of  para- 
mount importance  relative  to  the  result  of  the  calculation.  'Individual  opin- 
ion" governs  the  rate  of  discount  as  well  as  the  anticipations'of  future  events. 

Values  rise  with  the  expectation  of  rising  yields,  of  sinking  expenses  and 
or  reduced  rates  of  interest,  and  vice  versa.  Obviously,  the  selection  of  the 
rate  of  interest,  and  the  forecasts  of  future  yields  and  expenses,  depend,  above 
all,  on  personal  opinions  which  may  be  pessimistic  or  optimistic,  bearish  or 
bullish. 

Applied  to  forestry,  we  find  the  following  expectation  values: 

1.  Value  of  a  regular  second  growth  forest  (m)  years  old: 

thna         thnb         thnc  f.c+s.v. +V 

+ + + V 

1.0pa-m    1.0pb-m      1.0pc-m  1.0pr-m 

wherein  thna,  thnb,  thnc  stands  for  thinnings  in  the  year  a,  b,  and 
c  of  the  forest;  f.c,  for  value  of  final  cut;  s.v.,  for  soil  value  after 
final  cut,  and  V  for  a  perpetual  rental  defraying  taxes  and  admini- 
strative expenses  reduced  by  annual  receipts  for  leases,  etc. 

2.  The  value  of  bare,  absolute  forest  soil,  planted  up  at  an  expense  of 

"pig"  and  weeded  at  an  expense  of  "weed"  equals 
thna  X  1.0pr"a  +  thnb  X  l.Op^b  +f  >c.—  pig  —weed  X  1.0pr_m 

V— pig 

(1.0pr  —  1) 

3.  The  value  of  an  ideal  forest  in  which  all  age  classes  are  present,  which 

is  conservatively  managed,  close  to  a  ready  market  (so  that  in  every 
year  of  the  future  there  may  be  obtained  a  yield  from  a  thinning  in 
a  woodlot  "a",  "b",  "c"  years  old  and  also  a  final  yield  diminished 
by  reforestation  expenses,  whilst  the  expense  of  administration  is  an- 
nually "v"  for  the  entire  forest)  amounts  to 
thna  +thnb  +thnc  +  (f.c— pltg)  —  v 


O.Op 

thn  equals  thinnings 
p  "      rate  per  cent. 

f.c.       "      final  cut 
pltg      "      planting. 


in  which 


24  FOREST  FINANCE 

PARAGRAPH  X.— SALE  VALUE  OF   WOODLANDS 
IN  U.  S. 

It  is  customary  to  buy  timberland  merely  at  the  price  of  the  stumpage 
standing  thereon.     The  purchaser  neglects: 

B  /  1)  that  he  can  not  cut  all  of  the  timber  at  once;  and  such  parts,  as 

Z  \  he  cuts  only  after  some  years,  should  not  be  assessed  at  full  value; 

**■*  J  2)  that  taxes,  etc.,  accrue,  whilst  the  timber  is  cut  gradually; 

.£  \  3)  that  an  expense  for  legal  and  timber  investigations  must  be  covered; 

{§)  /  4)  that  timber  values  might  be  destroyed  by  fire; 

e  I  5)  that  there  is  danger  of  fool-legislation  against  alien  corporation!. 

a)  that  soil  has  value; 

b)  that  stumpage  prices  (and  merchantability,  hence  volume)  will 
increase ; 

c)  that  there  is  a  second  growth  already  at  hand; 

d)  that  local  means  of  transportation  increase; 

e)  that  taxes  might  be  decreased,  and  that  protective  legislation  will 
come; 

f)  that  freight  rates  decrease; 

g)  that  population  increases,  also  demand; 
h)      that  new  uses  are  found  for  wood; 
i)       that  investments  in  forestry  are  remarkably  safe,  compared  with 

stocks,  bonds,  etc. 

j)  that  the  agricultural  value  of  the  soil  increases,  absolute  forest  soil 
becoming  absolute  farm  soil,  as  the  years  go  by; 

k)  that  forest  pasture,  chase,  minerals  (rock,  clay),  waters  and  water- 
powers  promise  an  increasing  revenue. 

PARAGRAPH  XI.— GAUGING  THE  MERITS  OF  AN 
INVESTMENT. 

The  success  of  a  business  (in  farms,  mines,  forestry)  is  evidenced  by  its 
net  gains. 

Expenses  and  yields  can  be  compared  either  by  forming  their  difference 
which  comparison  shows  an  "entrepreneur's"  gain  or  loss;  or  by  forming 
their  ratio  which  method  shows  the  actual  dividend  obtained  from  the  business. 
I. — Entrepreneur's  gain  and  loss. 

Influencing  factors  are: — 

a.  Lapse  of  time. 

b.  Constellation  of  economic  conditions. 

c.  Personal  foresight. 

d.  Rate  of  interest  introduced  into  the  calculation. 

An  undertaker's  gain  may  be  figured  out  retrospectively  or  prospectively. 
An  undertaker's  gain  is  fictitious  until,  the  property  changing  hands,  it 
can  be  demonstrated  to  be  a  fact. 


FOREST  FINANCE  25 

The  undertaker's  gain  or  loss  disappears  when  the  financier  introduces 
a  rate  of  interest  at  which  the  discounted  expense  equals  the  discounted  yields. 
II. — The  forest  dividends  show  what  actual  rate  of  interest  the  owner  has 

made  in  the  past  or  may  earn  in  the  future  on  his  investments.     The 

actual  rate  of  interest  introduced  in  the  financial  equation  causes  any 

undertaker's  gain  to  vanish. 

The  forest  dividend  is  deeply  influenced  by  the  price  increment  of  trees 
(improved  means  of  transportation;  enlarged  markets,  etc.) 

In  the  forest,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  actual  revenue  drawn 
from  the  forest  and  capital  withdrawn,  since  the  trees  are  capital  as  well  as 
product.  In  conservative  forestry,  careful  stock  taking  is  required  period- 
ically, so  as  to  show  the  actual  status  of  the  investment. 

PARAGRAPH  XII.— MATURITY  OF  TREES. 

I. — In  the  botanical  sense,  wood  fiber  is  mature  almost  after  the  conception 
of  the  cell. 

A  tree  3  inches  in  diameter  is  physiologically  just  as  mature  as  a  tree 
3  feet  in  diameter. 
The  highest  stage  of  botanical  maturity  is  the  so-called  heartwood. 

II. — From  the  people's  standpoint,  timber  must  be  considered  mature  at  a 
time  at  which  it  is  best  adapted  to  general  usage  in  the  wood  consuming 
industries.  The  older  the  tree  gets,  the  larger  is,  on  the  whole,  its  diver- 
sity of  utility.  The  rotation  best  adapted  to  supply  the  industries  of  a 
country  is  called  the  "technical  rotation". 

III. — The  sylviculturist  regenerating  the  forest  from  self-sown  seed  cannot 
select  a  rotation  which  does  not  allow  the  trees  to  profusely  propagate 
their  kind.  In  coppice  woods,  since  the  sprouting  capacity  decreases 
with  increasing  diameter,  the  rotation  must  be  so  low  as  to  allow  of 
luxuriant  production  (sylvicultural  rotation). 

IV. — From  the  financial  standpoint,  trees  or  forests  must  be  considered  mature 
when  the  net  true  interest  obtained  from  them  ceases  to  bear  a  sufficient 
ratio  to  the  sale  value  of  such  trees  or  forests. 

Wherever  the  woods  are  stocked  with  even  aged  and  even  sized  trees, 
all  of  the  trees  reach  maturity  at  or  about  at  the  same  time. 
The  primeval  woods  of  America  do  not  exhibit,  usually,  such  even  aged 
conditions.     The  American  forester  had  better  speak  of  the  maturity  of  trees 
than  of  the  maturity  of  forests. 

Factors  influencing  the  maturity  of  trees  in  America  are,  pre-eminently : — 

a.     The  price  increment,  which,  in  the  case  of  large  trees,  far  exceeds 

the  volume  increment  and  value  increment.     Stem  analyses  and 

volume  tables  are  of  little  value,  consequently,  for  the  financial 

diagnosis  of  primeval  trees. 


26  FOREST  FINANCE 

b.  Means  or  arteries  of  transportation  and  the  permanency  of  their  char- 

acter. Where  the  means  of  transportation  are  considered  as  a 
permanent  investment  and  not  as  a  temporary  expense  to  be  re- 
imbursed by  current  operations,  a  higher  age  of  maturity  results 
naturally. 

c.  In  many  cases  the  taxes  per  acre  are  not  or  are  scarcely  influenced 

by  the  severity  of  the  cut.  Here  it  is  irrelevant,  from  the  tax 
payer's  standpoint,  whether  he  proceed  to  log  certain  sizes  or  kinds 
of  trees  or  not.  Where,  on  the  other  hand,  taxes  are  changed  ac- 
cording to  the  stumpage  found  per  acre,  the  standing  tree  must  be 
charged  with  that  much  of  the  tax  per  acre  as  corresponds  with 
its  individual  contents.  Take,  e.  g.,  a  forest  of  white  pine  contain- 
ing 6,000  ft.  per  acre  consisting  of  12  trees  averaging  400  ft.  b. 
m.,  taxed  at  30  cts.  per  acre.     The  soil  has  little  value.    A  tree  con- 

.30  X  400 

taining  400  ft.b.m.  must  annually  defray    -.024,  which 

6000 
expense  of  .024  must  be  charged  against  the  tree  and  must  be  de- 
frayed from  the  annual  increase,  if  any,  of  the  value  of  the  tree. 

d.  Trees  acting  as  mother  trees  propagating  their  kind  should  be  credited 

with  the  prospective  value  of  the  progeny  produced  by  them,  on 
an  average.  On  the  other  hand,  trees  acting  like  weeds  and  re- 
tarding the  growth  of  a  younger  progeny  of  seedlings  and  saplings 
beneath  them  must  be  charged  with  the  loss  of  prospective  incre- 
ment incurred  by  such  second  growth. 

e.  Since  protective  and  administrative  expenses  are  governed  more  by 

area  than  by  the  density  of  the  stands,  it  is  necessary  in  rare  cases 
only  to  charge  a  pro  rata  of  the  protective  and  administrative  ex- 
penses against  the  individual  tree.  These  expenses  incumber  the 
soil  like  prescriptive  rights. 

f.  The  question  of  maturity  is  a  question  to  be  answered  in  the  first 

and  last  instance  by  the  owner  who  is  governed  by  his  personal 
attitude  regarding  the  rate  of  interest  obtainable  from  his  invest- 
ment; by  the  prospects  of  price  increment  as  they  appear  to  him 
and  by  personal  moments  like  the  lack  of  cash  to  defray  running 
expenses,    mortgages,    etc.;    chance    of    remunerative    investment 
elsewhere;  desire  to  distribute  risks;  tastes  and  predilections. 
Trees  of  defective  character  infested  by  insects  or  fungi  have  reached 
maturity,    generally   speaking,   since  the  spread  of   the   disease   checks  their 
financial  increment,  and  may  cause  the  increment  to  be  negative. 

V. — In  Europe  the  following  number  of  years  denote,  on  an  average,  the  ma- 
turity of  timber:  pine  100  yrs.;  spruce  90  yrs.;  fir  120  yrs.;  beech  120 
yrs.;  oak  160  yrs.;  oak  coppice  18  yrs.;  willows  1  and  2  yrs. 
In  America,  naturally,  fixed  rotations  have  not  been  adopted,  since  the 
cutting  takes  place,  usually,  in  the  primeval  woods.     In  Virginia,  a  second 
and  third  growth  of  pine  is  cut  under  a  rotation  of  about  60  years.     Catalpa 


FOREST  FINANCE  2T 

is  coppiced  under  a  rotation  of  about  10  years.  The  very  prime  trees,  notably 
hardwoods,  of  a  primeval  wood  are  immature  from  a  financial  standpoint, 
if  the  owner  believes  that  the  greatest  advance  in  prices  will  come  to  them, 
such  giants  getting  rare  and  more  rare,  year  by  year. 

In  many  cases,  the  price  of  inferior  stumpage  does  not  promise  to  rise  as 
much  as  the  price  of  prime  stumpage.  On  the  other  hand,  in  many  a  case, 
the  indicating  percentage  of  trees  promising  a  large  percentage  of  "cull  lum- 
ber" is  manifestly  superior  to  that  of  trees  containing  a  large  percentage  of 
"fas  lumber". 

In  Europe,  the  question  of  maturity  is  largely  a  question  of  age  or  (which 
is  almost  the  same)  of  diameter.  In  America,  on  the  other  hand,  the  question 
is  one  of  conditions — condition  of  transportation,  danger  from  fire,  condition 
of  health,  the  chances  for  their  improvement  or  deterioration.  Thus,  a  diam- 
eter limit  or  age  limit  can  scarcely  denote  maturity.  The  American  forester 
in  charge  of  large  districts  is  confronted  many  a  time  with  the  necessity  of 
treating  individual  trees  according  to  their  financial  merits,  whilst  his  Euro- 
pean colleague  in  charge  of  small  ranges  has  to  deal  with  even  aged  aggre- 
gates resulting  from  second  growths. 

VI. — The  term  "indicating  percentage"  denotes  the  current  dividend  obtain- 
able from  a  tree  or  woodlot.     This  percentage  indicates  the  maturity  of  a 

tree  or  of  a  woodlot. 

A  tree  or  woodlot  is  mature  and  should  be  removed  when  it  ceases  to  yield 
(latently,  of  course)  the  dividend  desired  by  the  owner. 

The  owner  or  investor  discards  an  investment  in  forestry  as  well  as  in 
stock  when  the  dividend  seems  to  fall  below  the  limit  obtainable  by  him  in 
other  enterprises  of  similar  safety.  If  he  discards  at  the  right  time,  he  will 
make  money;  and  otherwise  not. 

In  the  following  remarks,  the  indicating  percentage  is  called  "x";  the 
forest  percentage  denoting  the  "limit"  just  mentioned  is  called  "p". 

Previous  to  maturity,  "x"  is  larger  than  "p";  at  maturity,  "x"  equals 
"p";  after  maturity  "x"  is  smaller  than  "p". 

The  indicating  percentage  of  a  woodlot,  for  a  period  of  10  years,  is  as 
follows,  if  the  stumpage  is  now  worth  "S.S."  dollars;  if  it  is  worth,  after  ten 
years,  "S.S10";  if  the  cleared  soil  is  worth  "C"  dollars;  if  administration  and 
taxes  are  "v"  dollars  per  annum,  forming  an  administrative  capital  "V": — 

(SS+C+V)  l.Ox10=SS10  +  C+V  or 

(n      (l.Ox^-l) 

(SS  +  C)  l.Ox10  +  v -C+SSio 

O.Ox 
According  to  Krafft,  the  indicating  percentage  had  better  be  considered 
as  a  dividend  on  stumpage  merely  whilst  the  soil  and  the  administrative  cap- 
ital should  yield  the  forest  dividend  required  by  the  owner. 

Krafft's  "x"  is  more  sensitive  than  the  "x"  commonly  applied  since  it 
bears  a  ratio  to  part  of  the  investment  only.     Krafft's  "x"  is  found  as  follows : — 
SS  x  l.Ox10  +  (C+V)  l.Op10=  SS10+C+V 


28  FOREST  FINANCE 

In  conservative  logging  when  a  portion  only  of  the  trees  are  removed  from 
•very  acre,  the  indicating  percentage  had  best  be  considered  as  a  tree  dividend. 

Whether  and  how  much  of  the  taxes  and  administrative  expense  (e) 
should  be  charged  to  the  tree,  depends  upon  the  local  circumstances.  Trees 
occupying  soil  and  preventing,  by  their  presence,  a  second  growth  from  de- 
veloping, must  be  charged  with  the  interest  on  the  value  of  the  soil  thus  oc- 
cupied. 

On  the  other  hand,  trees  acting  as  mother  trees  must  be  credited  with 
the  value  of  the  progeny  resulting  from  their  presence. 

The  tree  indicating  percentage  might  be  expressed,  adopting  Krafft's 
method,  as  follows : 

(1.0p°-l) 

T0  x   1.0xn+e +  (soil)  1.0pn -Tn  +  soil  +  value   of    progeny 

O.Op 
in  which  "T0"  equals  the  tree  value  now.    Where  the  forest  stocks  on  agricul- 
tural soil,  all  trees  unable  to  defray  the  interest  on  such  valuable  soil,  appear 
to  be  mature,  or  hypermature. 

VII. — The  forester  making  a  working  plan  for  pine  and  spruce  woods  is  usually 
confronted  by  the  question  of  the  best  diameter  limit.  The  plan  advises 
the  owner  as  to  the  limit  yielding  the  highest  entrepreneur's  gain  or  the 
highest  forest  dividend. 

The  heavier  the  present  cut,  the  smaller  is  the  investment  left,  whilst  the 
protecting  expenses  remain  the  same.  On  the  face  of  it,  it  seems  unwise  to 
cut  clear  without  considering  the  financial  prospects  of  trees  which  might  be 
left  on  the  ground,  having  10",  12",  14",  etc.  in  diameter.  Obviously,  the 
logging  expenses  per  M  feet  b.  m.,  are  smaller  in  the  case  of  heavy  cutting, 
than  in  the  case  of  light  cutting,  particularly  so  when  the  logger  must  avoid 
any  damage  to  the  trees  left  standing. 

Again,  obviously,  the  longer  the  period  of  waiting  for  a  second  cut,  the 
less  are  the  chances  for  a  good  return  from  conservative  logging. 

The  diameter  limit  might  be  tested  either  with  the  help  of  the  indicating 
percentage  or  by  the  method  of  the  entrepreneur's  gain. 


INTEREST  TABLES 


(EXPLANATORY) 

Column  I  indicates  the  number  of  years. 

Column    II    gives   the   present    value   of  S1.00  due  at  the  end  of  the 
number  of  years  indicated  in  column  I. 

An 

Column  III  gives  the  present  value  of  $1.00  per  annum  due  every  year    _    ; 

during  the  period  of  years  indicated  in  column  I. 

Column  IV  gives  the  aft-value  of  $1.00  left  invested  for  the  number  of 
years  indicated  in  column  I. 

Column    V    gives    the    aft-value    of    $1.00    payable    annually   and   left- 
invested  for  the  number  of  years  indicated  in  column  I. 


80 


H  PER  CENT. 


I 

n 

in 

mi 

V 

1 

.9950 

.9950 

1.0050 

1.0000 

2 

.9901 

1.9851 

1.0100 

2.0050 

3 

.9851 

2.9702 

1.0151 

3.0150 

4 

.9802 

3.9505 

1.0202 

4.0301 

5 

.9754 

4.9259 

1.0253 

5.0503 

6 

.9705 

5.8964 

1.0304 

6.0755 

7 

.9657 

6.8621 

1.0355 

7.1059 

8 

.9609 

7.8230 

1.0407 

8.1414 

9 

.9561 

8.7791 

1.0459 

9.1821 

10- 

—  .9513- 

9.7304- 

1.0511- 

10.2280 

11 

.9466 

10.6770 

1.0564 

11.2792 

12 

.9419 

11.6189 

1.0617 

12.3356 

13 

.9372 

12.5562 

1.0670 

13.3972 

14 

.9326 

13.4887 

1.0723 

14.4642 

15 

.9279 

14.4166 

1.0777 

15.5365 

16 

.9233 

15.3399 

1.0831 

16.6142 

17 

.9187 

16.2586 

1.0885 

17.6973 

18 

.9141 

17.1728 

1.0939 

18.7858 

19 

.9096 

18.0824 

1.0994 

19.8797 

20.. 

9051.. 

.9006 

—  .18.9874  — 
19.8880 

1.1049  — 

20.9791 

21 

1.1104 

22.0840 

22 

.8961 

20.7841 

1.1160 

23 . 1944 

23 

.8916 

|  21.6756 

1.1216 

24.3104 

24 

.8872 

22.5629 

1 . 1272 

25.4320 

25 

.8828 

23.4456 

1 . 1328 

26.5591 

26 

.8784 

!' 24. 3240 

1 . 1385 

27.6919 

27 

.8740 

|  25 . 1980 

1.1442 

28.8304 

28 

.8697 

1 26.0677 

1 . 1499 

29.9745 

29 

.8653 

£26.9330 

1.1556 

31.1244 

30.- 

--.8610- 

--27.7941- 

1.1614— 

32.2800 

31 

.8567 

28.6508 

1 . 1672 

33.4414 

32 

.8525 

29.5033 

1 . 1730 

34.6086 

33 

.8482 

30.3515 

1 . 1789 

35.7817 

34 

.8440 

30.1955 

1 . 1848 

36.9606 

35 

.8398 

32.0354 

1 .  1907 

38.1454 

36 

.8356 

32.8710 

1 . 1967 

39.3361 

37 

.8315 

33.7025 

1.2027 

40.5328 

38 

.8274 

34.5299 

1.2087 

41.7354 

39 

.8232 

35.3531 

1.2147 

42.9441 

40-. 

—  .8191- 
.8151 

—  .36.1722.. 

1.2208— 

44.1588 

41 

36.9873 

1.2269 

45.3796 

42 

.8110 

37.7983 

1.2330 

46.6065 

43 

.8070 

38.6053 

1.2392 

47.8306 

44 

.8030 

39.4082 

1.2454 

49.0788 

45 

.7990 

40.2072 

1.2516 

50.3242 

46 

.7950 

41.0022 

1.2579 

51.5758 

47 

.7910 

41.7932 

1.2642 

52.8337 

48 

.7871 

42.5803 

1.2705 

54.0978 

49 

.7832 

43.3635 

1.2768 

55.3683 

50.  _ 

.-.7793- 
.7601 

...44.1428-. 
47.9782 

1.2832.. 

56.6452 

55 

1.3156 

63.1200 

60 

.7414 

51.7020 

1.3488 

69.7600 

65 

.7231 

55.2764 

1.3829 

76.5800 

70 

.7053 

58.9364 

1.4178 

83.5600 

75 

.6879 

62.4745 

1.4536 

90.7200 

80 

.6710 

65.7988 

1.4903 

98.0600 

85 

.6545 

69 . 1099 

1.5280 

105.6000 

90 

.6383 

72.3268 

1.5665 

113.3000 

95 

.6226 

75.4747 

1.6061 

121.2200 

100.  _ 

.-.6073- 
.5923 

...78.5449.. 

1.6467- 

129.3400 

105 

81.5306 

1.6882 

137.6400 

110 

.5777 

84.4531 

1.7309 

146.1800 

115 

.5635 

87.2985 

1.7746 

154.9200 

120 

.5496 

90.0736 

1.8194 

163.8800 

1  PER  CENT. 


31 


I 

ii 

in 

mi 

V 

1 

.9901 

.9901 

1.0100 

1.0000 

2 

.9803 

1.9704 

1.0201 

2.0100 

3 

.9706 

2.9410 

1.0303 

3.0301 

4 

.9610 

3.9020 

1.0406 

4.0604 

5 

.9515 

4.8534 

1.0510 

5.1010 

6 

.9420 

5 . 7955 

1.0615 

6.1520 

7 

.9327 

6.72S2 

1.0721 

7.2135 

8 

.9235 

7.6517 

1.0829 

8.2857 

9 

.9143 

8.5660 

1.0937 

9.3685 

10.. 

_._.9053__ 

9.4713.. 

1.1046 

10.4622 

11 

.8963 

10.3676 

1.1157 

11.5668 

12 

.8874 

11.2551 

1 . 1268 

12.6825 

13 

.8787 

12.1337 

1.1381 

13.8093 

14 

.8700 

13.0037 

1 . 1495 

14.9474 

15 

.8613 

13.8651 

1.1610 

16.0969 

16 

.8528 

14.7179 

1.1726 

17.2579 

17 

.8444 

15.5622 

1 . 1843 

18.4304 

18 

.8360 

16.3983 

1.1961 

19.6147 

19 

.8277 

17.2260 

1.2081 

20.8109 

20 

8195.. 

18.0456 

....1.2202 

.   .22.0190 

21 

.8114 

18.8570 

1.2324 

23.2392 

22 

.8034 

19.6604 

1.2447 

24.4716 

23 

.7954 

20.4558 

1.2572 

25.7163 

24 

.7876 

21.2434 

1.2697 

26.9735 

25 

.7798 

22.0232 

1.2824 

28.2432 

26 

.7720 

22.7952 

1.2953 

29.5256 

27 

.7644 

23 . 5596 

1.3082 

30.8209 

28 

.7568 

24.3164 

1.3213 

32.1291 

29 

.7493 

25.0658 

1.3345 

33 . 4504 

30 

...7419 
.7346 

25.8077 

1.3478 

.34.7849 

31 

26.5423 

1.3613 

36.1327 

32 

7273 

27.2696 

1.3749 

37.4941 

33 

7201 

27.9897 

1.3887 

38.8690 

34 

.7130 

28.7027 

1.4026 

40.2577 

35 

7059 

29.4086 

1.4166 

41.6603 

36 

6989 

30.1075 

1.4308 

•  43.0769 

37 

6920 

30.7995 

1 . 4451 

44.5076 

38 

6852 

31.4847 

1.4595 

45.9527 

39 

6784 

32.1630 

1.4741 

47.4123 

40 

6717 
6650 

32.8347 
33.4997 

1.4889 

..48.8864 

41 

1.5038 

50.3752 

42 

6584 

34.1581 

1.5188 

51.8790 

43 

.6519 

34.8100 

1.5340 

53.3978 

44 

.6454 

35.4554 

1.5493 

54.9318 

45 

6391 

36.0945 

1 . 5648 

56.4811 

46 

6327 

36.7272 

1.5805 

5S.0459 

47 

6265 

37.3537 

1.5963 

59.6263 

48 

.6203 

37.9740 

1.6122 

61.2226 

49 

.6141 

38.5881 

1.6283 

62.8348 

50.. 

.6080.. 
.5786 

...39.1961.. 
42.1430 

1.6446 

64.4632 

55 

1.7284 

72.8400 

60 

.5505 

44.9521 

1.8166 

81.6600 

65 

.5238 

47.6247 

1.9093 

90.9300 

70 

.4983 

50.1644 

2.0066 

100.6600 

76 

.4742 

52.5841 

2.1090 

110.9000 

80 

.4500 

54.8858 

2.2166 

121.6600 

85 

.4292 

57.0742 

2.3296 

132.9600 

90 

.4084 

59.1750 

2.4485 

144.8500 

95 

.3886 

61 . 1394 

2.5733 

157.3300 

100.. 

_._.3697__ 

...63. 0259.. 

2.7046.. 

170.4600 

105 

.3518 

64.8197 

2.8425 

184 . 2500 

110 

.3347 

66.5272 

2.9875 

198.7500 

115 

.3185 

68.1518 

3 . 1399 

213.9900 

120 

.3030 

69.6979 

3.3001 

230.0100 

32 


iy2  PER  CENT. 


1  1 

ii 

m 

mi 

V 

1 

.9852 

.9852 

1.0150 

1.0000 

2 

.9707 

1.9559 

1.0302 

1.0150 

3 

.9563 

2.9122 

1.0457 

3.0452 

4 

.9422 

3.8544 

1.0614 

4.0909 

5 

.9283 

4.7826 

1.0773 

5.1523 

6 

.9145 

5.6972 

1.0934 

6.2290 

7 

.9010 

6.59S2 

1 . 1098 

7.3230 

8 

.8877 

7.4859 

1.1265 

8.4328 

9 

.8746 

8.3605 

1 . 1434 

9.5593 

10__ 

_...8617._ 
.8489 

9.2222.. 

10.0711 

1.1605— 

...10.9027 

11 

1 . 1779 

11.8633 

12 

.8364 

10.9075 

1 . 1959 

13.0412 

13 

.8240 

11.7315 

1.2130 

14.2368 

14 

.8118 

12.5434 

1.2318 

15.4504 

15 

.7999 

13.3432 

1.2502 

16.6821 

16 

.7880 

14.1313 

1.2690 

17.9324 

17 

.7764 

14.9076 

1.2880 

19.2014 

18 

.7649 

15.6726 

1.3073 

20.4894 

19 

.7536 

16.4262 

1.3270 

21.7967 

20.. 

7425.. 

.7315 

...17.1686.. 
17.9001 

1.3469  — 

23.1237 

21 

1.3671 

24.4705 

22 

.7207 

18.6208 

1.3876 

25.8376 

23 

.7100 

19.3309 

1.4084 

27.2251 

24 

.6995 

20.0304 

1.4295 

28.6335 

25 

.6892 

20.7196 

1.4509 

30.0630 

26 

.6790 

21.3986 

1.4727 

31.5140 

27 

.6690 

22.0676 

1.4948 

32.9867 

28 

.6591 

22.7267 

1.5172 

34.4815 

29 

.6494 

23.3761 

1.5400 

35.9987 

30.. 

__..6398__ 
.6303 

_. .24.0158.. 
24.6461 

....1.5631.. 

._   37.5387 

31 

1.5865 

39.1018 

32 

.6210 

25.2671 

1.6103 

40.6883 

33 

.6118 

25.8790 

1.6345 

42.2986 

34 

.6028 

26.4817 

1.6590 

43.9331 

35 

.5939 

27.0756 

1.6839 

45.5921 

36 

.5851 

27.6607 

1.7091 

47.2760 

37 

.5764 

28.2371 

1.7348 

48.9851 

38 

.5679 

28.8051 

1.7608 

50.7199 

39 

.5595 

29.3646 

1.7872 

52.4807 

40.. 

5513.. 

.5431 

...29.9158.. 

1.8140.. 

54.2679 

41 

30.4590 

1.8412 

56.0819 

42 

.5351 

30.9940 

1.8688 

57.9231 

43 

.5272 

31.5212 

1.8969 

59.7920 

44 

.5194 

32.0406 

1.9253 

61 . 6889 

45 

.5117 

32.5523 

1.9542 

63.6142 

46 

.5042 

33.0565 

1.9835 

65.5684 

47 

.4967 

33.5532 

2.0133 

67.5519 

48 

.4894 

34.0426 

2.0435 

69.5652 

49 

.4821 

34.5247 

2.0741 

71.6087 

60.. 

....4750.. 
.4409 

...34.9997.. 
37.2715 

2.1052.. 

73.6828 

56 

2.2679 

84.5296 

60 

.4093 

39.3803 

2.4432 

96.2147 

65 

.3799 

41.3373 

2.6320 

108.8000 

70 

.3527 

43 . 1549 

2.8355 

122.3640 

75 

.3274 

44.8409 

3.0546 

136.9670 

80 

.3039 

46.4073 

3.2907 

152.7110 

85 

.2821 

47.8603 

3.5450 

169.6600 

90 

.2618 

49.2099 

3.8189 

187.9300 

95 

.2431 

50.4618 

4.1141 

207.6000 

100.. 

2256.. 

...51.6247.. 

4.4320.. 

228.8030 

105 

.2094 

52.7036 

4.7746 

251.6330 

110 

.1944 

53.7055 

5.1436 

276.2380 

115 

.1805 

54.6351 

5.5411 

302.7330 

120 

.1675 

55.4985 

5.9693 

331.2880 

2  PER  CENT. 


33 


1 

n 

in 

IIII 

V 

1 

.9804 

.9804 

1.0200 

1.0000 

2 

.9612 

1.9416 

1.0404 

2.0200 

3 

.9423 

2.8839 

1.0612 

3.0604 

4 

.9238 

3.8077 

1.0824 

4.1216 

6 

.9057 

4.7135 

1.1041 

5.2040 

6 

.8880 

5.6014 

1 . 1262 

6.3081 

7 

.8706 

6.4720 

1 . 1487 

7.4343 

8 

.8535 

7 . 3255 

1.1717 

8.5830 

9 

.8368 

8.1622 

1.1951 

9.7546 

10 

8203.. 

—  8.9826 

1  2190 

10  9497 

11 

.8043 

9.7868 

1.2434 

"""l2;i687 

12 

.7885 

10.5753 

1.2682 

13.4121 

13 

.7730 

11.3484 

1.2936 

14.6803 

14 

.7579 

12.1062 

1.3195 

15.9739 

15 

.7430 

12.8493 

1.3459 

17.2934 

16 

.7284 

13.5777 

1.3728 

18.6393 

17 

.7142 

14.2919 

1.4002 

20.0121 

18 

.7002 

14.9920 

1.4282 

21.4123 

19 

.6864 

15.6785 

1.4568 

22.8406 

20.. 

6730- 

.6598 

—  .16.3514.. 
17.0112 

1.4859- 

24.2974 

21 

1.5157 

25.7833 

22 

.6468 

17.6580 

1 . 5460 

27.2990 

23 

.6342 

18.2922 

1.5769 

28.8450 

24 

.6217 

18.9139 

1.60S4 

30.4219 

25 

.6095 

19 . 5235 

1 . 6406 

32.0303 

26 

.5976 

20.1210 

1.6734 

33.6709 

27 

.5859 

20.7069 

1.7069 

35.3443 

28 

.5744 

21.2813 

1.7410 

37.0512 

29 

.5631 

21.S444 

1.7758 

38.7922 

30.. 

5521.. 

.5412 

—22.3965 
22.9377 

1.8114 

.40.5681 

31 

1.8476 

42.3794 

32 

.5306 

23.4683 

1.8845 

44.2270 

33 

.5202 

23.9886 

1.9222 

46.1116 

34 

.5100 

24.4986 

1.9607 

48.0338 

35 

.5000 

24.9986 

1.9999 

49.9945 

36 

.4902 

25.4888 

2.0399 

51.9944 

37 

.4806 

25.9695 

2.0807 

54.0343 

38 

.4712 

26.4406 

2.1223 

56.1149 

39 

.4619 

26.9026 

2.1647 

58.2372 

40.  _ 

4529.. 

.4440 

-.27.3555.. 

2.20S0 

.60.4020 

41 

27.7995 

2.2522 

62.6100 

42 

.4353 

28.2348 

2.2972 

64.8622 

43 

.4268 

28.6616 

2.3432 

67.1595 

44 

.4184 

29.0800 

2.3901 

69.5027 

45 

.4102 

29.4902 

2.4379 

71.8927 

46 

.4022 

29.8923 

2.4866 

74.3306 

47 

.3943 

30.2866 

2.5363 

76.8172 

48 

.3865 

30.6731 

2.5871 

79.3535 

49 

.3790 

31.0521 

2.6388 

81.9406 

50.. 

3715.. 

.3365 

-.31.4236.. 
33.1748 

2.6916.. 

__.84.5794 

65 

2.9717 

98.5865 

60 

.3048 

34.7609 

3.2S10 

114.0520 

65 

.2760 

36.1973 

3.6225 

131  .1250 

70 

.2500 

37.4986 

3.9995 

149.9780 

75 

.2265 

38.6763 

4.4158 

170.7900 

80 

.2051 

39.7445 

4.8754 

193.7720 

85 

.1858 

40.7111 

5.3828 

219.1400 

90 

.1683 

41.5869 

5.9431 

247.1570 

95 

.1524 

42.3800 

6.5617 

278.0850 

100- 

1380.. 

__ -43.0984. . 

7.2446- 

312.2320 

105 

.1250 

43.7489 

7.9987 

349.9300 

110 

.1132 

44.3382 

8.8312 

391.5590 

115 

.1026 

44.8719 

9.7503 

437.5150 

120 

.0929 

45.3554 

10.7652 

488.2580 

34 


2H  PER  CENT. 


I 

ii 

in 

IIII 

V 

1 

.9756 

.9756 

1.0250 

1.0000 

2 

.9518 

1.9274 

1.0506 

2.0250 

3 

.9286 

2.8560 

1.0769 

3.0756 

4 

.9060 

3.7620 

1 . 1038 

4.1525 

5 

.8839 

4.6458 

1.1314 

5.2563 

6 

.8623 

5.5081 

1 . 1597 

6.3877 

7 

.8413 

6.3494 

1 . 1887 

7.5474 

8 

.8207 

7.1701 

1.2184 

8.7361 

9 

.8007 

7.9709 

1.2489 

9.9545 

10.. 

..7812.. 

8.7521- 

1.2801.. 

11.2034 

11 

.7621 

9.5142 

1.3121 

12.4835 

12 

.7436 

10.2578 

1 . 3449 

13.7956 

13 

.7254 

10.9832 

1 . 3785 

15.1404 

14 

.7077 

11.6909 

1.4130 

16.5190 

15 

.6905 

12.3814 

1.4483 

17.9319 

16 

.6736 

13.0550 

1.4845 

19.3802 

17 

.6572 

13.7122 

1.5216 

20.8647 

18 

.6412 

14  .3534 

1.5597 

22.3863 

19 

.6255 

14.9789 

1.5987 

23.9460 

20 

....6103.. 
.5954 

15.5892- 
16.1845 

_  1.6386 

25.5447 

21 

1.6796 

27 . 1833 

22 

.5809 

16.7654 

1.7216 

28.8629 

23 

.5667 

17.3321 

1.7646 

30.5844 

24 

.5529 

17.8850 

1.8087 

32.3490 

25 

.5394 

18.4244 

1.8539 

34 . 1578 

26 

.5262 

18.9506 

1.9003 

36.0117 

27 

.5134 

19.4640 

1.9478 

37.9120 

28 

.5009 

19.9649 

1.9965 

39.8598 

29 

.4887 

20.4535 

2.0464 

41.8563 

30 

....4767.. 
.4651 

20.9303 
21.3954 

2.0976 

43.9027 

31 

2.1500 

46.0003 

32 

.4538 

21.8492 

2.2038 

48.1503 

33 

.4427 

22.2919 

2.2589 

50.3540 

34 

.4319 

22.7238 

2.3153 

52.6129 

35 

.4214 

23 . 1452 

2.3732 

54.9282 

36 

.4111 

23.5563 

2.4325 

57.3014 

37 

.4011 

23.9573 

2.4933 

59.7339 

38 

.3913 

24.3486 

2.5557 

62.2273 

39 

.3817 

24.7303 

2.6196 

64.7830 

40 

....3724.. 
.3633 

25.1028 

2.6851 

67.4026 

41 

25.4661 

2.7522 

70.0876 

42 

.3545 

25.8206 

2.8210 

72.8398 

43 

.3458 

26.1664 

2.8915 

75.6608 

44 

.3374 

26.5038 

2.9638 

78.5523 

45 

.3292 

26.8330 

3.0379 

81.5161 

46 

.3211 

27.1542 

3.1139 

84.5540 

47 

.3133 

27.4675 

3.1917 

87.6679 

48 

.3057 

27.7732 

3.2715 

90.8596 

49 

.2982 

28.0714 

3.3533 

94.1311 

50 

....2909- 
.2571 

...28.3623- 
29.7140 

3.4371 

.97.4843 

55 

3.8888 

115.551 

60 

.2273 

30.9087 

4.3998 

135.992 

65 

.2009 

31.963 

4.9780 

159 . 120 

70 

.1775 

32.898 

5.6321 

185.284 

75 

.1569 

33.645 

6.3722 

214.888 

80 

.1387 

34.452 

7.2096 

248.383 

85 

.1226 

35.096 

8.1570 

286.280 

90 

.1084 

35.666 

9.2289 

329 . 154 

96 

.0958 

36.171. 

10.4416 

377.664 

100- 

0846- 

__.36.614... 

___11.8137„ 

432.549 

105 

.0748 

37.007 

13.3661 

494.644 

110 

.0661 

37.355 

15.1226 

564.902 

115 

.0584 

37.664 

17 . 1098 

644.392 

120 

.0517 

37.934 

19.3581 

734.326 

3  PER  CENT. 


I 

n 

m 

IV 

V 

1 

.9709 

.9709 

1.0300 

1.0000 

2 

.9426 

1.9135 

1.0609 

2.0300 

3 

.9151 

2.8286 

1.0927 

3.0909 

4 

.8885 

3.7171 

1.1255 

4 . 1836 

6 

.8626 

4.5797 

1.1593 

5.3091 

6 

.8375 

5.4172 

1.1941 

6.4684 

7 

.8131 

6.2303 

1.2299 

7.6625 

8 

.7894 

7.0197 

1.2668 

8.8923 

9 

.7664 

7.7861 

1 . 3048 

10.1591 

10- 

—  .7441- 

8.5302- 

1.3439- 

11.4639 

11 

.7224 

9.2526 

1 . 3842 

12.8075 

12 

.7014 

9.9540 

1.4258 

14.1920 

13 

.6810 

10.6350 

1.4685 

15.6178 

14 

.6611 

11.2961 

1.5126 

17.0863 

15 

.6419 

11.9379 

1.5580 

18.5989 

16 

.6232 

12.5611 

1.6047 

20.1569 

17 

.6050 

13.1661 

1.6528 

21.7616 

18 

.5874 

13.7535 

1.7024 

23.4144 

19 

.5703 

14.3238 

1.7535 

25.1169 

20- 

....5537- 

—14.8775- 

1.8061- 

26.8704 

21 

.5375 

15.4150 

1.8603 

28.6765 

22 

.5219 

15.9369 

1.9161 

30.5368 

23 

.5067 

16.4436 

1.9736 

32.4529 

24 

.4919 

16.9325 

2.0328 

34.4265 

25 

.4776 

17.4131 

2.0938 

36.4593 

26 

.4637 

17.8768 

2.1566 

38.5530 

27 

.4502 

18.3270 

2.2213 

40.7096 

28 

.4371 

18.7641 

2.2879 

42.9309 

29 

.4243 

19.1885 

2.3566 

45.2189 

30 

4120— 

—  .19.6004  — 

2.4273.. 

47.5754 

31 

.4000 

20.0004 

2.5001 

50.0027 

32 

.3883 

20.3888 

2.5751 

52.5028 

33 

.3770 

20.7658 

2.6523 

55. 0778 

34 

.3660 

21.1318 

2.7319 

57.7302 

35 

.3554 

21.4872 

2.8139 

60.4621 

36 

.3450 

21.8323 

2.8983 

63.2759 

37 

.3350 

22.1672 

2.9852 

66.1742 

38 

.3252 

22.4925 

3.0748 

69 . 1594 

39 

.3158 

22.8082 

3.1670 

72.2342 

40- 

3066- 

—23.1148- 

3.2620- 

75.4013 

41 

.2976 

23.4124 

3.3599 

78.6633 

42 

.2890 

23.7014 

3.4607 

82.0232 

43 

.2805 

23.9819 

3.5645 

85.4839 

44 

.2724 

24.2543 

3.6715 

89.0484 

45 

.2644 

24.5187 

3.7816 

92.7199 

46 

.2567 

24. 7754 

3.8950 

96.5015 

47 

.2493 

25.0247 

4.0119 

100.3965 

48 

.2420 

25.2667 

4.1323 

104.4084 

49 

.2350 

25.5017 

4.2562 

108.5406 

50.. 

....2281- 

—25.7298- 

4.3839.. 

—  .112.7969 

55 

.1968 

26.7744 

5.0821 

136.072 

60 

.1697 

27.6756 

5.8916 

163.053 

65 

.1464 

28.452 

6.8300 

194.333 

70 

.1263 

29 . 123 

7.9178 

230.594 

75 

.1089 

29.702 

9 . 1789 

272.630 

80 

.0940 

30.201 

10  .6409 

321.363 

85 

.0811 

30.701 

12  .3357 

377.857 

90 

.0699 

31.002 

14.3005 

443.349 

95 

.0603 

31.323 

16.5782 

519.273 

100- 

0520- 

—31.599— 

—  19.2186- 

607.288 

105 

.0449 

31.838 

22.2797 

709.323 

110 

.0387 

32.043 

25.8282 

827.608 

115 

.0334 

32.220 

29.9420 

964.733 

120 

.0288 

32.373 

34.7110 

1,123.70 

V. 


<v 


36  * 


3H  PER  CENT. 


/    I 

ii 

m 

IV 

V 

1 

.9662 

.9662 

1.0350 

1.0000 

2 

.9335 

1.8997 

1.0712 

2.0350 

3 

.9019 

2.8016 

1 . 1087 

3.1062 

4 

.8714 

3.6731 

1 . 1475 

4.2149 

5 

.8420 

4.5151 

1 . 1877 

5.3625 

6 

.8135 

5.3286 

1.2293 

6.5502 

7 

.7860 

6.1145 

1.2723 

7.7794 

8 

.7594 

6.8740 

1.3168 

9.0517 

9 

.7337 

7.6077 

1.3629 

10.3685 

10__ 

7089— 

8.3166— 

1.4106— 

11.7314 

11 

.6849 

9.0016 

1.4600 

13.1420 

12 

.6618 

9.6633 

15111 

14.6020 

13 

.6394 

10.3027 

1.5640 

16.1130 

14 

.6178 

10.9205 

1.6187 

17.6770 

15 

.5969 

11.5174 

1.6753 

19.2957 

16 

.5767 

12.0941 

1.7340 

20.9710 

17 

.5572 

12.6513 

1.7947 

22.7050 

18 

.5384 

13.1897 

1.8575 

24.4997 

19 

.5202 

13.7098 

1.9225 

26.3572 

20- 

-..5026- 

--14.2124- 

1.9898— 

28.2797 

21 

.4856 

14.6980 

2.0594 

30.2695 

22 

.4692 

15.1671 

2.1315 

32.3289 

23 

.4533 

15.6204 

2.2061 

34.4604 

24 

.4380 

16.0574 

2.2833 

36.6665 

25 

.4231 

16.4815 

2.3632 

38.9499 

26 

.4088 

16.S904 

2 . 4460 

41.3131 

27 

.3950 

17.2854 

2.5316 

43.7591 

28 

.3817 

17.6670 

2 . 6202 

46.2906 

29 

.3687 

18.0358 

2.7119 

48.9108 

SC- 

-..3563- 
.3442 

-.18.3920- 
18.7363 

2.8068 

51.6227 

SI 

2.9050 

54.4295 

32 

.3326 

19.0689 

3.0067 

57.3345 

S3 

.3213 

19.3902 

3.1119 

60.3412 

34 

.3105 

19.7007 

3.2209 

63.4532 

35 

.3000 

20.0007 

3.3336 

66.6740 

36 

.2898 

20.2905 

3.4503 

70.0076 

37 

.2800 

20.5705 

3.5710 

73.4579 

38 

.2706 

20.8411 

3.6960 

77.0289 

39 

.2614 

21 . 1025 

3.8254 

80.7249 

40. . 

—  .2526- 
.2440 

--.21.3551.. 
21.5991 

3.9593 

84.5503 

41 

4.0978 

88.5095 

42 

.2358 

21.8349 

4.2413 

92.6074 

43 

.2278 

22.0627 

4.3897 

96.8487 

44 

.2201 

22.2828 

4.5433 

101.2383 

45 

.2127 

22.4955 

4.7024 

105.7817 

46 

.2055 

22.7009 

4.8669 

110.4840 

47 

.1985 

22.8994 

5.0373 

115.3510 

48 

.1918 

23.0912 

5.2136 

120.  3883 

49 

.1853 

23.2766 

5.3961 

125.6018 

50.. 

--.1791- 
.1508 

—  _23.4556.. 

...5.5849 

130.9979 

55 

24.2641 

6.6331 

160.947 

60 

.1269 

24.9447 

7.8781 

196.517 

65 

.1069 

25.5168 

9.3567 

238.763 

70 

0900 

26.0004 

11.1128 

288.938 

75 

.0758 

26.4067 

13.1986 

348.531 

80 

.0638 

26.7488 

15.6757 

419.307 

85 

.0537 

27.0368 

18.6179 

503.368 

90 

.0452 

27.2793 

22.1122 

603.205 

95 

.0381 

27.4798 

26.2623 

721.780 

100.. 

0321- 

.-.27.6554-. 

...31.1914- 

862.612 

105 

.0270 

27.8002 

37.0456 

1,029.874 

110 

.0227 

27.9221 

43.9986 

1,228.  53 

116 

.0191 

28.0247 

52.2565 

1,464.471 

120 

.0161 

28.1111 

62.0643 

1,744.69 

> 

?-^&-- 

'f* 

4  PER  CENT.    y 

I 

n 

in 

im 

V 

1 

.9615 

.9615 

1.0400 

1.0000 

2 

.9246 

1.8861 

1.0861 

2.0400 

3 

.8890 

2.7751 

1 . 1249 

3.1216 

4 

.8548 

3.6299 

1 . 1699 

4.2465 

5 

.8219 

4.4518 

1.2167 

5.4163 

6 

.7903 

5.2421 
6.0021 

lit53 
1^159 

6.6330 

7 

.7599 

7.8983 

8 

.7307 

6.7327 

1.3686 

9.2142 

9 

.7026 

7.4353 

1.4233 

10.5828 

10- 
11 

.6756— 

8.1109  — 

1  4802— 

12.0061 

"".'6496 

8.7605 

1.5395 

13.4864 

12 

.6246 

9.3851 

1.6010 

15.0258 

13 

.6006 

9.9856 

1.6651 

16.6268 

14 

.5775 

10.5631 

1.7315 

18.2919 

15 

.5553 

11.1184 

1.8009 

20.0236 

16 

.5339 

11.6523 

1.8730 

21.8245 

17 

5134 

12.1657 

1.9479 

23.6975 

18 

.4936 

12.6593 

2.0258 

25.6454 

19 

.4746 

13.1339 

2 . 1068 

27.6712 

20- 
21 

4564 

.4388 

—13.5903- 

14.0292 

2.1911  — 

29  7781 

2^2788 

31.9692 

22 

.4220 

14.4511 

2 . 3699 

34.2480 

23 

■  4057 

14.8568 

2.4647 

36.6179 

24 

•  3901 

15.2470 

2.5633 

39.0826 

25 

.3751 

15.6221 

2.6658 

41.6459 

26 

.3607 

15.9828 

2.7725 

44.3117 

27 

.3468 

16.3296 

2.8834 

47.0842 

28 

•  3335 

16.6631 

2.9987 

49.9676 

29 

•  3207 

16.9837 

3.1187 

52.9663 

30- 
31 

3083- 

■  2965 

—  17.2920- 
17.5885 

3  2434  — 

56.0849 

"  3^3731 

59.3283 

32 

.2851 

17.8736 

3.5081 

62.7015 

33 

2741 

18.1476 

3.6484 

66.2095 

34 

.2636 

18.4112 

3.7943 

69.8579 

35 

.2534 

18.6646 

3.9461 

73.6522 

36 

.2437 

18.9083 

4.1039 

77.5983 

37 

.2343 

19.1426 

4.2681 

81.7022 

38 

.2253 

19 . 3679 

4.4388 

85.7903 

39 

.2166 

19 . 5845 

4.6164 

90.4091 

40- 
41 

-..2083- 
.2003 

19.7928— 

4.8010— 

95.0255 

"l9" 9931 

4.9931 

99.8265 

42 

.1926 

20  .1856 

5.1928 

104.8200 

43 

.1852 

20.3708 

5.4005 

110.0124 

44 

.1780 

20.5488 

5.6165 

115.4129 

45 

.1712 

20.7200 

5.8412 

121.0294 

46 

.1646 

20.8847 

6.0748 

126.8706 

47 

.1583 

21.0429 

6.3178 

132.9454 

48 

.1522 

21.1951 

6.5705 

139.2632 

49 

.  14G3 

21.3415 

6.8333 

145.8337 

50- 
55 

1407- 

.1157 

21  4822  — 

7.1067— 

152.6671 

"~22:i086 

8.6464 

191.159 

60 

.0951 

22.6235 

105196 

237.991 

65 

.0781 

23.0466 

12.7987 

294.967 

70 

.0642 

23.3945 

15.5716 

364.290 

75 

.0528 

23.6281 

18.9453 

448.642 

80 

.0434 

23.9154 

23.0498 

551.245 

85 

.0357 

24.1085 

28.0436 

676.090 

90 

.0293 

24.2673 

34.1193 

827.983 

95 

.0241 

24.3977 

41.5114 

1,012.785 

100.. 

0198. 

__.24.5050- 

—50.5049. 

__  1,237.622 

105 

.0163 

24.5931 

61.4470 

1,511.175 

110 

.0134 

24.6656 

74.7597 

1,843.992 

115 

.0110 

24.7251 

90.9566 

2,248.915 

120 

.0090 

24.7741 

110.663 

2,741.558 

37 


38 


4K  PEF 

CENT. 

I 

ii  - 

in 

IIII 

V 

1 

.9569 

.9569 

1.0450 

1.0000 

2 

.9157 

1.8727 

1.0920 

2.0450 

3 

.8765 

2.7490 

1.1412 

3.1370 

4 

.8386 

3.5875 

1 . 1925 

4.2782 

5 

.8022 

4.3900 

1.2462 

5.4707 

6 

.7679 

5.1579 

.1.3023 

6.7169 

7 

.7348 

5.8927 

1.3609 

8.0192 

8 

.7032 

6.5959 

1.4221 

9.3800 

9 

.6729 

7.2688 

1.4861 

10.8021 

10.. 

6439— 

..  7.9125 

1.5530— 

12.2882 

11 

.6162 

8.5289 

1.6229 

13.8412 

12 

.4897 

9.1186 

1.6959 

15.4640 

13 

.5643 

9.6829 

1.7722 

17.1599 

14 

.5400 

10.2229 

1.8519 

18.9321 

15 

.5167 

10.7395 

1.9353 

20.7841 

16 

.4945 

11.2340 

2.0224 

22.7193 

17 

.4732 

11.7072 

2.1134 

24.7417 

18 

.4528 

12.1600 

2.2085 

26.8551 

19 

.4333 

12.5933 

2.3079 

29.0634 

20.  _ 

—  .4146- 

—  13.0079- 

2.4117- 

31.3716 

21 

.3968 

13.4047 

2.5202 

33.7831 

22 

.3797 

13.7844 

2.6337 

36.3034 

23 

.3634 

14.1478 

2.7522 

38.9370 

24 

.3477 

14.4955 

2.8760 

41.6892 

25 

.3327 

14.8282 

3.0054 

44.5652 

26 

.3184 

15.1466 

3.1407 

47.5706 

27 

.3047 

15.4513 

3.2820 

50.7113 

28 

.2916 

15.7429 

3.4279 

53.9933 

29 

.2790 

16.0219 

3.5840 

57.4230 

30- 

2670- 

.2555 

—  16.2889- 
16.5444 

3.7453.. 

61.0071 

31 

3.9139 

64.7524 

32 

.2445 

16.7889 

4.0900 

68.6662 

33 

.2340 

17.0229 

4.2740 

72.7562 

34 

.2239 

17.2468 

4.4664 

77.0303 

35 

.2143 

17.4610 

4.6673 

81.4966 

36 

.2050 

17.6660 

4.8774 

86.1640 

37 

.1962 

17.8622 

5.0969 

91.0413 

38 

.1878 

18.0500 

5.3262 

96.1382 

39 

.1797 

18.2297 

5.5659 

101.4644 

40.. 

—  .1719- 
.1645 

—  18.4016- 
18.5661 

5.8164-. 

107.0303 

41 

6.0781 

112.8467 

42 

.1574 

18.7235 

6.3516 

118.9248 

43 

.1507 

18.8742 

6.6374 

125.2764 

44 

.1442 

19.0184 

6.9361 

131.9138 

45 

.1380 

19.1563 

7.2482 

138.8500 

46 

.1320 

19.2884 

7.5744 

146.0982 

47 

.1263 

19.4147 

7.9153 

153.6726 

48 

.1209 

19.5356 

8.2715 

161.5879 

49 

.1157 

19.6513 

8.6437 

169.8594 

60.. 

.-  .1107- 

.0888 

_.  .19.7620- 

9.0326— 

178.5030 

55 

20.2480 

11.2563 

227.9180 

60 

.0713 

20.6380 

14.0274 

289.4980 

65 

.0572 

20.9509 

17.4807 

366.2380 

70 

.0459 

21.2021 

21.7841 

461.8700 

75 

.0368 

21.4118 

27.1470 

581.2670 

80 

.0296 

21.5653 

33.8301 

729.5580 

85 

.0237 

21.6951 

42.1585 

914.6330 

90 

.0190 

21.7992 

52.5371 

1145.2700 

95 

.0153 

21.8828 

65.4708 

1432.6840 

100.. 

0123- 

—21.9499- 

—81.5885- 

— 1790. 8600 

105 

.0098 

22.0036 

101.674 

2237.2000 

110 

.0079 

22.0468 

126.704 

2793.4300 

115 

.0063 

22.0815 

157.897 

3486.6000 

120 

.0051 

22.1093 

196.768 

4350.4000 

5  PER  CENT. 

I 

n          • 

in 

mi 

V 

1 

2 

.9524 
.9070 

.9524 
1.S594 

1.0500 
1 . 1025 

1.0000 
2.0500 

3 

.863S 

2.7232 

1 . 1576 

3.1525 

4 

.8227 

3.5460 

1.2155 

4.3101 

5 
6 

.  7S35 
.7462 

4.3295 
5.0757 

1.2763 
1.3401 

5 . 5256 
6.8019 

7 

.7107 

5.7864 

1.4071 

8.1420 

8 

.6768 

6 . 4632 

1 . 4775 

9.5491 

9 

.6446 

7 . 1078 

1.5513 

11.0266 

10— 

.6139  — 

.—7.7217- 

—  1.62S9- 

12.5779 

11 

.5S47 

8.3064 

1.7103 

14.2068 

12 

.5568 

8.8623 

1.7959 

15.9171 

13 

.  5303 

9.3936 

1.8856 

17.7130 

14 

.  5051 

9.89S6 

1.9799 

19 . 5986 

15 

.4810 

10.3797 

2.0789 

21.5786 

16 

.4581 

10.8378 

2.1829 

23.6575 

17 

.4363 

11.2741 

2.2920 

25.8404 

18 

.4155 

11.6896 

2 . 4066 

28 . 1324 

19 

20-_ 

21 

.3957 

—  .3769- 

.3589 

12.0853 

—  12.4622- 

12.8212 

2.5270 

2.6533- 

2 . 7860 

30 . 5390 

33.0660 

35.7193T 

22 

341S 

13.1630 

2.9253 

38 . 5052 

23 

24 

.3256 
.3101 

13.4S86 
13.7986 

3.0715 
3.2251 

41.4305 
44.5020 

25 

2953 

14.0939 

3.3864 

47.7271 

26 

.2812 

14.3752 

3.5557 

51.1135 

27 

.  2678 

14  6430 

3.7335 

54.6691 

28 

.2551 

14.89S1 

3.9201 

58 . 4026 

29 
30- 

31 

.2429 

2314- 

.2204 

15.1411 

—  15.3725- 

15.592S 

4.1161 

4.3219- 

4.53S0 

62 . 3227 

__ 66.43S& 

70.7608 

32 

.2099 

15.8027 

4.7649 

75.2988 

33 

.1999 

16.0025 

5.0032 

80.0638 

34 

.1904 

16 . 1929 

5.2533 

85.0670 

35 

.1S13 

16.3742 

5.5160 

90 .3203 

36 

.1727 

16.5469 

5.7918 

95 . 8363 

37 

.1644 

16.7113 

6.0814 

101 . 6281 

38 
39 

40__ 
41 
42 
43 

.1566 
.1491 
—  .1420- 
.1353 
.  128S 
.  1227 

16.8679 
17.0170 
17  1591  — 

6 . 3855 

6.7048 

_-7. 0400- 

107 . 7095 
114.0950 
120.7998 

"""17/2944 
17.4232 
17.5459 

7.3920 
7.7616 
8.1497 

127.8398 
135.2318 
142.9933 

44 

_1169 

17.6628 

S.5572 

151.1430 

45 
46 

.1113 
.1060 

17.7741 
17.SS01 

8.9850 
9.4343 

139.7002 
168.6852 

47 

.1009 

17.9810 

9.9060 

178.1194 

48 

.0961 

18.0772 

104013 

188 . 0254 

49 

.0916 

18 . 16S7 

10.9213 

198.4267 

50 

0872— 

-18.2559- 

-.11.4674- 

209.3480 

55 

.0683 

18.6335 

14.6356 

272.7130 

60 

.0535 

18.9293 

18.6792 

353 . 5840 

65 

0419 

19.1191 

23.8399 

456 . 7980 

70 

75 

.0329 
.0257 

19.3427 
19.4849 

30.4264 
38.8327 

588 . 5290 
756.6540 

80 

.0202 

19.5965 

49.5614 

971.2290 

85 

.0158 

19.6838 

63.2544 

1,245.0880 

90 
95 

.0124 

19.7523 

80.7304 

1.594.6100 

.0097 

0076. 

0060 

19.8058 

_  19.8479. 

19.S808 

103.035 
131 .501 

2.040.7000 
2.610.0300 

100  _ 
105 

"  167.833" 

3,336.6600 

110 

0047 

19.9066 

214.202 

4.264.0300 

115 
120 

.0037 
.0029 

19.9268 
19.9427 

273.382 
348.912 

5,447.6400 
6,958.2400 

39 


10 


6K  PER  CENT. 


I 

ii 

in 

mi 

V 

1 

.9479 

.9479 

1.0550 

1.0000 

2 

.8985 

1.8463 

1.1130 

2.0550 

3 

.8516 

2.6979 

1.1742 

3.1680 

4 

.8072 

3 . 5052 

1.2388 

4.3423 

5 

.7651 

4 . 2703 

1 . 3070 

5.5811 

6 

.  7252 

4.9955 

1.3788 

(i    NN.S1 

7 

.  6854 

5 . 6830 

1.4547 

8.2069 

8 

.0516 

6.3346 

1.5347 

9.7216 

9 

.6176 

6.9522 

1.6191 

11.2563 

10- 

—  .5854- 

7.5376- 

1.7081- 

....   12.8754 

11 

.5549 

8.0925 

1.8021 

14.5835 

12 

.  5260 

8.6185 

1.9012 

16.3856 

13 

.4986 

9.1171 

2.0058 

18.2868 

14 

.4726 

9.5896 

2.1161 

20 . 2926 

15 

.4479 

10.0376 

2.2325 

22 . 4087 

16 

.4246 

10.4622 

2 . 3553 

24.6411 

17 

.4024 

10.8646 

2.4848 

26.9964 

18 

.3815 

11.2461 

2.6215 

29.4812 

19 

.3016 

11.6077 

2.7656 

32.1027 

20- 

3427- 

.  3249 

—  11.9504  — 
12.2752 

2.9178 

. -     34 . 8683 

21 

3.0782 

37.7861 

22 

.3079 

12.5832 

3.4275 

40.8643 

23 

.2919 

12.8750 

3.4262 

44.1118 

24 

.2767 

13.1517 

3.6146 

47.5380 

25 

.2622 

13.4139 

3.8134 

51.1526 

26 

.  2486 

13.6625 

4.0231 

54.9660 

27 

.2356 

13.8981 

4 . 2444 

58.9891 

28 

.2233 

14.1214 

4.4778 

63.2335 

29 

.2117 

14.3331 

4.7241 

67.7114 

30- 

—  .2006- 
.1902 

—  14.5337- 
14.7239 

-_     4.9840 

71.4355 

31 

5.2581 

77.4194 

32 

.  1803 

14.9042 

5.5473 

82.6775 

33 

.1709 

15.0751 

5.8524 

88.2248 

34 

.1620 

15.2370 

6.1742 

94.0771 

35 

.1535 

15.3906 

6.5138 

100.2514 

36 

.1455 

15.5361 

6.8721 

106 . 7652 

37 

.  1379 

15.6740 

7.2501 

113.6373 

38 

.1307 

15.8047 

7.6488 

120.8873 

39 

.1239 

15.9287 

8.0695 

128.5361 

40- 

—  .1175- 
.1113 

—  16.0461- 
16.1575 

—     8.5133 

136.6056 

41 

8.9815 

145.1189 

42 

.1055 

16.2630 

9.4755 

154.1005 

43 

.1000 

16.3630 

9.9967 

163.5760 

44 

.0948 

16.4579 

10.5465 

173.5727 

45 

.0899 

16.5477 

11.1266 

184.1192 

46 

.0852 

16.6329 

11.7385 

195.2457 

47 

.0807 

16.7137 

12.3841 

206.9842 

48 

.0765 

16.7902 

13.0653 

219.3684 

49 

.0725 

16.8628 

13.7838 

232 . 4336 

50- 

—  .0688- 

—  16.9315— 

—  14.5420- 

246.2175 

55 

.0526 

17.2251 

19.0046 

327.3563 

60 

.0403 

17.4498 

24.8381 

433.4200 

65 

.0308 

17.6216 

32.4623 

572.0364 

70 

.0230 

17.7630 

43.4150 

771.1818 

75 

.0176 

17.8614 

56.7414 

1.(113.4800 

80 

.0138 

17.9309 

72.4703 

1,299  4600 

85 

.0106 

17.9898 

94.7152 

1,703.9127 

90 

.0081 

18.0349 

123.7883 

2,232.5145 

95 

.  0062 

18.0694 

161.7855 

2,923.3727 

100- 

0047- 

—  18.0958— 

-.211.4463- 

-3,826.2963 

105 

.0036 

18.1160 

276.3503 

5.006.3691 

110 

.0028 

18.1315 

361.2768 

6,550.4873 

115 

.0021 

18.1433 

472.0413 

8,564.3873 

120 

.0016 

18.1523 

616.9357 

11.198.8309 

6  PER  CENT. 

I 

ii 

in 

mi 

v 

1 

.9434 

.9434 

1.0600 

1.0000 

2 

.8900 

1.8334 

1.1236 

2.0600 

3 

.8396 

2.6730 

1.1910 

3.1836 

4 

.7921 

3.4651 

1.2625 

4.3746 

5 

.7473 

4.2124 

1.3382 

5.6371 

6 

.7050 

4.9173 

1.4185 

6.9753 

7 

.6651 

5.5824 

1.5036 

8.3938 

8 

.6274 

6.2098 

1.5938 

9.8975 

9 

.5919 

6.8017 

1 . 6895 

11.4913 

10.. 

....5584.. 

7.3601.. 

1.7908.. 

13.1S0S 

11 

.5268 

7.8869 

1.8983 

14.9716 

12 

.4970 

8.3838 

2.0122 

16.8699 

13 

.4688 

8.8527 

2.1329 

18.8821 

14 

.4423 

9.2950 

2.2609 

21.0151 

15 

.4173 

9.7122 

2.3966 

23.2760 

16 

.3936 

10.1059 

2.5404 

25.6725 

17 

.3711 

10.4772 

2.6928 

28.2129 

18 

.3503 

10.8276 

2.8543 

30.9057 

19 

.3305 

11.1581 

3.0256 

33.7600 

20.. 

....3118.. 

..11.4699.. 

.../3.207O 
^3.3996 

36.7856 

21 

.2942 

11.7641 

3 J. 9927 

22 

.2775 

12.0416 

3.6035 

43.3923 

23 

.2618 

12.3034 

3.8197 

46.9958 

24 

.2470 

12.5504 

4.0489 

50.S156 

26 

.2330 

12.7834 

4.2919 

54.8645 

26 

.2198 

13.0032 

4.5494 

59.1564 

27 

.2074 

13.2105 

4.8223 

63.7058 

28 

.1956 

13.4062 

5.1117 

6S.52S1 

29 

.1846 

13.5907 

5.41M 

73.639S 

30.. 

_.1741__ 

.13.7648.. 

5.7435 

79.0582 

31 

.1643 

13.9291 

6.0S81 

84.8017 

32 

.1550 

14.0840 

6.4534 

90.8898 

33 

.1462 

14.2302 

6. 8406 

97.3432 

34 

.1379 

14.3681 

7.2510 

104.1S38 

35 

.1301 

14.4982 

7.6861 

111.4348 

36 

.1227 

14.6210 

8.1473 

119.1209 

37 

.1158 

14.7368 

8.6361 

127.2681 

38 

.1092 

14.8460 

9.1543 

135.9042 

39 

.1031 

14.9491 

9.7035 

145.0585 

40.. 

.0972.. 

..15.0463.. 

...10.2857.. 

154.7620 

41 

.0917 

15.1380 

10.9029 

165.0477 

42 

.0865 

15.2245 

11.5570 

175.9505 

43 

.0816 

15.3062 

12.2505 

187.5076 

44 

.0770 

15.3832 

12.9655 

199.7580 

45 

.0727 

15.4558 

13.7646 

212.7435 

46 

.0685 

15.5244 

14.5905 

226.5081 

47 

.0647 

15.5890 

15.4659 

241.0985 

48 

.0610 

15.6500 

16.3939 

256.5645 

49 

.0575 

15.7076 

17.3775 

272.9584 

60 

...0543.. 
.0406 

... 15.7619.. 
15.9905 

...18.4202.. 

290.3359 

65 

24.6507 

394.1783 

60 

.0303 

16.1611 

32.9883 

533.1383 

65 

.0226 

16.2891 

44.1458 

719.0966 

70 

.0169 

16.3845 

159.0772 

9.67:9533 

75 

.0126 

16.4558 

'  79.0587 

1,300.9783 

80 

.0095 

16.5091 

105.7985 

1,746.6416 

85 

.0071 

16.5489 

141.5827 

2,343.0450 

90 

.0053 

16.5787 

189.4698 

3,141.1633 

95 

.0039 

16.6009 

253 . 5538 

4,209.2300 

100.. 

0029- 

...16.6175.. 

..339.3125.. 

-  5,638.5416 

105 

.0022 

16.6299 

454.0770 

7.551.2833 

110 

.0016 

16.6392 

607.6591 

10,110.9850 

115 

.0012 

16.6461 

813.1S67 

13,536.4450 

120 

.0009 

16.6513 

1.088.2280 

18,120.4667 

41 


42 


7  PER  CENT. 


I 

ii 

in 

mi 

V 

1 

.9346 

.9328 

1.0700 

1.0000 

2 

.8736 

1.8043 

1.1449 

2.0700 

3 

.8163 

2.6228 

1.2250 

3.2142 

4 

.7629 

3.3857 

13108 

4 . 4400 

6 

.7130 

4.0986 

1.4026 

5.7514 

6 

.6663 

4.7657 

1.5007 

7.3529 

7 

.6227 

5.3886 

1.6058 

8.6542 

8 

.5820 

5.9700 

1.7182 

10.2600 

9 

.5439 

6.5143 

1.8385 

11.9786 

10.. 
11 

5083  — 

7.0228— 

1.9671  — 

13.8159 

.4751 

7.4971 

2 . 1049 

15.7843 

12 

.4440 

7.9414 

2.2522 

17.8886 

13 

.4150 

8.3557 

2.4098 

20.1400 

14 

.3878 

8.7442 

2.5785 

22.5500 

15 

.3624 

9.1071 

2.7590 

25.1286 

16 

.3387 

9.4457 

2.9522 

27.8886 

17 

.3161 

9.7686 

3.1588 

30.8400 

18 

.2959 

10.0571 

3 . 3800 

34.0000 

19 

.2765 

10.3343 

3.6165 

37.3786 

20 

—  .2584- 

--10.5928- 

3.8697- 

40.9528 

21 

.2415 

10.8343 

4.1406 

44.8657 

22 

.2257 

11.0600 

4 . 4304 

49.0057 

23 

.2109 

11.2714 

4 . 7405 

53.4343 

24 

.1971 

11.4685 

5.0724 

55.3200 

25 

.1842 

11.6528 

5.4275 

63.2500 

26 

.1722 

11.8242 

5.8075 

68.6786 

27 

.1609 

11.9857 

6.2140 

74.4857 

28 

.1504 

12.1357 

6.6490 

80.7000 

29 

.1406 

12.2757 

7.1144 

87 . 3346 

30- 
31 

.1314  — 

.12.4071  — 

7.6124  — 

--.  94.4628 

" . 1228 

12.5300 

8.1452 

102.0742 

32 

.1147 

12.6457 

8.7154 

110.2700 

33 

.1072 

12.7528 

9.3255 

118.9500 

34 

.1002 

12.8528 

9.9783 

128.2618 

35 

.0937 

12.9457 

10.6768 

138.2400 

36 

.0875 

13.0343 

11.4241 

148.9157 

37 

.0818 

13.1157 

12.2239 

160.3414 

38 

.0765 

13.1914 

13.0795 

172.5642 

39 

.0715 

13.2628 

13.9950 

185.6428 

40- 

....0668-- 

...13.3300- 

...14.9747.. 

199.6386 

41 

.0624 

13.3928 

16.0230 

214.6143 

42 

.0583 

13.4514 

17.1446 

230.6371 

43 

.0545 

13.5057 

18.3448 

247.7828 

44 

.0509 

13.5571 

19.6290 

266.1428 

45 

.0476 

13.6043 

21.0030 

285.7571 

46 

.0445 

13.6485 

22.4332 

306.1886 

47 

.0416 

13.6900 

24.0463 

329.2328 

48 

.0387 

13.7314 

25.7888 

354.1257 

49 

.0363 

13.7657 

27.5306 

379.0086 

60- 

-...0339-. 

...13.8000-. 

...29.4577.. 

- -406. 5386 

55 

.0242 

13.9385 

41.3162 

575.9458 

60 

.0173 

14.0371 

57.9482 

813.5458 

65 

.0123 

14.1085 

81.2755 

1146.7928 

70 

.0088 

14.1585 

113.9929 

1614.1844 

76 

.0062 

14.1959 

159.8823 

2141.1757 

80 

.0045 

14.2200 

224.2440 

2269.7471 

85 

.0032 

14.2385 

314.5138 

3160.6285 

90 

.0023 

14.2514 

441.1230 

4478.7682 

95 

.0016 

14.2614 

618.7000 

6287.4714 

100- 

..-.0011- 

...14.2685- 

-867.7600. 

...8824.2857 

105 

.0008 

14.2728 

1217.0812 

12382.2855 

110 

.0006 

14.2757 

1707.0235 

17372.5886 

116 

.0004. 

14.2785 

2394.1978 

24371.7642 

120 

.0003 

14.2800 

3357.9923 

34188.5400 

8  PER  CENT. 


I 

ii 

in 

IIII 

V 

1 

.9259 

.9250 

1.0800 

1.0000 

2 

.8573 

1.7825 

1 . 1664 

2.0800 

3 

.7938 

2.5762 

1.2597 

3.2463 

4 

.7350 

3.3112 

1.3605 

4.5062 

5 

.6806 

3.9912 

1.4693 

5.8366 

6 

.6302 

4.6212 

1.5869 

7.3362 

7 

.5840 

5.1987 

1.7138 

8.9225 

8 

.5403 

5.7450 

1.8509 

10.6363 

9 

.5002 

6.2462 

1.9990 

12.4875 

10- 

4632- 

6.7087- 

2.1589- 

14.4862 

11 

.4289 

7.1375 

2.3317 

16.6463 

12 

.3971 

7.5350 

2.5182 

18.9775 

13 

.3676 

7.9037 

2.7196 

21.4950 

14 

.3405 

8.2425 

2.9372 

24.2150 

15 

.3152 

8.5587 

3.1722 

27.1525 

16 

.2919 

8.8513 

3.4260 

30.3250 

17 

.2703 

9.1200 

3.7000 

33.7500 

18 

.2502 

9.3712 

3.9960 

37.4500 

19 

.2317 

9.6025 

4.3157 

41.4463 

20- 

—  .2145- 

9.8175- 

4.6610- 

45.7625 

21 

.1987 

10.0150 

5.0339 

50.4237 

22 

.1839 

10.2000 

5.4366 

55.4575 

23 

•  1703 

10.3700 

5.8716 

60.8950 

24 

.1577 

10.5275 

6.3413 

66.7663 

25 

.1460 

10.6737 

6.8486 

73.1075 

26 

.1352 

10.8087 

7.3964 

79.9800 

27 

.1252 

10.9337 

7.9882 

87.3525 

28 

.1159 

11.0500 

8.6272 

95.3400 

29 

.1073 

11.1575 

9.3174 

103.9675 

30- 

—  .0994- 

—  11.2562- 

—  10.0629- 

_...113.2862 

31 

.0920 

11.3487 

10.8678 

123.3475 

32 

.0852 

11.4337 

11.7371 

134.2138 

33 

.0789 

11.5125 

12.6763 

145.9537 

34 

.0730 

11.5862 

13.6904 

158.6300 

35 

.0676 

11.6537 

14.7853 

172.3163 

36 

.0626 

11.7162 

15.9684 

187.1050 

37 

.0580 

11.7737 

17.2460 

203.0750 

38 

.0537 

11.8275 

18.6249 

220.3113 

39 

.0497 

11.8775 

20.1159 

238.9488 

40- 

—  .0460- 

—  11.9237- 

—21.7250- 

259.0625 

41 

.0426 

11.9662 

23.4630 

280.7875 

42 

.0395 

12.0050 

25.3400 

304.2500 

43 

.0365 

12.0425 

27.3672 

329.5900 

44 

.0338 

12.0762 

29.5567 

356.9588 

45 

.0313 

12.1075 

31.9213 

386.5163 

46 

.0290 

12.1362 

34.4750 

418.4375 

47 

.0269 

12.1625 

37.2330 

452.9125 

48 

.0249 

12.1875 

40.2117 

490.1463 

49 

.0230 

12.2112 

43.4207 

530.2588 

50- 

0213- 

—  12.2325- 

—46.9029- 

573.7863 

65 

.0145 

12.3175 

68.9160 

848.9500 

60 

.0099 

12.3750 

101.2605 

1253.2563 

65 

.0067 

12.4150 

148.7849 

1847.3113 

70 

.0046 

12.4412 

218.6150 

2720 . 1875 

75 

.0031 

12.4600 

321.2177 

4002.7213 

80 

.0021 

12.4725 

471.9761 

5887.2013 

85 

.0014 

12.4812 

693.4888 

8656.1100 

90 

.0010 

12.4862 

1018.9649 

12724.5613 

95 

.0007 

12.4900 

1497.1993 

18702.4913 

100- 

0005- 

...12.4925- 

.2199.8838.. 

..27486.0475 

105 

.0003 

12.4950 

3232 . 3656 

40392.0700 

110 

.0002 

12.4962 

4749.4130 

59355.1625 

115 

.0001 

12.4975 

6978.4677 

87218.3463 

120 

.0001 

12.4975 

10253.6792 

128158.4900 

> 


10  PER  CENT. 


r~ 

ii    1    in 

mi 

r—^) 

i 

.9091 

0.908 

1 . 1000 

1.0000 

2 

.8264 

1.735 

1.2100 

2.1000 

3 

.7513 

2.486 

1.3310 

3.3100 

4 

.6830 

3.169 

1.4641 

4.6410 

5 

.6209 

3.790 

1.6105 

6.1050 

6 

.5645 

4.354 

1.7716 

7.7160 

7 

.5132 

4.867 

1.9487 

9.4870 

8 

.4665 

5.334 

2.1436 

11.4360 

9 

.4241 

5.758 

2.3580 

13.5800 

10 

-..3855... 
.3505 

6  144. 

2.5938— 

15.9380 

11 

6.494 

2.8531 

18.5310 

12 

.3186 

6.813 

3.1385 

21.3850 

13 

.2897 

7.102 

3.4523 

24.5230 

14 

.2633 

7.366 

3.7976 

27.9760 

15 

.2394 

7.605 

4 . 1773 

31.7730 

16 

.2176 

7.823 

4.5950 

35.9500 

17 

.1978 

8.021 

5.0545 

40.5450 

18 

.1799 

8.200 

5.5600 

45.6000 

19 

.1635 

8.364 

6.1160 

51 . 1600 

20- 

I486.. 

8.513— 

6.7276- 

57.2760 

21 

.1351 

8.648 

7.4004 

64.0040 

22 

.1228 

8.771 

8.1404 

71.4040 

23 

.1117 

8.882 

8.9545 

79 . 5450 

24 

.1015 

8.984 

9.8500 

88.5000 

25 

.0923 

9.076 

10.8349 

98.3490 

26 

.0839 

9.160 

11.9184 

109 . 1840 

27 

.0763 

9.236 

13.1103 

121.1030 

28 

.0693 

9.306 

14.4213 

134.2130 

29 

.0630 

9.369 

15.8634 

148.6340 

30.. 

0573— 

9.426— 

—17.4498- 

164.4980 

31 

.0521 

9.478 

19.1948 

181.9480 

32 

.0474 

9.525 

21.1143 

201 . 1430 

33 

.0431 

9.568 

23.2257 

222.2570 

34 

.0391 

9.608 

25.5483 

245.4830 

35 

.0356 

9.643 

28.1032 

271.0320 

36 

.0324 

9.675 

30.9135 

299 . 1350 

37 

.0294 

9.705 

34.0049 

330.0490 

38 

.0273 

9.726 

37.4054 

364.0540 

39 

.0243 

9.756 

41.1460 

401.4600 

40- 

-..0221.. 

.0201 

9.778— 

—45.2605- 

442.6050 

41 

9.798 

49.7866 

487.8660 

42 

.0183 

9.816 

54.7655 

537 . 6550 

43 

.0166 

9.833 

60.2420 

592.4200 

44 

.0151 

9.848 

66.2662 

652.6620 

45 

.0137 

9.862 

72.8928 

718.9280 

46 

.0125 

9.874 

80.1822 

791.8220 

47 

.0113 

9.886 

88.2004 

872.0040 

48 

.0103 

9.896 

97.0207 

960.2070 

49 

.0094 

9.905 

106.7228 

1057.2280 

50.. 

—  .0085.. 

9.914— 

..117.3926- 

...1163.9260 

55 

.0053 

9.946 

189.0668 

1880.6680 

60 

.0033 

9.966 

304.4944 

3034.9440 

65 

.0020 

9.979 

490.3932 

4893.9320 

70 

.0013 

9.986 

789.7876 

7887.8760 

75 

.0008 

9.991 

1271.9648 

12709.6480 

80 

.0005 

9.994 

2048.5188 

20475.1880 

85 

.0003 

9.998 

3299 . 1742 

32981.7420 

90 

.0002 

9.997 

5313.3659 

53123.6590 

95 

.0001 

9.998 

8557.2549 

85562.5490 

100- 

.-.00007. 

—9.9992.. 

13781.6139- 

.137806. 139f 
221945.1020 

105 

.00005 

9.9994 

22195.5102 

110 

.00003 

9.9996 

35746.1983 

357451. 983# 

115 

.00002 

9.9997 

57569.8666 

575688. 666t 

120 

.00001 

9.9998 

92717.0213 

1  927160. 213t 

N  OTES 


on    nil'. 


Mammals    and   Summer   Birds 


\\  ESTERN    NORTH    CAROLINA 


H.IKK)    (..   O'BERHOLSER 


m 


Yc* 


Published  for  the  uu   of  students 
by  the 

JlLTMORE   FOREST   SCHOOL 

i:  I  I.  T  M  o  R  E,     N.    C. 

September,    1905 


Introduction. 


The  following  notes  are  intended  to  supplement  the  nom- 
inal list  recently  published,  although  owing  to  limitations  of 
space  many  details  are  necessarily  omitted.  The  list  of 
mammals  includes  all  that  are  known  to  have  been  recorded 
from  Western  North  Carolina.  The  list  of  birds  contains  those 
that,  with  a  few  exceptions  specifically  mentioned,  have  been 
detected  during  the  so-called  summer  season. — that  is.  from 
the  latter  part  of  .May  to  the  first  week  of  August, — and  there- 
fore constitutes  practically  a  catalogue  of  the  breeding  species 
df  this  area.  Aside  from  the  Biltmore  and  Pisgah  Forest  obser- 
vations, both  these  lists  have  been  compiled  almost  entirely 
from   published  sources. 

For  the  present  purpose,  Western  North  Carolina  is  held 
to  be  only  thai  part  of  the  State  lying  west  of  the  contour  line 
of  approximately  l.ono  feci  elevation,  including  Gaston,  Ire 
dell,  and  Stokes  counties.  It  thus  comprises  a  strip  of  conn-, 
try  some  7.")  miles  in  width  and  rather  more  than  -Oil  miles  in 
length  from  norlheasi  to  southwest.  Pisgah  Forest,  to  which 
reference  is  frequently  made,  forms  a  considerable  part  of  the 
estate  of  Mr.  George  W.  Vanderbilt,  and  is  situated  some  dis- 
tance southwest  of  Asheville,  chiefly  in  the  northern  half  of 
Transylvania  County.  Places  in  Pisgah  Forest  may  be  located 
as  follows:  Pisgah  Ridge  i  average  altitude  ."..limi  feet)  forms 
the  boundary  line  between  Transylvania  and  Haywood  coun- 
ties; and  Chestnut  Bald  (altitude  6,040  feet),  a  peak  on  this 
ridge,  lies  a  little  northeast  of  the  point  where  Transylvania. 
Haywood,  and  Jackson  counties  meet.  Gloster  (altitude  about 
.'{.odd  feet  i  is  in  the  southern  portion  of  Pisgah  Forest,  some- 
what west  of  the  central  part  of  Transylvania  County.  David- 
son River,  a  tributary  of  the  French  Broad  River,  is  in  the 
north  central  part  of  Transylvania  County;  the  altitude  of  its 
lower  course,  to  which  the  records  refer,  is  approximately 
2,100  feet.  The  Pink  Beds  (altitude  about  3,300  feet)  are  in 
a  broad  valley  in  the  extreme  northern  corner  of  Transyl- 
vania county,  at  the  headwaters  of  the  South  Fork  of  Mills 
River,  another  branch  of  the  French  Broad. 

The  titles  of  publications  added  are  not  intended  as  a 
complete  bibliography  of  the  subject,  but  simply  as  a  ready 
means  of  reference  to  a  few  of  the  more  important  published 
sources  of  information. 


The  Mammals  of  Western  North 
Carolina. 


Order  MARSUPIALIA. 
Family  didelphidab. 

1.    DlDELPHIS   VIRGINIANA    Kerr. —  Opossum. 

Common  a1  the  lower  levels,  ranging  w>  5,000  feet.  I  las  been 
taken  a1  Biltmore,  and  in  Pisgah  Fores!  al  Gloster,  Pink  Beds, 
on  Davidson  River   and  Pisgah  Ridge. 

Order  UXGULATA. 
Family  cervidae. 

_.  Odocoileus    virginianus    (Boddaert).  -Virginia     Deer. 

Formerly  abundant;  now  occurs  bu1  locally,  chiefly  in  the 
mountains;    common  in  Pisgah  Forest. 

."..  Cervus  canadensis  (Erxleben).  -American  Elk. 

Occurred  in  colonial  times,  ;ii  leasl  until  aboul  the  year 
1750. 

Family  bovidae. 

4.  Bison  bison   (Linnaeus). — American  Buffalo. 

Originally  ranged  over  much  of  Western  North  Carolina, 
but  exterminated  aboul   170(1. 

Order  GLIRES. 
Family  sciuridae. 

."».  Sciurus  carolinensis  Gmelin. — Southern  Gray  Squirrel. 

Tolerably  common,  at  leasl  up  to  4.. ".nil  fori  ;  found  al  Bilt- 
more and  al  various  localities  in  Pisgah   Forest. 

(>.  Sciurus     hudsonicus    gymnkus     Bangs.     Northern     Red 
Squirrel. 
Common    in   the  balsam   belt,  above  5,000   feci;    taken   on 
Chestnul   Bald,  Pisgah  Forest. 

7.     Sciurus      hudsonicus     loquax      Bangs.     Southern      Red 
Squirrel. 
Common  throughoul  the  mountains  below  5,000  feet;  speci- 
mens taken  at  the  Pink  Beds,  Pisgah  Forest. 

s.  Sciurus    rufiventer    neglectus     (Gray).     Northern     Fox 
Squirrel. 
Rare;    recorded  from  Asheville  and  Cherokee  County;  said 
in  occur  in  the  Greal  Smokv  Mountains. 


9.  Tamias  striatus   {Linnaeus). — Chipmunk. 

Common,  except  on  the  highest  parts  of  the  mountains; 
taken  at  the  Pink  Reds.  Pisgah  Forest. 

1<).  Marmota  monax  (Linneaus). — Woodchuck. 

CommoD  in  the  mountains  below  5,000  feet;  one  of  the  most 
abundant  mammals  in  Pisgah  Forest  ;  taken  at  Biltmore,  and 
in  Pisgah  Forest  at  the  Pink  Beds,  on  Pisgah  Ridge  and  David- 
son River. 

11.  Sciuropterus      volans      ( Linnaeus ). —  Southern      Flying 

Squirrel. 
Common  up  t<>  the  summits  of  the  mountains;     n  specimen 
secured  at  the  Pink  Beds,  Pisgah  Forest,  Augusl  ■"».  1904. 

Family  Castoridae. 

12.  Castor    canadensis   carolinensis    Rhoads. — Southern 

Beaver. 
Very  rare;  recorded  from  the  Dan  River,  in  Stokes   County, 
and  the  Yadkin   River,  between   Yadkin  and  Stokes  counties; 
formerly  occurred  near  Asheville;   extincl   in  Pisgah  Forest. 

Family  muridae. 


Ld.    Mrs   ALEXANDRINUS   Geoffroy   Saint    Hihiirr. — Roof    Rat. 

The  common  house  rut  of  North  Carolina,  in  the  western 
part  of  apparently  rather  recent  introduction;  taken  at  3,300 
feet   in  the  Pink  Beds,  fMsgah  Forest,  in  August,  L904. 


feet 
I   14. 


4.   Mrs  musculus  Linnaeus. — House  .Mouse. 

This  introduced  species  is  abundant,  occuring  about  build- 
ings even  in  the  woods;  taken  at  3,300  feet  in  the  Pink  Beds, 
Pisgah   Forest,   in   August.   L904. 

L5.    Pi:i;o.MYS<  IS     CANADENSIS     NUBITERRAE      {RJlOads) . — Cloud- 

land  White-footed  .Mouse. 
Abundant  in  the  balsam  belt,  above  5,000  feet;  obtained  at 
6,000  feet  on  Chestnut  Bald.  Pisgah  Forest.  August  15,  1904, 
and  July  24,  L905.    Previously  recorded  from  only  Roan  Moun- 
tain. 

16.  Peromyscus  leucopus  noveboracensis    {Fischer). — North- 

ern White-footed  .Mouse. 
Common  below  about  .".000  feet. 

17.  Peromyscus  nuttalli  i  Harlan). — Golden  Mouse. 
Tolerably  common  in  Buncombe  County  up  to  about  2,500 

feet. 


is.  Sigmodo:s  hispidus  Say  and  Ord.     Cotton  Rat. 

One  specimen  from  Elkin,  Surrey  County,  has  been  recorded 
by  Mr.  Vernon  Bailey. 

1!).  Xkoto.ma  Pennsylvania  Stone. — Allegheny  Wood  Rat. 

Reported  by  Mr.  S.  X.  Rhoads  from  caves  <>n  Roan  Moun- 
tain. 

20.  Evotomys    carolinensis    M<rri(im. — Carolina    Red-backed 

.Mouse. 
Common  above  I. mm  feet;  taken  a1  6,000  feel  on  Chestnut 
Bald,  Pisgah  Forest,  Augusl   L5.  1904,  and  July  24.  1905. 

21.  Microti  s  pennsylvanicus   {Ord). —  Meadow   Vole. 
Common    to    the  summits   of    the    mountains;    obtained    at 

6,000  feel  on  Chestnul  Bald,  Pisgah  Forest,  August  15,  1904. 

22.  Microtis  pinetorum    PINETORUM    {Le  Conic). —  Pine   Vole. 
Recorded  by  Mr.  Vernon  Bailev  from  Old  Richmond,  Surrey 

County. 

23.  Microtis    pinetorum    scalopsoides    i  .1  iidubon    and    ll<i<h- 

man  (.—Northern  Pine  Vole. 
Recorded  from  only   Magnetic  City,   Mitchell  County. 

24.  Fiber  zibethicus  {Linnaeus). — Muskrat. 

Tolerably  common  along  some  of  the  si  reams:  has  been 
taken  at  Bi It  more,  and  in  Pisgah  Forest  ai  the  Pink  Beds  and 
on  Davidson  River. 

25.  Synaptomys  cooper]    Balrd.     Cooper   Lemming   .Mouse. 
Known    in    North   Carolina   only   from    the  summit    of   Roan 

Mountain  at  6,300  feel. 

Kami  I  v  ZAPODIDAE. 

26.  Zapus  hi  nsoMis  in  iisomis    {Zimmermann).—    Hudson 

Bay  Jumping  Mouse. 
Recorded    by    Mi'.    E.    A.    Preble    from    Roan    Mountain    and 
Magnetic  City. 

27.  Zapus  hudsonius  American  us  {Barton).     Carolina  Jump 

ing  Mouse. 
Eas  been  recorded  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Preble  from  Weaverville. 

28.  Napaeozapus   insignis  roanensis    {Preble).   -Roan    Moun 

tain  Jumping  Mouse. 
So  far  as  known,  occurs  only  at   Magnetic  City  and  on  Roan 

Mountain. 


Family  leporikak. 

29.  Sylvilagus  floridanus  mallurus   (Thomas).— Cottontail. 
Common;   is  found  even  on  the  higher  mountains;  taken  at 

Biltmore  and  in  the  Pink  Beds,  Pisgah  Forest. 

Order  CARNIVORA. 
Family  felidae. 

30.  Felis  couguak  Kerr. — Panther. 

Now  probably  extinct;  the  skin  of  one  said  to  have  been 
killed  by  a  Mr.  Drew,  near  Highlands,  about  1886,  was  recently 
seen  there  by  Mr.  R.  G.  Murdoch. 

.'11.  Lynx  ruffus  ( Gueldenstaedt) . — Wildcat. 

Common  in  the  wilder  parts  of  the  country;  has  been  killed 
at  Biltmore;  numerous  in  Pisgah  Forest,  where  taken  at  the 
following  places:  Pisgah  Ridge.  Davidson  River.  Pink  Beds, 
and  Gloster. 

Family  canidab. 

32.  UROCYtN  cinereoargenteus   (  Schreber ) . — Cray   Pox. 
Tolerably  common;  less  so  in  the  mountains;  has  been  ob- 
tained a  I   Biltmore. 

33.  Vwlfes  Futvus   (Desniarest) .-    Red  Fox. 

('•muion  in  tin-  mountains;  taken  in  the  Pink  Beds.  Pisgah 
Forest. 

34.  Canis  mexicanus  nubius  (Say). — Gray  Wolf. 

Very  rare,  1ml  at  least  until  quite  recently  found  sparingly 
throughout  the  mountains;  recorded  from  several  localities 
by  Mr.  C.  S.  Brim  ley. 

Family  mustelidae. 

35.  Lutra  canadensis  LATAXiNA    i  C a  ricr  I . — Carolina  Otter. 
Tolerably  common,  but  more  or  less  local;    common  at  va- 
rious places  in  Pisgah  Forest,  and  taken  at  the  Pink  Beds  and 
on  the  lower  part  of  Davidson  River. 

3<>.  Mephitis  eloxgata  {Bungs). — Florida  Skunk. 

Common  in  at  least  the  southern  half  of  the  mountains; 
obtained  at  Biltmore.  and  in  Pisgah  Forest  at  Gloster,  Pink 
Beds,  and  on  Davidson  River. 

37.  Spilogale  ringens  Merriam. — Little  Spotted  Skunk. 

Common  throughout  the  mountains  from  Roan  Mountain  to 
Cherokee ;  taken  at  Biltmore,  and  in  Pisgah  Forest  at  Gloster, 
Pink  Beds,  and  on  Davidson  River. 


38.  Lutreola  vis.i.n   MTiiKoi  kimi.m.a    [Harlan) . — Large   Brown 

Mink. 
Apparently  of  local  occurrence;  common  ;n    Biltmore  and 
in  some  of  the  streams  thai   drain   the   Pink    Beds  in    Pisgah 

Pores!  ;  taken  also  on   Davidson  River. 

39.  Putoeius     noveboracensis     notius      Bangs. —  Southern 

Weasel. 
Tolerably  common   in   the  mountains;  obtained    in    Pisgali 
Forest  at  the  Pink  Beds  and  on  Davidson  River. 

4(1.   Mustela  pennant]  Erxleben. — Fisher. 

Rare;  recorded   from   the  mitains  by   Mr.  S.   X.   Rhoads, 

but  probably  now  extinct. 


V; 


'KOCYONII'AK. 


41.  Procyon  lotob  (Linnaeus). — Raccoon. 

Common  and  generally  distributed;  taken  at  Biltmore,  and 
in  Pisgah  Foresl  at  the  Pink  Beds,  on  Pisgah  Ridge  and  David 
son  River. 

Family  iksihak. 

42.  L'rsus  a.mkkkam  s  Pallas.— Black  Bear. 

Not  uncommon  in  the  mountains;  occurs  iir  Pisgah  Forest. 

Order  [NSECTIVORA. 

Family  soiucidae. 

43.  Sorex  personatus  Geoffroy  tioinA   Hilaire-  -I*ong-tailed 

Shrew. 
Recorded  from  the  balsam  bell   above  5,000  feet   on   Roan 
Mountain;    probably  occurs  also  on  other  high  summits;    one 
specimen  obtained  in  the  Pink   Beds,  Pisgali   Forest,  ai  :'». :?<)<» 
feet.  July  26,  L905.  . 

M.  Sorex  fumeus  Miller. — Sooty  Shrew. 

Known  in  North  Carolina  from  only  the  summil   of  Roan 

Mountain,  where  apparently  not   uncommon. 

!•>.   Blarina  brevicauda   {Say). — Short-tailed  Shrew. 

Common  throughoul  the  mountains;  taken  in  the  Pink  Beds 
at  3,300  feet.  Augusl  2,  L904,  and  at  6,000  feet  on  Chestnut 
Bald,  Pisgah  Forest,  Augusl  L5,  L904. 

Family  talpidae. 

46.  Scalopus  aoi  Anns  [Linnaeus).  -Easteni  Mole. 
Common,  at  least  up  to  4. nun  feet. 


47.  Parascalops  brewer]    i  Bach  ma  in  . — Hairy-ta  iled  Mole. 
Recorded  from  Magnetic  ("iiv.  bill  from  nowhere  else  in  the 

State. 

48.  CONDYLURA    CRISTATA     \  I  .i  II  linens  )  . — Star-nosed    Mole. 

Rare,  but  occurs  throughout  the  mountains. 


Order  CHIROPTERA. 
Family  vespertjlionidae. 

4!>.  Myotis  lucifugus  (Lc  Contc). — Little  Brown  Hat. 

Recorded  from  Roan  Mountain  ami  from  Buncombe  County; 
one  taken  in  the  Pink  Beds,  Pisgah  Forest.  Augusl  L9,  1!»<>4. 

50.  Myotis  subulatus  (Say). — Say  Bat. 

One  specimen  taken  at  3.300  feet  in  the  Pink  Beds.  Pisgah 
Forest.  Transylvania  County,  August  12,  1!)04:  and  another  in 
the  same  locality,  July  25,  1905. 

51.  Lasionycteris     xoctivaoans     (Lc     Conte). — Silver-haired 

Bat. 
Apparently  tolerably  common  in  the  mountains. 

52.  Pipistrellus  subflavus   (Cuvicr). — Georgia   Bat. 
( !ommon  in  Buncombe  '  'ounty. 

53.  Vespertilio  fuscus  Bcauvois.— Large  Brown   Bat. 

Recorded  by  Mr.  C.  S.  Brimley  from  Buncombe  County; 
common  in  The  Pink  Beds,  Pisgah  Forest,  where  taken  on  July 
13,  16,  and  20,  1905. 

."4.    LASIURUS  BOREALIS    I  .1/  Itcllcr  I . —  Bed    Bat. 

Apparent  |y  common. 

55.  Lasiurus  cinereus  (Bcauvois). — Hoary  Bat. 
lias  been  taken  in  Buncombe  County. 

56.  Nycticeius    humeralis    (Rafinesque) . — Rafinesque    Bat. 
Common  in  Buncombe  County. 

57.  Corynorhixus  macrotis   (Le  Conte). —  Big-eared  Bat. 
One    taken    by    Mr.   J.    S.   Cairns   al    Weaverville,    April    7. 

1895;  an  adult  male  obtained  by  the  writer  in  the  Fink  Beds, 
Pisgah  Forest   (3,300  feel  i.  July  20,  1905. 


HI 

LITERATURE. 

Elliot,  D.  G. — A  Synopsis  of  the  Mammals  of  North  Amer- 
ica and  the  Adjacenl  Seas.  Field  Columbian  Museum.  Pub- 
lication 45,  L901,  pp.  XV  and  471  ;  pis.  XLIX. 

Stone,  Witmer;  and  Cram,  William  Everett. — American 
Animals.  A  Popular  Guide  to  the  Mammals  of  North  America 
North  of  Mexico,  with  [ntimate  Biographies  of  the  more  Fa- 
miliar Species,  pp.  xxiii  and  318.  New  York.  Doubleday, 
Page  and  Co.,  1902. 

Miller.  Gerrit  S.,  Jr. — Key  to  the  Land  .Mammals  of  North 
eastern  North  America.  Bulletin  of  the  New  York  Stale  Mu- 
seum, No.  38;  Vol.  VIII,  L900,  pp.  61-160. 

Brimley,  C.  S. — A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Mammals  of 
North  Carolina.  Exclusive  of  the  Cetacea:  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Elisha  Mitchell  Scientific  Society,  XXI.  No.  1.  li>nr».  pp. 
1-32. 

('on:.  E.  D. — Observations  on  the  Fauna  of  the  Southern  A I 
leghanies:  in  the  American  Naturalist,  IV.  L871,  pp.  392-402. 

Merriam.  Dr.  C.  Hart. — Remarks  on  the  Fauna  of  the  Greal 
Smoky  Mountains;  with  Description  of  a  New  Species  of  Red- 
backed  Mouse  (Evotomys  carolinensis)  :  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Science.  Series  :;.  XXXVI,  1888,  pp.  458-460. 

Rhoads,  S.  N. — Contributions  to  the  Zoology  of  Tennessee. 
No.  3,  Mammals:  in  Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  L897,  pp.  L75-205. 


The  Summer  Birds  of  Western 
North  Carolina. 


Order  CICONIIFOEMES. 

Family  ardbidab. 

1.  Butorides  virescens  i  Li nnaeus i . — Green  Heron. 

A  tolerably  common  summer  resident,  except  on  the  higher 
mountains. 

2.  Florida  caerulea  {Linnaeus). — Little  Blue  Heron. 
Young  birds  have  been  observed  by  Mr.  J.  S.  Cairns  during 

July  in  Buncombe  County;  one  in  the  white  phase  taken  July 
1,  1905,  in  the  Pink  Beds,  Pisgah  Forest,  by  Mr.  R.  G.  Burton. 

3.  Ardba  herodias  Linnaeus. — Great  Blue  Heron. 
Tolerably  common  except  on    the  high   mountains;   breeds 

along  the  larger  streams. 

4.  Botaurus  lentiginosis  {Montagu). — American  Bittern. 
Has  been  taken  by  Mr.  .J.  S.  Cairns  in  Buncombe  County  in 

every  month  from   April  to  October  inclusive,  but  not  found 
actually  breeding. 

Order  ANSERIFORMES. 

Family    anatidae. 

5.  Aix  sponsa    {Linnaeus). — Wood  Duck. 
Not   common  excepl   locally;    breeds. 

order  FALCONIFORMES. 
Family  cathartidae. 

<;.  Cathakista  \k\v.\-   {Vievllot). — Black  Vulture. 

An  irregular  summer  visitor;  reported  from  only  Buncombe 
County. 

7.  Cathartes  ai  ha  septentrionalis   {Wied).     Turkey   Vol 

lure. 
An  abundant   resident,  ranging  everywhere. 

Family  falconidab. 

8.  Falco  peregrinus  anatum   {Bonaparte)-    Duck  Hawk.  ^ 
Tolerably  common  in  parts  of  the  mountains;  breeds. 

!>.    Cbrchneis  sparveria    {Linnaeus). — American  Sparrow 
'      Hawk. 
Common ;  breeds  in  April  and  May. 


12 

I  ;iiim|\     Bl    i  i  0  -  [DAE. 

10.  Circus  hudsonius  (Linnaeus).     Marsh  Hawk. 

Has  been  occasionally  seen  by  Mr.  ■).  S.  Cairns  "ii  the 
French   Broad   River  in  summer. 

11.  ACCIPITER    VELOX    (Wil80n) .      Sharp-shinned    Hawk,       i, 

Resident;  nol  common;  breeds  from  the  middle  of  May  to 
the  middle  of  June. 

\'l.  Accipiter  cooperi]  ( [Bonaparte ) . — Cooper  Hawk. 

A  tolerably  common  resident,  particularly  in  the  mountain 
region.     Breeds  in  May. 

l-"».  Aquila   chrysaetos    (Linnaeus). — Golden    Eagle. 

Resident;  no1  very  uncommon;    breeds  in  the  mountains. 

14.  Haliaeetus  leucocephalus  [Linnaeus).     Bald  Eagle. 
A  rare  residenl  in  (lie  mountains;    breeds. 

Lo.  Buteo  borealis  (Gmelin). — Red-tailed  Hawk. 
Resident;  common;  breeds  in  March  and  April. 

L6.  Buteo   lineatus    {Gmelin). — Red-shouldered    Hawk. 

Tolerably  common;  not  observed  above  3,500  feet;  breeds  in 
March  and  April. 

17.   Buteo   platypterus    (Vieillot). —  Broad-winged   Hawk. 

Common,  particularly  in  the  mountains  to  above  t'». ()()(»  feet; 
the  most  numerous  hawk  in  Pisgah  Forest  ;  breeds  in  April 
and  May. 

Family  pandionidae. 

is.  Pandion   haliaetus  uarolinensis   (Gmelin). — American 
Osprey. 
Rare  summer  visitor;  said  to  breed  along  the  streams. 

Order  GALLIFORMES. 
Family  meleagrididae. 

1!).  Meleagris  gallopavo  silvestris  (Vieillot).     Wild  Turkey. 
A   common   resident    in   parts  of   the  mountains,   including 
Pisgah  Forest  ;  breeds  in  May  and  June. 

Family  tetraonidae. 

20.    BONASA    UMBELLUS    I  Li  H  II  'I'll  S  )  .       Untied    (Irouse. 

Common  resident  in  the  mountains;  breeds  in  May,  down 
to  2,000  feel  ;    more  numerous  above  4,000  feet. 


13 
Famih  pj  rdicid  u 

L'l.  Golinus  virginianus    ( Linnaeus ) . — Bobwhite. 

Abundant  resident  up  to  5,000  feel  ;  said  to  have  been  taken 
on  the  summit  of  .Mount  Mitchell.  Rears  two  or  three  broods; 
nests  sometimes  as  late  as  September. 

Order  GRUIFORMES. 

Family  rallidab. 

22.  Creciscus  jamaicensis  (Gmelln). —  Black  Kail. 

Rare  summer  residenl  ;  eggs  taken  in  duly.  1887,  near 
Weaverville,  by  Mr.  .1.  S.  Cairns. 

-I).  Kali. is  elegans  Audubon. — King  Rail. 
Rare  summer  visitor  in  Buncombe  County. 

Order  CHARADRIIFORMES. 
Family  charadriidae. 

24.  OXYECHUS  VOCIFERUS    I  Li  It  IKK  US  I  .       Ivilldeer. 
Rare  summer  resident  ;  breeds. 

Family  scolopacidae. 

25.  Actitis  macularia    (Linnaeus). — Spotted   Sandpiper. 
Tolerably  common  along  some  of  the  streams. 

26.  Rhyacophilus  solitarius  [Wilson). — Solitary  Sandpiper. 
Rare  summer  visitor  in  Buncombe  County;  observed  by  Mr. 

George   B.  Sennet  t    in  July  and  August   near  Cranberry  and 
Roan  Mountain. 
_ 

27.  Philohela    minor    (Gmelin). — American   Woodcock. 
Not  common;    breeds  in  April. 

Family  columbidae. 

28.  Zknaiiu'ua  macroura   {Linnaeus).     Mourning  Dove../ 
Tolerably   common    at    least    up    to   3,000    feet;    much    less 

frequent  at  higher  altitudes. 

29.  COLUJIBIGALLINA    PASSERINE    TERRESTRIS    (  ' lid /KIKI it . — Ground 

Dove. 
Rare;  one  seen  by  Mr.  J.  S.  Cairns  in   Buncombe  County. 
May  29,  1891 ;  another  shot  some  years  previously.     It  breeds 
in  Davidson  County,  just  east  of  our  present  limits. 


Order  CUCULIFORMES. 
Family  cuculidae. 

30.  Coccrzus    brythrophthalmus     (Wilson).     Black-billed 

( Juckoo. 
Rare;  breeds. 

31.  Coccyzus  americanus  (Linnaeus) .     Yellow-billed  Cuckoo. 
Common,  bu1    less  frequently  observed  al    the  higher  alti- 
tudes; breeds  from  May  to  July. 

oi.lcr  CORACIIFORMES. 
Family  picidae. 

32.  Colaptes  auratus  auratus   (Linnaeus) . — Flicker. 
Common  in  the  southern  part  of  the  region  up  to  4,000  feei  ; 

breeds  in  May  and  June. 

33.  Colaptes  auratus  i.iteis  Bangs.— Northern   Flicker. 
Replaces    true    auratus    in    the    northwestern    pari    of    the 

State;  ranges  up  al  least  to  5,000  feet. 

J4.  Centurus  carolinus   (Linnaeus). — Red-bellied  Wood- 
pecker. 
Tolerably  common  locally  up  to  4,000  feet. 

35.  Melanerpes    erythrocephalus     i  Linnaeus). — Lied-headed 

Woodpecker. 
Tolerably  common;  taken  as  high  as  6,000  feet;  breeds  in 
May. 

36.  Ceophloeus  pileatus   (Linnaeus). — Pileated   Woodpecker. 
Tolerably  common;    breeds  in  April. 

37.  Sen vKAincis     varius     (Linnaeus).      Yellow-bellied     Sap- 

sucker. 
Rather  uncommon  except  locally;  found  principally  mi  the 
higher  mountains;  breeds  in  April.  May,  and  June. 

38.  Dryobates   pubescens    (Lmnae-ns).     Southern    Downy 

Woodpecker. 
Common    resident,  occui*ring  to   the  summits  of   the   high 
mountains;  breeds  in    .May  and  June. 

•'!!>.    DRYOBATES    VILLOSUS    VILLOSUS     [Linnaeus]  .       1 1  a  i  r  \     Wood 

pecker. 
Not    common;    breeds   on    the   higher   mountains   down    at 
least  to  about  5,500  feet. 


40.  Dryobates  villosus  audubonii    (Swainson). — Southern 

Hairy  Woodpecker. 
Tolerably  common  up  to  about  5,000  feci;  breeds  in  April. 

Family  alcedinibae. 

41.  Ceryle  alcyon  {Linnaeus). — Belted  Kingfisher. 
Tolerably  common;    less  frequent  above  4,000  feet;    breeds 

in  May. 

Family  ASIONIDAE. 

4l'.  Asio  magellanicus  virgixianus  (Gmelin). — Greal   Horned 
Owl. 
Common  resident  :  breeds  in  January  and  February. 

4-'!.  Orus  asio  {Linnaeus). — Screech  Owl. 

Common  resident;  breeds  in  April  and  May. 

44.  Syrnium  vakiiwi    (Barton). — Barred  Owl. 
Tolerably  common  up  to  5,000  feel  at  leasl  ;  breeds. 

Family  capri  uulgidae. 

45.  Caprimulgus   vociferus    Wilson. — Whip-poor-will. 
Common  up  to  3,500  feet:    breeds  in  April  and  May. 

4»>.  Chordeiles  virgixiaxus  [Gmelin). — Xigbthawk. 
Tolerably  common;  breeds  in  April  and  May. 

Family  micropodidae. 

47.  Chaetura  pelagica    {Linnaeus). — Chimney  S\a  if r. 
Abundant;   breeds   to  the  tops  of   the   highesl    mountains; 

nesrs  in  dune. 

Family  trochilidae. 

48.  Trochilus  colubris   Linnaeus. — Ruby-throated   Humming- 

bird. 

Common  to  the  summits  of  the  mountains;  breeds  in  May; 
often  ver\   alnindant   in  August. 

Order  PASSERIFORMES. 
Family  tyranxibae. 

41).  Empidonax  minimis   {Baird). —  Leas!   Flycatcher. 
Rare;  ranges  up  to  about  4,500  feet;  breeds. 


n; 

50.  Empidonax     virescens     {Vieillot).    -Green-crested     Fly- 

catcher. 
Common  below  3,000  feet;  reaches  3,300  feel  in  Pipgah  Por- 
es! :  breeds  in  May  and  June. 

51.  Borizopus  virens  {Linna&iis) .     Wood  Pewee. 
Common  up  to  4,000  feel  ;  breeds  in  June. 

52.  NuTTALLORNIS     BOREALIS     (  Siniinsoii  | .-— 01  ive-sided     Fly- 

ca  t  cher. 
Tolerably  common  locally  above  4,000  feet;  breeds. 

53.  Sayornis  phoebe   {Latham). —  Phoebe. 

Common  below  about  4,000  feet,  but  occurs  even  on  the  sum 
in  i  t  s  of  the  liighesl  mountains.     Breeds  in  May. 

54.  Myiarchus  crinitus  {Linnaeus). — Crested  Flycatcher. 
Common  up  to  aboul  4,500  feet;  less  frequenl   for  another 

thousand  feet. 

55.  Tyrannus  tyrannus   {Linnaeus). —  Kingbird. 
Tolerably  common  up  to  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains. 

Family  mimioae. 

."it;.  Toxostoma  aupuat   {Linnaeus). —  Brown  Thrasher. 

Common  up  to  3,000  feet;  less  frequenl  to  1,000  feet;  nests 

in  April. 

7)1.  Galeoscoptes  carolinexsis   ( Li imaeiw). — Catbird. 

Abundant;  ranges  to  at   least  6,300  feet;  round  nesting  in 
June. 

58.  Mimus   polyglottos    {Linnaeus). — Mockingbird. 

Common  locally  below   2,000  feel  ;  rare  elsewhere. 

Family  ti  rdioae. 

59.  Siai.ia  sialis  {Linnaeus). — Bluebird. 

Common;    occurs  in  places  al  leasl   to  6,000  feet,  bul  more 

numerous  below  4.000  feet  ;  nests  as  early  as  March. 

60.  Mkimi.a    migratoria   achrustera    Batclwlder. — Southern 

Robin. 
Common  from  at  leasl   L,800  feel  to  the  tops  of  thehighesl 
mountains;  breeds  from  March  to  July. 

61.  Bylocichla   fuscescens   {Stephens).     SVilson  Thrush. 
Common  from  3,000  to  6,000  feel  ;  aests  in  May. 


17 

62.  Hylocichla  mustelixa   (Crmelin).-  Wood  Thrush. 
Common;  ranges  to  5.000  feet:  breeds  in  May. 

Family  sylviii»ak. 

<».'!.  Polioptila     cabri  lea     (Linnaeus). —  Blue-gray     Gnat- 
ca  teller. 
Common  at  least  to  3.50(1  feet;  breeds  in  May  and  June. 

Family  regulidae. 

04.  Regulus  satrapa    LichtenMeAn. — Golden-crowned   Kinglet. 

Common  above  5,000  feet,  chiefly  in  the  balsam  belt;  breeds 
in  June. 

Family  troglodytidae. 

65.  Olbiorchilus  iiik.mai.is  iVieillot). — Winter  Wren. 

Tolerably   common    in    the  balsam   belt,   above  5,000   feet; 
breeds. 

b'fi.  Thryomanes  bewicku   (Audubon). —  Bewick  Wren. 

Common  in  the  mountains,  chiefly  in  towns,  but  ranges  also 
to  the  tops  of  the  highest    peaks:   nests   in   April  and   May. 

07.  Thryothorus  unovMi ams  (Latham).— Carolina  Wren. 

Common  up  to  4.000  feet  ;  breeds  regularly  from  April   to 
July,  sometimes  as  late  as  October. 

Family  certhiidae. 

68.  Certhia    familiaris    americaxa    (Bonaparte). — Brown 

( Jreeper. 
Common  above  4,000  feel  :  breeds  in  May. 

Family  sittidae. 

69.  SlTTA    CANADENSIS    Li >i iHKlts. — Red  breasted    Nuthatch. 
Common   above  5,000   feet;   occasional   down    to  4. (Mil)  feet; 

breeds  in  May. 

70.  Sitta  carolixensis  Lath-am. — White-breasted  Nuthatch. 
Common,  ranging  at  leasl  to  6,000  feet :  breeds  in  April  and 

May. 

Family  paridae. 

71.  Penthestes   carolinensis    \  Audubon)  ■ — Carolina    Chicka- 

dee. 
Common  up  to  5,000  feet:  breeds  in  May  and  June. 


IS 

72.  Penthestes  atbicapillus  i  Linnaeus) . — Chickadee. 

Tolerably  common   above  5,000   feel :   breeds   in    May   and 
June. 

7."!.   Baeolophus  bicoloe  I  Lin  urn  us  i .     Tutted  Ti  t  mouse. 

Abundant;  ranges  up  to  4,000  feet;    breeds  in   April.  May. 
;in<]  June. 

Family  cobVioae. 

74.  Cyanocitta  cbistata  (Linnaeus). — Blue  Jay. 

Common  resident;  ranges  t<>  the  lops  of  the  lii.uliesi   moun- 
tains; breeds  in  April. 

7.~>.   COBVUS   BBACHYBHYNCHOS    Urchin. —  American    ( 'row. 

Abundant  resident,  though  less  frequenl  above  3,500  feet; 
breeds. 

7<i.  Corvus  corax  principalis  Ridgway. — Northern  Raven. 

Rare  generally,  but    tolerably  common   locally  above  3,000 
feet ;  breeds. 

Family  laniidae. 

77.  Lanius  ludovicianus  migrans  Palmer. — Migranl   Shrike. 

Common  at  Statesville;  breeds. 

Family  vireonidae. 

78.  Vibeo  NovEBORACENsis    ( GmeUn) . — White-eyed   Vireo. 
Common;  ranges  up  to  about  2,500  feet;  breeds. 

7!).   Lanivireo  solitarius  alticola  I  Breivst er ) . —  Mountain  Sol- 
itary Vireo. 
Common  from  3,000  to  5,000  feet;     less  frequenl  a1   lower 

altitudes,  but   breeds  at    Statesville   (1,000  feet);  nests   in    May 
and  dune. 

80.  Lanivireo  flavifrons  {Vieillot).  -Yellow-throated  Vireo. 
Tolerably  common   up   to  4,000   feel  ;     breeds   in    May  and 

June. 

81.  Vibeosylva  uilva  {Vieillot). — Warbling  Vireo. 
Not  common  ;  breeds  in  May. 

.vl\  Vibeosylva  olivacea   {Linnaeus). — Red-eyed  Vireo. 
Abundant  up  to  5,000  feet;  breeds  in  June. 


L9 

Family  ampelidae. 

83.  Ampelis  cedrorum   {Yicillot). — Cedar  Waxwing. 
Common,  but  somewhat    irregular  in  occurrence;  fouud  at 

;ill  altitudes;  breeds  in  June. 

Fa mily  hirundi  n  idae. 

84.  Hirundo  grythrogastra  Boddaert. — Barn  Swallow. 
Rare;  said  by  Mr.  J.  S.  Cairns  to  bleed  in  Buncombe  Coun- 
ty: observed    about  the  middle    of    August.    1904,    in    Pisgah 
Forest. 

85.  Riparia  riparia   (Linnaeus). — Bank  Swallow. 
Rare  summer  visitor. 

86.  Stelgidopteryx    sekripexnis     [Audubon  |. — Hough-winged 

Swallow. 
Tolerably  common  up  to  3,500  feet :  breeds. 

ST.  Progne  subis  {Linnaeus). — Purple  Martin. 
Common   in  sonic  of  the  towns;  breeds. 

Family  mniotiltirae. 

88.  Setophaga  kiticii.la    i  Linnacus\ . — American  Redstart. 
Tolerably  common,  at  least  in  the  lower  valleys  of  the  moun- 
tains;   breeds. 

89.  Wilsonia  canadensis  [Linnaeus). — Canadian  Warbler. 
Common  above  3,000  feel  ;  breeds  in  May  and  June. 

90.  Wilsonia   mitrata    ^dunlin). —  Hooded  Warbler. 
Common    to  3,500  feet,  and   found  sparingly   in   the   valleys 

even  to  about  5,000  feet  ;  breeds  in  May  and  dune. 

91.  IcTERIA    VIRENS     \  I .i n n <t<  n *  \ . —  Yel low  -breasted    Chat. 

Abundant  up  to  about  2,200  feet  :  breeds  in  May  and  June. 

92.  Geothlypis    trichas     ( Linnaeus) . —  Maryland     Yellow- 

throat. 
Common;    ranges  at  least  to  3,500  feet;    breeds  in  May  and 
June. 

!»•'!.  Seiurus  noveboracensis   [Crmelin). — Water-thrush. 

Rare  summer  visitor;  taken  by  Mr.    J.  S.  Cairns  in  August, 
1886,  in  Buncombe  County :    probably  does  not  breed. 

94.  Seiurus  motacilla    (Vieillot). —  Louisiana   Water-thrush. 

Common  below  2.000  feet,  ranges  less  frequently  to  the  tops 
of  the  highest  mountains;    breeds  in  April  and  May. 


95.  Sin  i;is     AUROCAPILLUS     I  Litl  uncus  I  .     -<  hen  bird. 

CommoD  up  to  5,500  feet,  ranging  in  places  ;it  least  to  6,000 
feel  ;  breeds  in  May  and  June. 

96.  Opororxis  Formosa    {Wilson). —  Kentucky  Warbler. 
Tolerably  common;    ranges  sometimes  to  4,000  feet,  com 

monly  to  3,500  feet;   breeds  in  June. 

!»7.   Dexdroica  discolor  \\icilIot). — Prairie  Warbler. 

Pound  by  Mr.  William  Brewster  common  al  Old  Fort,  Mc- 
Dowell County,  the  last  week  in  May,  L885. 

98.  Dexdroica  vigorsi]    (Audubon). —  Pine  Warbler. 
Tolerably  common  :    ranges  in  places  to  •*!.<><)()  feel  ;    breeds 

in   March,  April,  and  May. 

99.  Dexdroica     pexsylvaxica     i  Linnaeus). — Chestnut-sided 

Warbler. 
Common  in  the  mountains,  from  2,000  to  1,000  feet;  breeds 
in  May  and  June. 

1.00.  Dexdroica     domixica     (Linnaeus).  -Yellow-throated 
Warbler. 
Tolerably  common   locally  up  to  2,500  feet;  breeds  in   May 
and  June. 

101.  I )  i:\dko  i  (A    blackburxiae    i  (l  iik  I'm  i . — Blackburnian 

Warbler. 
Common  above  3,000  feel  :   breeds. 

102.  Dexdroica  virexs  (Gmelin). — Black-throated  Green 

Warbler. 
Common    above    4,000    feet;    ranges    down    to    2,000    feet; 
breeds. 

ID."!.  Dexdroica   caerulescexs  cairxsi    Cones.— Cairns   Warb- 
ler. 

Abundanl  above  3,000  feel  :    breeds  in  May  and  June. 

lot.   Dexdroica    maculosa    (Gmelm). — Magnolia   Warbler. 

Rare;   young  birds  said  b\    Mr.  J.  s.  Cairns  to  be  common 
in  July  in  Buncombe  County. 

105.  Dexdroica  aestiva   (Gmelin). — Yellow  Warbler. 
Tolerably  common  below  l'.siiii  feet 

LOO.  Compsothlypis  americaxa  (  Lhinut  us\. — Parula  Warbler. 
Common,  except    on   the  highest  parts   of  the  mountains; 
breeds  in  May  and  June. 


21 

107.  Yermivoka  pinus   (Linnaeus). — Blue-winged  Warbler. 
Rare  summer  visitor  at  the  lower  altitudes;    breeds. 

ins.   Vermiyora   chrysoptera    i  Linnaeus). — Golden-winged 
Warbler. 
Tolerably  common  from  2.000  to  4. Km  feel  ;    breeds  in  May 
and  June. 

109.  Helmitheros     vermivorus     (Gmelin). — Worm-eating 

Warbler. 
Rare,  except  locally  at   the  lower  levels,  panging  to  4,00(1 
feet  ;  breeds  in  May  and  June,  sometimes  in  July. 

110.  Mniootlta  vakia  (Linnaeus). — Black  and  White  Warbler. 

Abundant  up  to  5,000  feet,  and  in  less  numbers  reaches  the 
summits  of  the  highest  mountains;  breeds  in  April  and  May. 

Family   [CTERIDAE. 

111.  Sturnella  magna  (Linnaeus). — Meadowlark. 

Rare;    found  at  all  altitudes;  breeds. 

112.  Agelaius    phoeniceus    (Linnaeus). —  Red-winged    Black- 

bird. 
Tolerably  common  in  the  lower  valleys. 

113.  [cterus  galbula    \  Li n miens  \ . — Baltimore  Oriole. 
Tolerably  common  ;    breeds. 

114.  [CTERys   SPURIUS    [Linnaeus) . — Orchard    Oriole. 
Tolerably  common  up  to  about  2,500  feet;  breeds. 

11.".  Quiscalus  quiscula   (Linnaeus). — Purple  Grackle. 

Not  common:    breeds  at  Asheville  in  May. 

lib.   Molothrus  ater   (Boddaert  I . — Cowbird. 

Observed  by  Mr.  George  15.  Sennett  at  Cranberry,  in  August, 
L886;  seen  by  Mr.  R.  O.  Pond  in  the  Pink  Beds,  Pisgah  Forest, 
duly  31,  L905. 

Family  tanagridae. 

117.  Piranga  erythromelas    V-ieillot. — Scarlet  Tanager. 
Common  in  the  mountains  from  about  2.000  to  5.000  feet. 

casually  to  6,000  feet;  breeds  in  May. 

118.  Piranga  rubra   (Linnaeus). — Summer  Tanager. 
Common  at  the  lower  altitudes;  breeds. 


Family  frixgillidae. 

11!).  Cardinalis  cardinalis   (Linnaeus). — Cardinal. 

Common  up  to  3,500  feet,  ranging  also  occasionally  to  6,20(1 
feet;  breeds  from  May  t»»  August,  rarely  also  in  September. 

Il'ii.  Zamelodia    ludoviciaxa    [Linnaeus). — Rose-breasted 
Grosbeak. 
Tolerably  common  above  .*!..~>iui  feel  ;  breeds  in  May. 

l'_!l.  Guiraca  caerulea    [Linnaeus).     Blue  Grosbeak. 
Rare;    probably  breeds  at  the  lower  altitudes. 

li"_'.  Cyaxospiza  cyanea  i  I. ilium  -us) .     Indigo  Bunting. 

Common;  ranges  to  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  bul  more 
numerous  below  5.000  feel  :  breeds. 

L23.    I'll'll.o    BRYTHROPHTHALMl'S     )  I .i U  iliirii s  \  .       ('hcwillk; 

Townee. 
Common  mi  all  altitudes;  breeds  in  April,  May.  and  June. 

1  lit.  Melospiza  cinerea    melodia    (Wilson).     Song  Sparrow. 

Common  ai  Cranberry,  and  along  the  !><»<'  River  on  the 
north  side  of  Roan  Mountain;  also  ai  Biltmore,  ami  in  the 
Pink  Beds,  L'isgah  Forest   (3,800  feet);    undoubtedly  breeds. 

1  -."►-  Spizella  pusilla  (Wilson).  -Field  Sparrow. 
Common  up  to  3,500  feel  ;    breeds  from  May  to  August. 

\-i\.  Spizella  socialis   (Wilson). — Chipping  Sparrow. 

Common,  excepl  in  heavy  forest;  breeds  in  May  ami  June, 
probably  also  later. 

Il'7.  Junco  hyemalis  carolinensis  Brewster.    Carolina 
Junco. 
The  mosl  abundant  species  above  5,000  feel  ;    ranges  in  di- 
minished numbers  down   to  8,000   feel  ;    breeds  from   April   to 
August. 

128.    AlMOPHILA    AESTIVALIS  BACHMAXI1     I  .  1  Nihil, nu)  .       I'.nrlimnil 

Sparrow. 
Hare;  ranges  to  about  2,000  feet;  breeds. 

L29.  Ammodramus  savaxxarcm  passerixus  i  Wilson).-  -Grass- 
hopper Sparrow. 
Tolerably  common  up  to  2,300  feet;  breeds. 


i:;<l      I'  -    ., i:\MIM. i>     I  dunlin  i  .       \  »-s|»t'r    Shallow . 

Tolerablj  common  in  Buncombe  County,  beginning  to  breed 
about  the  middle  «»f  April;  observed  at  Pisgah  Forest  Station, 
Transj  Ivania  County,  July  31,  1905. 

l.'.l.  Chondestbs  gbam&iaccs  [Hay).     Lark  Sparrow. 

A  full  mown  young  ol  the  year,  which  had  probably  been 
bred  not   far  away,  u.i^  obtained  b\    Mr.  George   B.  Bennett 
ran  berry,  al  about  3.000  Feel  altitude,  August  9,  1886. 

1 32    1 '  Linnat  u*  I .     I  louse  Sparrow  . 

This  foreign  species  is  bos  tolerabh  common  in  sou f  the 

towns.  \  ,..i,.m\  was  established  in  Asheville  about  December, 
1884 

i  ii  apt  ski  -  I  '/<«<  ini  i .     I*urple  Pinch. 
Ifr    William  Brewster  round  thin  species  abundant,  in  full 
■ong,  and  apparently  breeding,  at  Old  Fort,  McDowell  County. 

i::  i    Astb  m  m.im  b  tb  American  <  loldflnch. 

Common  resident,  at  least  up  to  5,000  feet;  breeds  in  July 
and   ' 

135.  Spin i  i  i   sua  [Wilton).     l*ine  Siskin. 

\l,-  William  Brewster  found  it  common  in  June,  1885,  in 
the  balsam  belt  ol  the  Black  Mountains  above  5.200  feet 

136    Loxu  tosrnu  minob  (Brehm).     American  Crossbill. 

Tolerably    common    In    the    mountains    above    5,000    feet ; 
Observed  bj    Mr    t  ■•■■  '   nnett   Bear  Cranberrj 

►0  feet  |   in  August,  ivvl> 

LITERATURE. 

I{ Way,    EtouBi        A    Manual   of    North    American    Birds. 

Illustrated  bj  »•'•»  outline  drawings  ol  the  generic  characters. 
Second  Edition,  1896.  pp.  siii  and  653;  pis.  CXXIV.  I'hiladel 
phm.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 

Oo,  ,     Kej  to  North  American  Birds.    Fifth  Edi 

Hon,  1903.  Vol.  1.  pp.  sli  and  l  535;  Vol.  II.  pp.  ri  and  53fr 
i  [52     Boston.    Dana  Bates  and  Company. 

Chapman  Frank  M.  Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North 
America.  L805.  pp.  d?  and  121.  Ne*  5Tork.  D.  Appleton  and 
i  tampan ) 


24 

Atkinson,  George  F. — Preliminary  Catalogue  of  the  Birds 
of  North  Carolina,  with  Notes  on  some  of  the  Species:  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Elisha   Mitchell  Scientific  Society,   IV.  No.  2, 

1887,  pp.  44-S7. 

Batchelder,  Charles  F. — The  North  Carolina  Mountains  in 
Winter:  in  The  Auk.  III.  1886,  pp.  307-314. 

Brewster,  William. —  An  Ornithological  Reconnaissance 
in  Western  North  Carolina:  in  The  Auk,  111.  1886,  pp.  94-112; 
173-179. 

Cairns,  John  S. — A  Lisl  of  Birds  of  Buncombe  Co.,  North 
Carolina:  in  Ornithologist  and  Oologist,  XII,  1887,  pp.  •'!-♦>. 

Cairns,  John  S.  -The  Summer  Birds  of  Buncombe  County, 
North  Carolina:  in  Ornithologist  and  Oologist,  XIV,  1889,  pp. 
1 7-23. 

Cairns,  John  S.  List  of  the  Birds  of  Buncombe  County. 
North  Carolina.  [1902.]  pp.  18.     Privately  printed. 

Jeffries,  W.  A.;  and  Jeffries,  J.  A. — Notes  on  Western 
North  Carolina  Birds:  in  The  Auk,  VI.  1889,  pp.  119-122. 

Loom  is,  Leverett  M. — June  Birds  of  Caesar's  Head.  South 
Carolina:  in  The  Auk,  VIII,  1891,  pp.  323-333. 

Rhoads,  Samuel  N. — Contributions  to  the  Zoology  of  Ten- 
nessee. No.  2,  Birds:  in  Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Nat- 
ural Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  1895,  pp.  4«;:s  -~>m . 

Senxett,  George  B.— Observations  in  Western  North  Caro- 
lina Mountains  in  1886:  in  The  Auk.  IV.  1887,  pp.  240-245. 

Smithwick,  4.  W.  P. — Ornithology  of  North  Carolina:  Bul- 
letin 144.  North  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
1S!I7.  pp.  193-228. 


